Unit-II

PHASE-CONTROLLED
CONVERTERS
Controlled converters (or) controlled rectifiers are
converting alternating current (AC) into a direct
current(DC).
Applications of controlled converters
• Battery chargers,
• Speed control of DC motors(or) DC drives,
• DC power supplies,
• Traction systems,
• HVDC transmission systems,
• Portable hand tool drives,
• Magnet power supply, such as machine
excitation, fusion reactor supply etc.,
2
 Control Techniques
• The output voltage waveform of a controlled converter
depends on the switch control.

Types of triggering
• Pulse triggered switch, such as SCR, GTO and MCTs.
• Level triggered switch such as BJT, MOSFET and IGBTs.
• Current pulses are required for triggering SCRs and GTOs.
• Voltage pulses are required for MCTs, MOSFETs and IGBTs.

Type of control techniques

1. Phase angle control(firing angle control)
2. Extinction angle control
3. Pulse width Modulation(PWM) control

3
 1. Phase angle control (firing angle control)
• In AC circuits, the SCR can be turned on by the gate at any angle,
with respect to the applied voltage.

• This firing angle is measured with respect to a given reference, at

which the firing pulses are applied to the thyristor gates.

4
 2. Extinction Angle Control
• The rising edge of current pulse
coincides with the beginning of
the input voltage waveform.

• The firing edge lies at a

controllable angle(π-β). The
angle β is called the extinction
angle.

• In a pulse triggered switch, the

control pulse consists of two
short pulses one for turning on
and other for forced turn-off.
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3. Pulse width modulation (PWM) Control

• The control pulse is

symmetrically positioned
with respect to the
positive and negative
peaks of the input
voltage waveform.

• Pulse width δ is the

control parameter.

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Types of Phase controlled Converters (or) Rectifiers

Phase Controlled Converters

Single Phase Three Phase

Half Wave Full Wave Half Wave Full Wave

Half Controlled Fully Half Controlled Fully

(or) Semi Controlled (or) Semi Controlled
Controlled Controlled

7
 Types of phase controlled converters
depends on the quadrant of operation

8
9
 Types of phase controlled converters depends
on number of pulses
• 1-Pulse converter
One trigger pulse is to be generated during every cycle of the supply to trigger
the SCR.
• 2-Pulse converter
Two trigger pulses or two sets of trigger pulses are to be generated during
every cycle of the supply to trigger the various SCRs.
• 3-Pulse converter
Three trigger pulses are to be generated during every cycle of the supply to
trigger the various SCRs.
• 6-Pulse converter
Six trigger pulses are to be generated during every cycle of the supply to
trigger the various SCRs.
 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled
Converter(or)Rectifier with R-load
• Circuit Diagram

• The circuit is energized by the line voltage or transformer

secondary voltage, e = Em sinωt.
• It is assumed that the peak supply voltage never exceeds the
forward and reverse-blocking ratings of the thyristor.
• Waveforms
• During the positive half-cycle of the supply
voltage, the thyristor anode is positive with
respect to its cathode and until the thyristor is
triggered by a proper gate-pulse, it blocks the
flow of load current in the forward direction.

• When the thyristor is fired at an angle α, full

supply voltage is applied to the load.

• Hence the load is directly connected to the AC

supply. With a zero reactance source and a
purely resistive load, the current waveform
after the thyristor is triggered will be identical
to the applied voltage wave, and of a
magnitude dependent on the amplitude of the
voltage of load resistance R.
• The load current will flow until it is
commutated by reversal of supply voltage
at ωt=π.

• The angle (π−α) during which the thyristor

conducts is called the conduction angle.

• By varying the firing angle α the output

voltage can be controlled.

• During the period of conduction, voltage

drop across the device is of the order of one
volt.

• During the negative half-cycle of the supply

voltage, the thyristor blocks the flow of load
current and no voltage is applied to the
load R.
 Erms
• RMS load current 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 =
R

• DC Load power 𝐏𝐃𝐂 = (ID )2 R

• Power delivered to the load 𝐏𝐀𝐂

PAC = RMS Load Voltage x RMS load current = Erms x Irms

• 𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭 𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐕𝐀 =

= RMS value of source voltage x RMS value of line current
= ES x IS (IS=Irms)

Power delivered to the load Erms x Irms Erms

• Input power factor(PF) = = =
Input VA VS x IS VS
PDC
• 𝐑𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 =
PAC
Erms
• 𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐅𝐅 =
Edc
• 𝐑𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐑𝐅
Voltage ripple factor: it indicates amount of ripple present in the
output voltage. It is given as,
Erms 2 −Edc 2 Erms 2
RF(voltage) = − 1 (OR) FF 2 − 1
Edc 2 Edc 2

Current ripple factor: it indicates amount of ripple present in the

output current. It is given as,
Irms 2 −Idc 2 Irms 2
RF(Current) = −1
Idc 2 Idc 2

PDC
• 𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐞𝐫 𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐳𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐓𝐔𝐅 =
VS x IS
Where VS and IS are the rms voltage and rms current of the
transformer secondary.
• 𝐇𝐚𝐫𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐫 𝐓𝐇𝐃 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭(𝐇𝐅 𝐨𝐫 𝐓𝐇𝐃): The
harmonic factor of the input current is defined as the ratio of the total
harmonic content to the fundamental component.
Irms 2 −Is1 2 Irms 2
(𝐇𝐅 (𝐨𝐫) 𝐓𝐇𝐃) = 2 = 2 −1
Is1 Is1
Here Irms is rms value of input current and IS1 is rms value of fundamentals
component of input current.

