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CLASS: XI
SECTION: B, D
SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY
SESSION: 2024-25
CHAPTER: 2 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
NOTES
SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES:

MODELS OF ATOM
• J.J THOMSON ATOMIC MODEL: Also named “Plum Pudding Model “or “Raisin Pudding Model” or
Watermelon Model
According to this model,
✓ An atom has a spherical shape (radius 10-10m) in which positive charge is uniformly distributed overthe
sphere and the negatively charged electrons are embedded in it to make the atom electrically neutral.
✓ Although the model could explain electrical neutrality but this model was later discarded as it could not
prove the experimental findings of later experiments.

• Rutherford Atomic Model:

It is based on Rutherford α- scattering experiment
In this experiment, a very thin foil of gold is bombarded by a fine stream of an alpha particle. The
subsequent path of these particles was determined with the help of a Zinc sulphide fluorescent
screen.

Following observations were made from this experiment:

✓ Most of the α-particles passed through the gold foil without any deflection which shows that most of
thespace inside an atom is empty.
✓ A few α-particles were deflected to a smaller angle which shows that the positive charge of an atom is
notuniformly distributed.
✓ One out of 20,000 α-particles bounced back, i.e. deflected by 1800 which shows that the total positive
charge is concentrated in the center of the atom.

Drawbacks of Rutherford Atomic Model: (Also known as Solar or Nuclear Model)

✓ According to Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Theory, whenever a charged particle is accelerated, it loses

energyin the form of radiation. If it happens, the electron will gradually follow a spiral path and will fall
into the nucleus. Thus, the stability of the atom could not be explained based on this model. If the
electron is assumed to be stationary, it will be pulled towards the nucleus due to opposite charges and
give a small version of J.J Thomson Model atomic atom.
✓ He could not explain the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus.

Developments leading to the Bohr Model of an Atom:

1. Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation which means that radiations possess both wave-like
andparticle-like properties.
2. Experimental results regarding atomic spectra can be explained by assuming only quantized energy level.

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Electromagnetic Radiation:

1. These waves are associated with electric and magnetic fields acting perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is travelling.
2. All electromagnetic waves travel with the speed of light i.e. 3 x 108. They do not require any medium to
propagate i.e. they can pass through space.

A wave is characterized by the following terms:

Wavelength: The distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called wavelength. Units may be
0
m, cm,nm, A (angstrom)

Frequency : The number of waves passing through a point in one second is called frequency. Units may
be Hz, s-1,cycle/sec

Velocity (v): The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called velocity. Unit m/s

Amplitude (A): The maximum height of crest or maximum depth of trough is called amplitude. The
magnitude ofamplitude determines the intensity or brightness of radiation or wave.

Wave number : It is defined as the number of wavelengths per unit length.

Mathematically, the reciprocal of wavelength is called wave number. SI unit: m-1,
Commonly used unit: cm-1

Time period(T): Time taken by a wave to complete one cycle.

Relation between frequency, wavelength, and velocity:

Electromagnetic Spectrum:

The arrangement of all electromagnetic radiation in order of increasing or decreasing wavelengths or

frequencies isknown as the electromagnetic spectrum

Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation:

Planck’s Quantum Theory

Phenomenon like diffraction and interference can be explained on the basis of the wave nature of
electromagneticradiation but there are certain phenomenon like Black Body radiation, Photoelectric effect,
variation of heat capacityof solids as a function of temperature and line spectrum with special reference to
hydrogen which cannot be explained on the basis of wave nature.

BLACK BODY RADIATION:

Max Planck stated that when solids are heated, they give radiations of a wide range of wavelengths. For e.g.
when theiron is heated:

Fe metal → dull red (low frequency) → Red → white → blue (high frequency)

Thus, by increasing temperature, the frequency of emitted radiation increases.

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Black Body: A substance which can absorb or emit a frequency of all radiations is called Black Body and the
radiation emitted by it is called Black Body Radiation.
Planck Quantum Theory of Radiation

• The radiant energy is not emitted or absorbed continuously but rather discontinuously in the form of
packetscalled quantum. Each quantum is associated with a certain amount of energy which is directly
proportional to its frequency.

