PRIMARY TILLAGE OPERATION

Primary tillage is a crucial step in preparing soil for planting, involving significant
soil manipulation to achieve the desired structure.

Definition of Tillage
Tillage refers to the mechanical manipulation of soil to achieve specific
objectives, such as preparing the land for planting or cultivating the soil after
planting. This process involves breaking up the soil to enhance aeration, manage
weeds, and improve water infiltration. Tillage is generally divided into two main
types:

1. Primary Tillage - The first major soil-working operation.

2. Secondary Tillage - Follows primary tillage and prepares the seedbed for
planting.

Objectives of Primary Tillage

The main purposes of primary tillage are to:
- Reduce soil strength and loosen compacted soil layers.
- Bury weeds and crop residues by turning the soil.
- Increase aeration and water retention in the soil.
- Incorporate organic matter and fertilizers into the soil.

Primary tillage generally aims to prepare a layer of soft soil around 10-15 cm
deep, depending on clod sizes and soil conditions.

Types of Primary Tillage

1. Deep Tillage
- Definition: Involves soil manipulation at depths greater than normal tillage
(beyond 30 cm).
- Purpose: Improves soil structure and aeration.
- Benefits: Enhances root development, water infiltration, and reduces
compaction.
- Tools Used: Plows, chisels, and rippers.
- When to Perform: Typically done in fall or spring.

2. Subsoiling
- Definition: A specialized form of deep tillage that breaks up compacted layers
beneath the soil's surface (often called hardpans).
- Purpose: Alleviates soil compaction and improves drainage.
- Benefits: Enhances root penetration, moisture retention, and nutrient
availability.
- Ideal Conditions: Done after wetting the soil to aid penetration.
- Tools: Subsoilers or deep tillers.

3. Year-Round Tillage
- Definition: A continuous tillage practice that maintains the soil structure
throughout the year.
- Purpose: Prevents erosion and maintains soil fertility.
- Benefits: Reduces weed pressure, improves soil aeration, and promotes
nutrient cycling.
- Techniques: Includes strip tillage, conservation tillage, and cover cropping.

Primary Tillage Implements

Implements used in primary tillage are designed to cut, displace, and shatter soil
to reduce its strength, bury plant material, and mix fertilizers or pesticides into the
tillage layer. The following are the most common tools used in primary tillage:

1. Chisel Plow
- Function: Shatters soil without completely burying or mixing surface materials.
- Ideal For: Compact soils and soils with hardpans.
- Setup: Uses multiple rows of staggered curved shanks, with spring cushions
or spikes attached to each.

2. Disc Plow
- Function: Equipped with concave disc blades that cut and invert soil to bury
surface material and pulverize it.
- Ideal For: Heavy or stony soils where a moldboard plow might struggle.
- Positioning: The blades are tilted relative to the frame for penetration and soil
displacement.

3. Moldboard Plow
- Function: This implement slices, lifts, fractures, and inverts soil to bury
surface material and pulverize the soil. It has different variants like right-hand
plow, left-hand plow, and two-way plow.
- Ideal For: Medium to heavy soils with good structure, where significant soil
turning is required.

4. Subsoiler
- Function: Penetrates deeply into the soil (around 60 cm) to break up
compacted layers (e.g., hardpan).
- Requirement: Subsoiling is energy-intensive, requiring a high-powered tractor
(60-100 horsepower).

Summary of Primary Tillage Implements

IMPLEMENT PURPOSE BEST FOR

Chisel Plow Breaks up compacted Heavy clay soils,
subsoil without inversion compacted soils, soils
with hard pans
Disc Plow Cuts and mixes the soil Heavy soils, stony fields
One-way Moldboard Burying crop residues Medium to heavy soils
Plow and mixing soil with good structure
amendments
Two-way Moldboard Inverts soil in either Medium to heavy soils
Plow direction where flexible soil turning
is needed
Subsoiler Penetrates deeply to Heavy clay soils,
break up compacted soil compacted soils, and
layers soils with hard pans.

