PHYSICS

PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT

Planning Questions

1) State the constant variables(at least 2)

2) Independent variable + how to change + interval of __ + how to measure
3) Dependent variable + how to measure
4) Repeat steps 2 to 3 to find another value of (DV) and (IV) to find average of 2 values
of (DV)
5) Repeat steps 2 to 4 for a wide range of (IV) to get 8 sets of (DV) and (IV)
6) Plot graph of DV against IV + sketch graph

Extra

- Additional apparatus(e.g ammeter)

- Special precautions(e.g eye perpendicular, measure l to center of the bob)

*Need to describe the variables (e.g the mass of the bob, m)

*Need to choose variables that can be physically quantified (e.g x type of string)

1
Recording of Readings & Measurements

Instruments Physical Number of Smallest Value of

Quantity readings Division Quantity
Measured required to can be
measure Recorded
quantity to the
nearest..

Category A

Ruler(Half-metre/metre rule) Length 2 0.1 cm 0.1 cm

Protractor Angle 1o 1o

Spring Balance Weight 0.1 N 0.1 N

Category B

Digital Calipers Length 1 0.01 mm 0.1 mm*

Digital Micrometer Screw Guage Length 0.001 mm 0.01 mm*

Digital Stopwatch Time 0.01 s 0.1 s

Category C

Digital Balance Mass 1 0.01 g 0.01 g

Category D

Measuring Cylinder (100 cm3) Volume 1 1 cm3 0.5 cm3

Thermometer Temperature 1 oC 0.5 oC

Ammeter (0-1 A) Electric 0.02 A 0.01 A

current

Milliammeter (0-100 mA) Electric 2 mA 1 mA

current

Voltmeter (0-3 V or 0-5 V) Potential 0.1 V 0.05 V

Difference

Category A

2
 ➔ Two readings are required to measure a physical quantity

Category B

➔ Only one reading is required to measure a physical quantity (provided that there is
no zero error)
➔ Usually recorded to one less decimal place to account for other more significant
sources of errors when using the instrument (eg. amount of force applied to jaws of
digital calipers* or spindle of digital micrometer screw gauge*, dust on surface of
materials whose lengths are measured by digital calipers* or digital micrometer
screw gauge*, human reaction time when using digital stopwatch**)

Category C

➔ Only one reading is required to measure the mass of an object

➔ Since there is no scale in the digital balance that allows for interpolation to half a
smallest division, the value of the mass can be recorded to 0.01 g

Category D

➔ Only one reading is required to measure a physical quantity (provided that there is
no zero error)
➔ Since the instruments have scales that allow for interpolation of readings to half a
smallest division, the value of the physical quantities can be recorded to half the
smallest division of the respective instruments

Direct Proportion

3
 ➔ If a quantity y varies directly as another quantity x, this relation can be written as: y
𝑦
∝ x or: y = kx, or k = 𝑥
, where k is a constant
𝑦1 𝑥1
➔ For different values of x and y, y1 = kx1 and y2 = kx2 so, 𝑦2
= 𝑥2

➔ To show that y is directly proportional to x, plot a

graph of y against x
➔ If the graph is a straight line passing through the
origin (0,0), and a positive gradient then y is
directly proportional to x OR: y is linearly related to
x AND passes through the origin

Linear Relationship

➔ If the relation between two quantities x and y is linear, then the two quantities can
be related by an equation of the form y = mx + c, where m and c are constants. This
is an equation of a straight line
➔ To show that y is linearly related to x, plot a graph of y against x
➔ If the graph is a straight line, then y is linearly related to x
➔ Relationships of straight line graphs with negative gradients: y is linearly related to
x, with a negative gradient

Units

4
 ➔ It is important to indicate appropriate units for all physical quantities, e.g. a length L
in mm should be written as “L / mm”
➔ The gradient of a graph of y / mm against x / mm has no unit

*Label coordinates of the points you use to find gradient

*Should follow least sf rule

*Checking if gradient is constant

- Reference to percentage difference between gradients

- If above 10% < disagree otherwise agree
➔ For the graph of (u + v) / cm against uv / cm², the gradient therefore has a unit of
cm/cm2 = cm-1

Graphs

Axis

➔ Clearly labelled, numbered and with units (where appropriate).