• Displacement factor(DF):The input displacement factor is defined as the

cosine of the input displacement angle.

The displacement factor gives an indication of shift of fundamental component

of supply current with respect to supply voltage.
𝐷𝐹 = cos ∅1
Here ∅1 is angle between fundamental supply current and supply voltage.

• Distortion factor: it is defined as the ratio of fundamental component to the

total rms value.
𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
Distortion Factor=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
 Single Phase Half Wave Controlled
Converter(or)Rectifier with RL-load
• Circuit Diagram
• Waveforms
• The operation of the circuit on
inductive loads changes
slightly.

• Now at instant t01, when the

thyristor is triggered, the load-
current will increase in a
finite-time through the
inductive load.

• The supply voltage from this

instant appears across the
load. Due to inductive load,
the increase in current is
gradual.
• Energy is stored in inductor
during time t01 to t1. At t1,the
supply voltage reverses, but the
thyristor is kept conducting.

• This is due to the fact that

current through the inductance
cannot be reduced to zero.

• During negative-voltage half-

cycle, current continues to flow
till the energy stored in the
inductance is dissipated in the
load-resistor and a part of the
energy is fed-back to the source.
• Hence, due to energy stored in
inductor, current, current continuous
to flow upto instant t11 at
instant, t11, the load-current is zero
and due to negative supply voltage,
thyristor turns-off.

• At instant t02, when again pulse is

applied, the above cycle repeats.
Hence the effect of the inductive
load is increased in the conduction
period of the SCR.

• The half-wave circuit is not normally

used since it produces a large output
voltage ripple and is incapable of
providing continuous load-current.
The average value of load voltage can be derived as

1 𝛽
𝐸𝑑𝑐 = 𝐸 sin 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 𝛼 𝑚

Here, the SCR conducts for a period of 𝛼 𝑡𝑜 𝜋 in

positive half cycle and (𝜋 𝑡𝑜 𝛽) in negative half cycle.

𝐸𝑚 𝛽
𝐸𝑑𝑐 = (−cos 𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 𝛼

𝐸𝑚
𝐸𝑑𝑐 = (−cos 𝛽 − (− cos 𝛼))
2𝜋

𝐸𝑚
𝐸𝑑𝑐 = (cos 𝛼 − cos 𝛽)
2𝜋

From the above equation, it is clear that the average load-voltage is

reduced in case of inductive load. This is due to the conduction of
SCR in negative cycle.
 𝐸𝑑𝑐
• The average value of load current (𝐼𝑑𝑐 ) 𝑜𝑟(𝐼𝑜 ) =
𝑅

• RMS value of load voltage

1
𝛽 2
1
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 2 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋
𝛼

1
𝛽 2
(𝐸𝑚 )2
= sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋
𝛼

1
𝛽 2
(𝐸𝑚 )2 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡
= 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 2
𝛼
 1
𝛽 2
(𝐸𝑚 )2
= (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡)𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
4𝜋
𝛼

1
(𝐸𝑚 )2 2𝜔𝑡 𝛽 2
= (𝜔𝑡 − sin )𝛼
4𝜋 2

1
(𝐸𝑚 )2 2𝛽 2𝛼 2
= (𝛽 − sin − 𝛼 + sin )
4𝜋 2 2

1
𝛽−𝛼 1 2
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐸𝑚 − (sin 2𝛽 − sin 2𝛼)
4𝜋 8𝜋
To find the rms value of load current (Irms)

• Voltage equation of the circuit given by

𝑑𝑖𝑜
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖𝑜 + 𝐿 (Note: 𝑉𝑚 =𝐸𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑑 = 𝑖𝑜)
𝑑𝑡

• io consist of two components

(steady state current(is) + transient state current(it))
io=is+it
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
• Steady state current, is = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑅2 +𝑋𝐿 2 𝑍

−1 𝑋𝐿
Where, 𝜑 = tan ( ), (XL= 𝜔𝐿)
𝑅

𝜑-is the angle by which rms current(IS) lags VS.