KEYPOINTS:
- Primary tillage is essential for soil preparation, focusing on reducing
compaction, enhancing aeration, and burying weeds.
- The choice of tools and timing depends on the specific soil conditions and the
type of tillage required.
- Deep tillage and subsoiling are particularly effective for breaking up
compacted soils, while year-round tillage helps maintain soil health across
seasons.
 SECONDARY TILLAGE OPERATIONS

1. Introduction to Secondary Tillage Operations

Secondary tillage is carried out after primary tillage to refine the soil for planting,
incorporating amendments, breaking clods, and leveling the soil. PURPOSE:

- Soil refinement
- Weed control
- Soil moisture conservation
- Seedbed preparation
- Pest control

2. Difference Between Primary and Secondary Tillage

Aspect Primary Tillage Secondary Tillage

Purpose Breaks and turns over Refines and smooths

soil soil

Tools Used Plows, heavy machinery Harrows, cultivators

Depth Deeper tillage Shallow tillage

Soil Condition Leaves soil rough Fine-tunes the soil for

seeding

3. Challenges in Secondary Tillage

- Soil Erosion: Frequent tillage can increase erosion, especially on slopes.

- Moisture Loss: Excessive tillage depletes soil moisture.
- Compaction: Heavy machinery may compact soil layers, restricting root growth.
- Energy and Time-Intensive: Requires significant labor and fuel input.

4. Tools Used in Secondary Tillage

A. Harrows

1. Disc Harrow: Uses concave discs arranged at angles to slice through soil.
2. Spike-Tooth Harrow: Features long, rigid spikes for soil penetration.
3. Spring-Tooth Harrow: Flexible, vibrating teeth that break clods and uproot
weeds.
4. Chain Harrow: Made of interlinked chains for light soil refinement.
5. Tine Harrow: Similar to spike harrows but more flexible.
6. Power Harrow: Tractor-powered harrow with vertically rotating blades.

B. Cultivators

- Spring-Loaded Cultivator: Flexible tines that adjust to soil irregularities.

- Rigid-Tine Cultivator: Aggressive tines for deeper soil penetration.
- Duckfoot Cultivator: Triangular tines for slicing shallow-rooted weeds.
- Rotary Cultivator: Rotating blades for soil pulverization.
- Chisel Cultivator: Breaks compacted soil without inversion.
- Sweep Cultivator: Flat blades for inter-row cultivation.
- Field Cultivator: General-purpose cultivator for large-scale operations.

C. Rollers

1. Smooth Roller: Presses and smooths soil surface.

2. Corrugated Roller: Adds ridges to the soil for aeration.
3. Cambridge Roller: Alternating smooth and ribbed sections to break clods.
4. Cultipacker: Crumbles soil to prepare a fine seedbed.
5. Spike Roller: Loosens soil and reduces crusting.
6. Land Roller: Flattens land and pushes stones into the soil.
7. Water-Filled Roller: Filled with water for deeper compaction.

5. Benefits of Secondary Tillage

- Improved Seed Germination: Fine-tuned seedbeds promote better seed-to-

soil contact.
- Increased Crop Yield: More uniform plant growth due to well-prepared fields.
- Pest and Weed Control: Tillage exposes pests and prevents weed
establishment.
- Enhanced Nutrient Incorporation: Fertilizers and organic matter are mixed
effectively.

6. Cons of Secondary Tillage

- Soil Compaction: Excessive machinery use compresses the soil.

- Moisture Loss: Frequent tillage causes water to evaporate from the soil.
- Time and Labor-Intensive: Tillage operations are resource-heavy and require
skilled labor.
 GENERAL PURPOSE TILLAGE OPERATION

Introduction

The General Purpose Tillage Operation is essential for soil preparation to ensure
optimal conditions for planting, weed control, and aeration based on the
Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standards (PAES). This review provides a
detailed overview of various tillage operations, tools used, and processes as
outlined by PAES standards.

1. Prepare the soil for planting through loosening and aerating the soil.
2. Control weeds by burying or disrupting their root systems.
3. Incorporate organic matter, fertilizers, or crop residues into the soil.
4. Optimize soil moisture by controlling evaporation and increasing infiltration.