➔ The labelling of the axes must be the same as the heading in the table of results, e.g.
y / cm, θ / ºC, m / g, etc
➔ ‘To plot y against x’ means y is the variable on the vertical axis and x is the variable
on the horizontal axis.
➔ Include a title of graph as “Graph of y against x”, e.g. “Graph of temperature, T/°C
against time, t/s”

*If question asks for y intercept, start x-axis from 0

*If question asks for gradient at a certain point, it means it is a curve

Scales

➔ There is no need to start either the y-axis and x-axis from zero unless you are asked
to do so. In addition, when choosing scales, you should see whether extrapolation is

5
 needed. For example, if you are asked to find y when x = 0, then the x-axis must
start from zero
➔ The range of the data values must extend to at least 50 % of the graph paper for
both axes). You can do this by taking the difference between the largest and
smallest y (or x) data values, dividing the difference by 12 large squares for y-axis (or
8 large squares for x-axis), and rounding up the value to the nearest number that
allows for good scale ratios of 1:1, 1:2, 1:5 and 1:10

*Always check if you label coordinates to ½ the smallest division by taking each interval and
dividing by 20

Best Fit Line

➔ A best-fit line should have an equal number of points on either side of the line over
its entire length (or at most differ by one)
➔ In general, if there is no known relationship between the variables, the line of best
fit should not be extrapolated as the trend line drawn can only describe the
relationship within the range of data collected. However, when there is a known
relationship between the variables, extrapolation of the graph is generally allowed
to predict values beyond the range of the experiment

*Try and make line cut through all points, if not, ensure that points are as close as possible
to the graph and there are equal number of points below and above graph

Gradient and Reading Values from Graph including Intercepts

𝑦2− 𝑦1
➔ The gradient, m of a line AB is defined as: m = Change in 𝑦, ∆𝑦/Change in 𝑥, ∆𝑥= 𝑥2− 𝑥1

1) Choose two widely separated points on the graph so that Δy and Δx are large (ie. at
least 50% of the range of x and y values on the graph)
2) Draw a right-angled triangle on the graph with the 2 chosen points forming the
hypotenuse of the triangle
3) To calculate Δy and Δx, it is important not to use the values from your table, even if
all the points lie exactly on the line. Rather, you should read the coordinates of the
points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) as accurately as possible from the graph. This is because
the line of best fit represents the average of all measurements. E.g. In the given

6
 figure, use co-ordinates of the points A and B (but not C). The co-ordinates should
be read to the precision of half the smallest square of the corresponding axis’ scale
4) Expected to show workings to find gradient by dividing units of y by units of x

5) You may be asked to read off values from a graph directly. In doing so, you should
draw dotted perpendicular lines to connect the data point to both the horizontal
and vertical axes, for ease of readings. Data values should be read to an accuracy
within one half of one of the smallest squares on the grid. An example is shown
below where you are asked to find T at t = 1.4 s.

7
 6) You may be asked to find the x- or y-intercepts of the graph. You should not have
difficulty in finding these intercepts, unless when a false origin has been used (ie.
either the x-axis, or the y-axis, or both axes do not start from zero), or the best-fit
line passes through the top, bottom, left or right of the page before it reaches the
axes. Given such a scenario, you can find the equation of the best-fit line in the form
y = mx + c using any 2 points on the line (for simplicity, you can use the same 2
points when calculating gradient). The x- and y-intercepts are -c/m and c
respectively. Note that as this is time-consuming, you should only do this when it is
impossible to find the intercepts by reading off the graph

*Triangle to calculate gradient should take up more than 50% of the graph

Precautions

➔ Precaution = Action + Reason

8
 ➔ Statements like ‘avoid parallax error’, ‘connect circuit properly’, ‘make sure that
readings are taken correctly’ etc. are vague and so should be avoided or explained
clearly