Where E =Energy of quantum (J) , h = Planck’s constant (6.6 x 10-34 Js) , v = Frequency (Hz)
• The total energy emitted or absorbed by a substance is the whole number of multiple of hv.

where n is number of quantum

In the case of visible light, the quantum is called a photon.

Photoelectric Effect: When radiation of suitable frequency falls on a metal surface, the electrons are ejected
outfrom the metal surface. The phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect and the electrons are called
photoelectrons.

• As soon as the metal surface is exposed to radiation the photoelectron is ejected out.
• The number of photoelectrons ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of light used.
• A certain minimum frequency of radiation required to eject an electron from a metal surface is
called threshold frequency(vo) and the minimum certain amount of energy required to eject an
electron from ametal surface is called threshold energy or work function.
• K.E of photo electron = hv – hv0 = h (v
– v0)hvo = Threshold energy or work
function

ATOMIC SPECTRUM
It is a discontinuous spectrum consisting of sharp well-defined lines and each line corresponds to a particular
wavelength.
The atomic spectrum is of two types:

Emission Spectrum: When an electric discharge is passed through a gas or vapour of a substance, the electrons in
an atom get excited from lower orbit to higher orbit. When these electrons return to the ground state, they emit
energyin the form of radiations whose lines are obtained in the emission spectrum.

Absorption Spectrum: When white light (sunlight) is passed through a sample of gas or solution and the
transmitted light when analyzed by the spectroscope, sharp and well-defined lines are obtained in an otherwise
continuous spectrum. Each dark line corresponds to a particular
wavelength.

HYDROGEN SPECTRUM / LINE SPECTRUM

When an electric discharge is passed through a sample of H 2, the

H2 molecules dissociate to produce energetically excited hydrogen
atoms. When the radiation emitted from the excited atoms is
analyzed by the spectroscope, several lines are obtained falling
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under different regions.

The wavelength of several lines obtained in the emission spectrum can be calculated by Rydberg formula

The maximum number of lines obtained when an electron jumps from nth state to ground state is given by the
formula: n (n-1)
2
BOHR ATOMIC MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM: Bohr developed a model for hydrogen and hydrogen-like species
(one electron species like He+, Li+2).
1. The electron moves around the nucleus in a fixed circular path with fixed velocity and energy
called astationary orbit. Stationary orbit means the energy of the orbit is quantized i.e fixed.
2. As long as electron moves in its orbit it does not lose or gain energy.
3. The energy is radiated or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic radiation when the electron makes a
transition from higher to lower orbit or vice-versa. The frequency of such radiation can be calculated as:

4. Only those orbits are allowed in which angular momentum is a whole number multiple of h/2π

Merits of Bohr Model of an Atom:

From Bohr’s Atomic Model, the energy of an orbit can be calculated as:
E = - RH x Z2 Jatom-1
n2
where 2.18 x 10–18 is Rydberg constant (RH) and Z is the Atomic Number.
The –ve sign indicates that the electron is bonded to nucleus.

1. The radius of the nth orbit in H, He+ , Li+2 can be calculated as:

Where rn is radius of nth orbit

2. The energy released or absorbed can be calculated as:

3. The frequency of radiation emitted or absorbed during electronic transition can be calculated as:

4. Velocity of an electron:

Demerits of Bohr Model of an atom:

a. Bohr model could not explain the spectrum of multielectron atoms.
b. He could not explain the splitting of spectral lines in magnetic (Zeeman Effect) and electric field (Stark
effect)

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c. He could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules.
d. He could not explain finer details of the hydrogen spectrum.

TOWARDS QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE ATOM:

Dual Behavior of Matter: De-Broglie suggested that the matter (like radiation) shows dual nature. The relation b/w
both the characters isgiven by de Broglie is called de Broglie equation.

Where, λ= wavelength (m); m= mass of particle (kg) and v = velocity of particle (m/s)
It is not applicable to the large moving body like cricket ball because the wavelength associated with such
movinglarge body will be extremely small which is of no significance.
HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that: "It is impossible to measure simultaneously the position and
momentum of a moving sub-atomic particle like an electron with accuracy.
The uncertainty in the measurement of position (Δx) and uncertainty in momentum (Δp) are related by the
Heisenberg relationship as:

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle is insignificant for macroscopic objects. The most important implication of the
uncertainty principle is that it rules out the existence of definite paths or trajectories of the electron.

Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom:

The model which considers particle and wave nature of electron is known as the wave mechanical model of an
atom.It was developed by SCHRODINGER. This model describes an electron as a 3D wave. Schrodinger gave an
equation

which describes the wave motion of an electron:

Solution of Schrödinger equation the three quantum numbers called as Principal, Azimuthal and
Magnetic quantum number. The fourth quantum number i.e., the Spin quantum number was proposed
later.

ORBITALS:

A small region around the nucleus where the probability of finding an electron is maximum. An orbital can
accommodate maximum 2 electrons with opposite spin. Orbitals having the same energy are called
degenerateorbitals

Quantum Numbers:
Principal Quantum Number (n): (Given by Bohr)

• It represents the energy level (orbit) to which an electron belongs to. The value of n varies from n=1 to
∞.
n=1 represents 1st orbit and n=2 represents 2nd orbit and so on.
• It determines the energy of the shell and size of orbitals

Azimuthal Quantum Number or Subsidiary Quantum Number or Orbital Angular Momentum Number(l): (Given
by Sommerfeld)
• It represents the subshell (s, p, d, f, g etc.) to which an electron
belongs.l = 0(s Subshell), l = 1(p Subshell), l = 2(d Subshell), l = 3(f
Subshell
• Value of l lies between 0 to (n – 1) in a particular nth shell. The number of subshells in each shell is: n
• It determines the shape of the orbital.
• It also determines the Angular momentum of an electron present in the subshell.

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• It should be noted that the energy of an electron in H atom is decided by the value of n only in
multielectronatoms, the energy of the electron is decided by the value of n and l (n + l)
When two or more subshells have the same n +l value, the subshell with the lowest value of n will have
the lowest energy.

Magnetic Quantum Number(ml) (Discovered by Linde)

• It represents the orbital to which an electron belongs to
• It determines the orientation of the orbital
• Its value ranges from -l to l through zero.

Spin Quantum Number (ms) (Discovered by Goudsmit and Uhlenberg)

• It determines the spin of an electron on its axis. It has two values =1/2 (spin up) and -1/2 (spin down)

SHAPE OF ORBITALS:
Node: It is a region around the nucleus (point, line, or surface) where the probability of finding an electron iszero.
Total numbers of nodes = n – 1. They are of 2 types.

i. Radial nodes = n-l-1

ii. Angular nodes = l

Shapes of s-orbitals: They are non-directional and spherically symmetric

Shapes of p-orbitals: p-orbital is dumb-bell shaped. These are directional orbitals

Shape of d orbital:
• All the five orbitals are not identical in shape.
Four of the d orbitals dxy, dyz, dxz, dx2-y 2,
contain four lobes while the fifth orbital dz2
x -y

consists of only two lobes.

• The lobes of dxy orbital lie between x and y axes.
Similar is the case for dyz and dxz.
• Four lobes of dx 2 2
x -y-y orbital are lying along x and
y axes while the two lobes of dz2 orbital are lying
along z axis and contain a ring of negative charge
surrounding the nucleus in xy plane.

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HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTICIPLITY
(DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRONS IN SUBSHELLS)

• It states: the pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell (p,d or f) does not take
place until each orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron each i.e., itis singly occupied.

• By doing this, the electrons stay as far as possible thus reducing repulsion. This,results in a lower energy
state and hence more stability.

PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE:

• No two electrons in an atom can have all four quantum numbers thesame(identical)
• An orbital can accommodate maximum of two electrons with opposite spin.

AUFBAU PRINCIPLE: (AUF BAU = TO BUILD UP i.e. to fill electron)

The electrons are filled in orbitals in increasing order of their energy i.e. the orbitalwith the lowest energy is filled
first.

The order of increasing energy may be summarized as:

Exceptional configuration (Exceptions to Aufbau Principle)

Cr (24): 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6,4s2,3d5,4s1
In case of Chromium, 3d is filled before 4s because a half-filled 3d subshell is more stable than partially
filled 3d subshell due to symmetrical structure and greater exchange energy.

Cu (29): 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6,4s2,3d10,4s1
In case of copper, 3d is filled before 4s because filled 3d subshell is more stable than partially filled 3d subshell due
to symmetrical structure and greater exchange energy.

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