Equipment and Machinery

General purpose tillage equipment, such as plows, harrows, and tillers, must
conform to PAES specifications. Equipment must be suited for the type of soil
and topography. Common issues include equipment overload, fuel inefficiency,
and decreased operational efficiency. Proper machine calibration and adjustment
are crucial.

Tillage Depth

Tillage should be performed at an appropriate depth, usually ranging between

150 to 300 mm, depending on the crop and soil conditions. Excessive tillage can
lead to soil degradation, while shallow tillage may not provide sufficient soil
preparation.

Tillage Speed

PAES recommends operating machinery at speeds between 3 to 6 km/h for

efficient soil manipulation without over-compaction. Inconsistent soil preparation
and poor soil structure can result from incorrect speed.

Work Quality

PAES guidelines emphasize that the ideal seedbed should have minimal clod
sizes, typically not exceeding 50 mm in diameter. This ensures smooth planting
processes and efficient weed control.

Soil Moisture

Tillage is most effective when soil moisture is between 50-70% of field capacity.
Soil that's too dry or too wet can affect tillage efficiency and soil structure.

Types of Tillage Equipment

Various types of equipment are used for general-purpose tillage operations. Here
are some of the commonly used ones:

Disc Plow

Best for breaking hard soil, rocky or root-laden fields. It turns soil with heavy crop
residue and is ideal for dry, hard, and uncultivated land.

Moldboard Plow
Inverts soil, controls weeds, manages crop residue, and aerates the soil. It is
used for deep soil preparation and loosens compact soil, enhancing soil aeration
and moisture retention.

Chisel Plow

Loosens soil without inversion, reduces soil erosion, and improves water
infiltration. It is ideal for conservation tillage and minimizing disturbance to
microorganisms.

Rotary Tiller

Pulverizes and mixes soil, incorporates organic matter, and is used for surface
tillage, weed control, and small-scale farming.

Disc Harrow

Used for breaking clods, smoothing soil surfaces, and incorporating residues. It is
commonly used in secondary tillage operations and seedbed preparation.

Tillage Operation Process

1. Site Preparation: Ensure the field is free of large debris or rocks, and soil
moisture is appropriate.
2. Equipment Selection: Choose machinery suited to the soil type and
condition.
3. Plowing (Primary Tillage): Break up and invert the soil using moldboard or
disc plow, ensuring the correct tillage depth.
4. Harrowing (Secondary Tillage): Break down clods, level the surface, and
incorporate residues.
5. Final Seedbed Preparation: Perform light tillage for a smooth surface ready
for planting.
6. Post-Tillage Inspection: Check the field for any large clods or uneven areas,
reworking as necessary.

Additional Topics Covered

Harrowing

A secondary tillage operation that breaks up soil clods and levels the soil surface.
It improves soil aeration and helps with weed control.

Incorporating

Incorporates fertilizers, pesticides, or organic matter into the soil to distribute

amendments evenly, improve soil fertility, and reduce nutrient loss.

Middlebreaking

A technique primarily used in row-crop farming. Specialized implements create

furrows between rows, used in early crop stages.

Moldboard Plow: Parts and Specifications

A moldboard plow consists of several key parts:

1. Plowshare: Cuts into the soil.
2. Moldboard: Turns and flips the soil.
3. Coulter: Prepares the soil ahead of the plowshare.
4. Landside: Stabilizes the plow during operation.
 ROW-CROP PLANTERS

Row-crop planters are essential agricultural tools used to plant seeds in rows,
primarily for crops such as corn, soybeans, cotton, and other row-growing plants.
These planters are designed to ensure precise seed placement, consistent
depth, and even spacing, which are vital for optimal plant growth and yield.

Types of Row-Crop Planters

1. Checkrow Planter: This type creates a square or grid-like pattern when

planting, where the distance between rows is the same as the distance between
plants in a row. It is useful for crops like corn, cotton, and beans and allows for
mechanical weed control in two directions.