Measurements

● Syringe
- Ensure nozzle is submerged in liquid
- Raise the plunger
- More than 1ml of liquid goes in
- Ensure there are no bubbles in the syringe
- Push out excess liquid until level with 1 cm3 mark and squirt out
- Ensure eye is on the line perpendicular to mark
- To ensure length was taken to the centre of an object, measure the length/diameter
and halve and add to the measurement
- Apparatus keeps moving, fix measuring instrument to the apparatus
- Ensuring apparatus is horizontal: Equal height above bench at each end
- Ensuring two apparatus are vertical: Equal distance between the top and bottom of
the thread
- Use a burette to measure the volume of liquid as the precision is 0.05cm3 which
enable a more precise volume to be added

General Precautions for MECHANICS experiments

Pendulum

● The time for the first few swings should not be taken (ACTION). Start timing only
when the oscillations have stabilised and are steady (REASON)
● Place a marker at the equilibrium position, i.e., the rest position of the
pendulum(ACTION), and count the start and end of each oscillation when the
pendulum passes the marker. This is to increase accuracy of measurement of
period as opposed to predicting the start and end of each oscillation at the positions
of extreme displacement of the pendulum, which may change due to energy losses
to surrounding air (REASON)

9
 ● Second decimal place in measurement not considered (ACTION) to account for
uncertainty due to the human reaction time between deciding start and end points
of oscillation and stopping the watch (REASON)

Avoiding Parallax Error (REASON)

● To avoid parallax error (ACTIONS listed as follows):

- View the scale reading at eye level when using a measuring cylinder or ruler
standing upright
- Place eye directly above the scale reading on the ruler in the case of a ruler
lying on the bench
- Align the pointer with its image before taking readings for a voltmeter and/or
ammeter
- Place the eye in line with the top of the meniscus of the mercury thread in
the thermometer

Checking for Horizontal and Vertical Alignments

● Horizontal alignment (REASON): Use a spirit level, set-square or half-metre rule to

measure both ends from the top of the bench (ACTION)
● Vertical alignment (REASON): Use a plumbline or compare with reference to a
vertical structure, such as a pillar (ACTION)

Experiments with Springs

● Oscillate spring with small amplitude (less than 15°) (ACTION) to prevent it from
oscillating out of plane (REASON)
● Load the spring gently (ACTION) to prevent sudden and large permanent
deformation of the spring (REASON)

General Precautions for LIGHT experiments

Experiments involving Pins and Glass Blocks

10
 ● When using 2 optical pins to locate the path of a light ray, place both pins as far
apart as possible (ACTION) to align them more accurately along the light ray
(REASON)
● Move the lens until the image is larger/smaller than the object
● Ensure object, lens and screen are perpendicular to the rule/bench
● Focus image by moving the lens back and forth

*Tips involving lenses

● There will be times when the exact distance of an image formed on the screen is
uncertain (REASON). For such cases, it is best to take the average distance of the
‘sharp image’ (ACTION).
● The approximate focal length of a lens can be checked (REASON) using a distant,
faraway object focused on a white screen (ACTION)

General Precautions for THERMAL experiments

Experiments using Calorimeters

● Calorimeter
○ Covered with a lid (ACTION) to prevent heat loss through convection and
evaporation to the surrounding air (REASON)
○ Lagged with a jacket (ACTION) to prevent heat loss through the sides to the
surrounding air (REASON)
○ Stirred continuously (ACTION) (with a stirrer, in the absence of which the
thermometer may be used but with added caution so that the bulb does not
touch the sides of the calorimeter or it may break) to ensure uniform
temperature throughout the liquid (REASON)

11
 ● When transferring a hot liquid from one container to another, do so quickly
(ACTION) to minimise heat loss to the surrounding air (REASON)
● When the water in the beaker is boiling, the thermometer should not be left with its
bulb touching the bottom of the beaker (ACTION) so as to measure the actual
temperature of the water accurately (REASON)
● I will ensure the heater those not touch any other apparatus and fully immersed in
the liquid
● Shield the candle to reduce heat loss from the candle to the surrounding air