2. Hill-Drop Planter: This type deposits several seeds at regular intervals in

clusters, called 'hills'. It is commonly used for crops like cotton and corn. Grouped
planting can improve root development and efficient use of resources such as
sunlight, water, and nutrients.

3. Precision Planter: This type deposits single seeds at equal intervals and
depth, offering high accuracy. Precision planters are often equipped with modern
technologies like GPS and digital monitoring systems to ensure uniform spacing
and reduce seed waste.

Components of Row-Crop Planters

1. Seed Metering System: Responsible for controlling seed drop and ensuring
consistent spacing.

2. Seed Hopper: Stores seeds before they are distributed into the soil.

3. Furrow Openers: Create grooves in the soil where seeds are placed.

4. Ground Wheels: Drive the metering system and help distribute seeds as the
planter moves.

5. Press Wheels: Press the soil over the planted seeds to ensure good seed-to-
soil contact.

6. Main Frame: The backbone of the planter, holding all other components.

7. Row Markers: Help maintain straight planting rows by marking the ground.

8. Depth Control: Ensures that seeds are planted at a consistent depth for
uniform germination.

Mechanism of Operation

The planter's mechanism involves several key components working together to

ensure precise seed placement:

1. The seed hopper stores the seeds and feeds them into the metering
system.
2. The metering system controls the timing and spacing of seed drop.
3. The seed tubes guide the seeds from the metering system into the furrow
created by the opener.
4. Press wheels cover the seeds with soil to ensure proper seed-to-soil
contact for germination.

Some modern planters use GPS guidance and digital monitoring systems to
improve planting accuracy.
Performance Requirements

1. Uniform seed placement, even in less-than-ideal seedbeds.

2. Minimum seed damage during planting.
3. The planter should meet the manufacturer's specified working capacity
and delivery rate.
4. Required minimum field efficiency: 60% without fertilizer applicator, 55%
with fertilizer applicator.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of Row-Crop Planters include:

1. Precision in seed placement and spacing.

2. Better weed control in crops like corn and cotton.
3. Improved crop yield due to optimal spacing.
4. Efficient use of resources like water and nutrients.
5. Adaptability to various field conditions.

Disadvantages include:

1. High initial cost of modern precision planters.

2. Maintenance requirements due to complexity.
3. Technical challenges in operation, especially in uneven terrains.

Testing, Maintenance, and Construction Requirements

Planters are tested for performance and durability according to specific

standards. Maintenance includes regular inspection of moving parts, ensuring no
rust or damage to metallic components, and proper painting to prevent rust.
Tools for adjustments and a user manual are typically provided.
 COMPREHENSIVE STUDY ON GRAIN PLANTERS

Introduction

Grain planters are essential agricultural machines designed to efficiently and

precisely sow seeds at the correct depth and spacing for optimal growth. These
machines play a critical role in improving planting efficiency, reducing labor, and
enhancing crop yields. They are used for planting large-scale grain crops such as
wheat, corn, and rice, and are available in various types including manually-
operated, animal-drawn, and tractor power-driven seeders.

Key Components of a Grain Planter

1. Hopper: This is where seeds are stored before being released into the soil.
2. Seed Metering System: This ensures the correct number of seeds are
released at precise intervals.
3. Furrow Openers: These create furrows in the soil for the seeds.
4. Seed Tubes: Transport the seeds from the hopper to the furrows.
5. Press Wheels: These press the seeds into the soil ensuring better contact
and germination.
6. Frame: Holds the entire structure of the grain planter.
7. Fertilizer Attachment (optional): Some grain planters include a mechanism
to deposit fertilizer simultaneously.

Types of Grain Planters

1. Manually-operated Seeder:
a. Hand Jabber: Used for larger seeds like corn, beans, and peas. The user
jabs the tool into the soil, drops the seed, and covers it.
b. Push Planter: Ideal for small farms and gardens. Seeds are dropped
automatically as the user pushes the planter.

2. Animal-drawn Seeder: Suitable for small-scale farming. It creates furrows,

drops seeds, and covers them with soil.

3. Tractor Power-driven Seeders:

a. Seed Drill: Designed to plant seeds in narrow-spaced rows with high
precision.
b. Row-crop Planter: Ideal for planting row crops like corn and cotton,
ensuring seeds are spaced at specific intervals and depths.
c. Checkrow Planter: Historically used for corn planting. It plants seeds in a
checkerboard pattern for cross-cultivation.
d. Precision Planter: Advanced planter equipped with GPS and sensors to
optimize seed placement in real time.

Operation and Calibration of a Grain Planter

1. Preparation: The field should be well-prepared by loosening and leveling the

soil and ensuring it is weed-free.
2. Pre-Operation Checklist:
a. Inspect the grain planter for any worn parts like seed meters, seed tubes,
and disc openers.
b. Adjust row spacing and seed depth according to the crop’s requirements.
c. Fill the hoppers with clean seeds.

3. During Operation:
a. Continuously monitor the seed metering system for consistent seed drops.
 b. Ensure press wheels are in good contact with the soil.
c. Adjust depth, pressure, or row spacing if soil conditions change.

4. Calibration Process:
a. Set the correct seed rate using the manufacturer’s manual.
b. Measure field coverage by marking test strips and counting the seeds
planted.
c. Adjust spacing and depth based on field conditions and crop requirements.

Maintenance and Troubleshooting

1. Seed Metering System: Clean regularly with soapy water and replace
cracked or worn parts.
2. Seed Tubes: Inspect for wear and tear, replace if damaged.
3. Seed Opener Disks: Ensure they meet the required diameter and are properly
aligned.
4. Press Wheels: Adjust tension and replace when excessively worn.
5. Depth Wheels: Ensure proper contact with the seed discs.
6. Closing Wheels: Inspect springs and bearings for proper function.
7. Fertilizer Units: Regularly check and calibrate the fertilizer application system
to avoid malfunctions.
8. Chains and Sprockets: Lubricate regularly and check for proper tension.

Calibration Computations for Different Seeds

Calibration is essential for ensuring optimal seed spacing and planting depth.
Here’s a step-by-step approach to calibrating a grain planter:
1. Field Coverage: Decide how much area you want to test (e.g., 1000 square
feet). Mark the test strip based on row spacing.
2. Set Seed Rate: Use the calibration chart to adjust the sprockets or gears for
the correct seed rate per hectare.
3. Seed Output: After planting on the test strip, dig up a section to count the
seeds and ensure the drop rate matches the desired rate.
4. Adjust Seed Spacing: Adjust the seed plate or transmission if spacing
between seeds is inconsistent.
5. Depth Calibration: Check the depth by digging into the soil to ensure seeds
are planted at the right depth. Adjust depth wheels as necessary.

Performance Evaluation of Grain Planters

Grain planters are evaluated based on the following criteria:

1. Yield Analysis: Measuring the productivity in terms of the yield produced by
the grain planter.
2. Economic Viability: Evaluating the cost-effectiveness of the machine based
on maintenance, labor, and yield.
3. Field Trials: Analyzing real-world performance by testing the planter under
various field conditions and crop types.

Conclusion

Grain planters are vital for efficient and precise planting of seeds, improving
crop yields while reducing labor and time. With various types to suit different
scales of farming, advancements such as GPS integration and variable-rate
technology continue to improve the accuracy and performance of these
machines. Proper calibration, maintenance, and evaluation are essential to
maximize their effectiveness.
Formulas and Computations for Grain Planter Calibration

Calibration of grain planters requires the calculation of seed rate to ensure

uniform seed placement. The seed rate is often expressed in terms of kilograms
per hectare (kg/ha). The formula for calculating seed rate is as follows:

1. SPEED RATE

Seed Rate (kg/ha) = (Number of seeds per hectare) × (Weight of one seed) /
(1000)

Where:
- Number of seeds per hectare is determined based on the required seed
density (seeds/m²) multiplied by the field area (m²).
- Weight of one seed is obtained from the seed packet or testing sample.

2. SEEDS PER ROW

This ensures that each row gets the required number of seeds, allowing for
uniform spacing and planting.