General Precautions for ELECTRICITY experiments

● Ensure that there is no ‘kink’ in the bare resistance wires (ACTION) as this would
reduce the accuracy in the measurement of the length of the wires (REASON)
● The circuit should not be turned on for too long by opening the switch immediately
after readings are taken (ACTION) as this would produce a heating effect in the
resistance wire which would affect the accuracy of measurements of currents
and/or potential differences (REASON)
● Always check for zero errors in the measuring meters and make the necessary
corrections in the readings (ACTION) to ensure accuracy of readings of current
and/or potential differences (REASON)
● When taking readings from ammeter (or voltmeter), eye must be placed above the
ammeter (or voltmeter) until the pointer covers its own image in the mirror(ACTION)
to avoid parallax error (REASON)

Sources of Error

➔ Classifications of error
● Random errors
- Statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the measured data due
to the limitations in precision of the measuring device
- Usually result from the experimenter's inability to take the same
measurements in exactly the same way to get exactly the same
number
● Systematic errors

12
 - Reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently in the same direction
- Often due to a problem which persists throughout the entire
experiment

➔ In identifying sources of errors, highlight those which are usually unique for a
particular experiment and cannot be prevented or rectified
➔ Guiding questions
● Which experimental procedures were difficult to carry out?
○ An experiment that requires a metre rule to be clamped
horizontally using retort stands, students often find it difficult
to ensure the horizontality of the metre rule. The difficulty in
setting up the metre rule may lead to errors in subsequent
measurements
● Which measurements were difficult to observe and record accurately?
○ An experiment may require students to find the image distance
of a lens for a specific object distance. As the exact distance at
which the image is considered “sharp” may change with
different iterations, the image distance recorded could be
subjective based on students’ perception
● Other than the measured variables, what other factors could have
affected the results?
○ It is sometimes impossible to ensure that all control variables
are kept constant in an experiment. For example, in an
experiment that investigates the rate of heat loss of a liquid

13
 over a period of time, the room temperature may vary during
the experiment due to changing weather conditions. The
presence of wind may also affect the rate of cooling. All these
factors could all potentially affect the rate of cooling.
➔ In general, errors like wind, parallax errors, zero errors, human errors, instrument
errors (e.g. markings on ruler are worn out) are preventable/ rectifiable as part of
proper experimental procedure and should not be identified as key sources of
errors
➔ How the accuracy of the readings are affected (by sources of error)
● For most practical experiments, you are expected to explain how the source
of error affects the accuracy of the readings. It is not acceptable to just state
that ‘the readings are affected’ or ‘inaccurate’
● You are expected to state:
○ which reading(s) are affected, and
○ how the reading(s) are affected (if this can be interpreted from the
experiment)
○ E.g.: ‘angle will be
■ larger than its true value’
■ smaller than its true value’
■ smaller or larger than its true value’
- Graphs
- Tangent drawn incorrectly so gradient incorrectly calculated(for curves)
- Measurements
● Ruler
- Difficulty aligning ruler to desired position
- Difficulty keeping the ruler still
- Parallax error
- Electricity experiments
- The wire is not straight throughout due to kinks so the length may be shorter
or longer than actual
- Heating effect increases resistance over time
- Difference in V is too small for the precision of voltmeter
- Current supplied decreasing due to battery being drained

14
 - Thermal experiments
- The candle also heats up the beaker
- Heat lost from the candle to the surrounding air
- Heat lost through evaporation
- Determining G
- Curve drawn may not be best-fit line. G may be larger or smaller than actual
value
- Difficulty in ensuring that tangent drawn is exactly at (point) and is accurate.
G may be larger or smaller than actual value
- Scale chosen is precise to half the smallest square. Data values plotted may
not align to the precision of scale chosen and hence may not be accurate. G
may be larger or smaller than actual value

Others

- When dividing/multiplying use least sf rule

- When adding/substrate use least d.p rule
- Ignore sf of constants if present(quantities you did not measure)
- Use answer from calculators for next workings but not actual answer
- Check how many experiments or graphs planning questions wants to see if there
are 2 IV
- If least sf leads to 1 sf, upgrade to 2sf
- Proportions have no units

Others

- Ensure variables in equation are in SI units

- Do not forget to put UNITS after answer

15
16