Seeds per Row = (Row Spacing in meters) × (Seed rate) / (Number of rows)

Seed Spacing Adjustment:

Seed spacing can be adjusted by modifying the sprockets or gears in the
metering system to match the desired spacing. This adjustment ensures
consistent planting based on the row-crop planter design.

3. FIELD EFFICIENCY
Field efficiency is a measure of the effective field capacity of the grain planter
and is calculated using the formula:

Field Efficiency (%) = (Effective Field Capacity / Theoretical Field Capacity)

× 100

Theoretical Field Capacity (ha/h) = (Speed × Working Width) / 10

Where:
- Speed is in km/h.
- Working Width is the width of the planter in meters.
- This formula allows farmers to estimate how much area can be covered in a
given time.
 MECHANICAL RICE TRANSPLANTERS

Introduction to Rice Transplanters

Rice transplanters are agricultural machines designed to automate the process of
transplanting rice seedlings from a nursery into a prepared paddy field. These machines
are highly efficient compared to traditional methods, as they reduce the time and labor
involved in transplanting. The seedlings, grown in nurseries, are pulled and transferred
into puddled and leveled fields. Two main types of rice transplanters are available: the
riding type and the walk-behind type.

Types of Rice Transplanters

Riding Type
Riding-type rice transplanters are self-propelled machines that allow the operator to ride
on them during operation. These machines are ideal for medium to large-scale farms,
offering more power and efficiency. The engine, usually with a power of at least 4 hp (3
kW), moves the parts of the machine, which includes the transplanting arm, grasping
fork, and seedling tray.

Walk-Behind Type
The walk-behind type is recommended for smaller farms. It operates similarly to the
riding type but requires the operator to walk behind the machine. The engine power is
usually lower, requiring at least 2.5 hp (1.9 kW) for effective operation.

Parts and Functions of a Rice Transplanter

Engine
The engine converts energy into mechanical force, powering the transplanter's
movement and the transplanting process. The engine ensures that the transplanting
arm, which is actuated by a cam assembly connected to the PTO shaft of a tractor,
operates smoothly, picking and placing seedlings in the field.

Seedling Tray
The seedling tray holds the rice seedlings during the transplanting process. As the
machine moves along the field, the grasping fork takes a preset number of seedlings
from the tray, positioning them for planting.

Transplanting Arm and Grasping Fork

The transplanting arm is responsible for placing seedlings in the puddled soil. It is fitted
with a grasping fork that picks up the seedlings from the tray. The arm resets after each
planting stroke, ensuring uniform spacing between seedlings.

Performance and Efficiency

Field Efficiency
Rice transplanters are designed to ensure a field efficiency of at least 80%. This means
that the machine should operate effectively across the field without significant downtime
or error. The grasping fork must uniformly pick rice seedlings, and the distance between
rows and hills must remain consistent.

Economic Feasibility
Although rice transplanters provide numerous benefits, they come with high initial
investment costs. This can be a significant barrier for small-scale farmers. Furthermore,
maintenance and repair costs add to the ongoing expenses.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Rice Transplanters

Advantages
- Reduces labor costs and effort by automating transplanting
- Increases planting precision, ensuring uniform planting depth and spacing
- Minimizes root damage, improving seedling survival
- Promotes higher crop yield due to optimal planting conditions
- Enhances weed control and reduces water consumption

Disadvantages
- High initial cost for purchasing the machine
- Requires regular maintenance and technical knowledge
- Field conditions such as leveled and puddled fields are necessary for optimal operation
- May cause mechanical damage to delicate seedlings

Computations and Testing Procedures

Uniformity of Transplanting Depth

Testing for uniformity in transplanting depth involves measuring the total operating time
and subtracting the non-productive time (time spent on maintenance or idle periods).
The formula for total productive time is:

Total productive time = Total operating time - Non-productive time

Additionally, the percent damaged and missing hills should not exceed 10%.
Uniform planting ensures the best growth conditions for rice.

Fuel Consumption
Fuel consumption is measured before and after each test trial. The fuel tank is filled to a
marked level, and after the test, the amount of fuel required to refill the tank is noted
using a graduated cylinder.