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2
• Transient state current, (it)
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑅𝑖 𝑡 +𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡
• Apply Laplace transform
𝑅𝐼 𝑠 +𝐿𝑆𝐼 𝑠 −𝐴 =0

𝐼 𝑠 𝑅+𝑆𝐿 =𝐴

𝐴
𝐼 𝑠 =
(𝑅 + 𝑆 𝐿)

𝐴 𝐴 1
𝐼 𝑠 = =
𝑅 𝐿 𝑅
𝐿(𝑆 + ) (𝑆 + )
𝐿 𝐿
𝑅
−𝐿𝑡 𝐴
𝐼 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑒 ( = 𝐴1 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝐿
• io=is+it
𝑅
𝑉𝑚 −𝐿𝑡
• 𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 + 𝐴1 𝑒 ---(1)
𝑍

• Where A1 can be obtained from the boundary conditions at 𝜔𝑡=

𝛼
𝛼, At this time 𝐼𝑜 = 0, and t = , substitute in equation (1)
𝜔

𝑅𝛼
𝑉𝑚 −
• 0= sin 𝛼 − 𝜑 + 𝐴1 𝑒 𝐿𝜔
𝑍

𝑅𝛼
𝑉𝑚 − 𝜔𝐿
• - sin 𝛼 − 𝜑 = 𝐴1 𝑒
𝑍

− 𝑉𝑍𝑚 sin 𝛼−𝜑 𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝛼

+ 𝜔𝐿
• 𝐴1 = 𝑅𝛼 =- sin 𝛼−𝜑 x𝑒 --(2)
− 𝑍
𝑒 𝜔𝐿
• Equation (2) substitute in Equation (1)
𝑅𝛼 𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 ) −𝐿𝑡
• 𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 +(- sin 𝛼−𝜑 x𝑒 𝜔𝐿 𝑒
𝑍 𝑍

𝑅𝛼 𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 ( − 𝑡)
• 𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 - sin 𝛼−𝜑 x𝑒 𝜔𝐿 𝐿
𝑍 𝑍

𝑅𝛼 𝑅𝛼
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 (𝜔𝐿 − 𝐿 𝜔) 𝛼
• 𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 - sin 𝛼−𝜑 x𝑒 t=
𝑍 𝑍 𝜔

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝛼 𝑅
(𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝑡 )
• 𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 - sin 𝛼−𝜑 x𝑒 (𝜔𝑡= 𝛼)
𝑍 𝑍

𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 −𝜔𝐿 (𝜔𝑡−𝛼)
• 𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 - sin 𝛼−𝜑 𝑒 --(3)
𝑍 𝑍
𝑓𝑜𝑟(𝛼 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 𝛽)
• When 𝜔𝑡=β, the load current io=0 substitute in
equation (3)

𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 −𝜔𝐿 (𝛽−𝛼)
• 0= sin 𝛽−𝜑 - sin 𝛼−𝜑 𝑒
𝑍 𝑍

𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 −𝜔𝐿 (𝛽−𝛼)
• sin 𝛽−𝜑 = sin 𝛼−𝜑 𝑒
𝑍 𝑍

𝑅
−𝜔𝐿 (𝛽−𝛼)
• sin 𝛽 − 𝜑 = sin 𝛼 − 𝜑 𝑒

• 𝛽 can be evaluated by iterative solution of the above

equation
Single Phase Half Wave Controlled
Converter(or)Rectifier with RL-load
and freewheeling diode
• The freewheeling diode
is connected across
R – L load in the half
controlled rectifier
circuit.

• The load current passes

through load as the SCR
T1 is turned on during
positive half cycle of
the alternating supply.

• The energy stored in the

inductor of the load.
• The stored energy of
the load passes
through freewheeling
diode during negative
half cycle of the
alternating supply.

• If there is no
freewheel diode, the
stored energy of load
back to the input
supply.
• Freewheeling Diode - The diode is connected across load
in the controlled or uncontrolled converter circuit.
This diode is called as freewheeling diode (or)
flywheel diode (or) commutating diode (or) by-pass
diode.

• This diode commonly described as a commutating diode

as its function is to commutate or transfer load current
away from the rectifier whenever the load voltage goes
into a reverse state.

Function of freewheeling diode

• It improves input as well as system power factor.
• The load voltage polarity does not change.
 Single Phase Full Wave Controlled
Bridge Converter(or)Rectifier
(or)
Two Pulse Converter
1. Single phase fully controlled Bridge converter
(Two quadrant converter)
- R, RL-loads

2. Single phase half controlled Bridge converter

(One quadrant converter)
- R, RL-loads
 Single phase fully controlled Bridge
converter(Two quadrant converter)- R Load
• Single phase full wave controlled rectifier is also called as two
quadrant converter.
• A fully controlled converter (or) full converter uses thyristors only
and there is a wider control over the level of dc output voltage.
• It consists of four thyristors (SCRs) T1, T2, T3 and T4 with resistive
load.
• The conduction of all these SCRs is controlled. Hence this is called
full converter.
• The input to this converter is
single phase AC supply. The
output is controllable DC supply.
• The full bridge converter is
mainly used for speed control of
DC motors.
 Positive half cycle

Negative half cycle

• In the positive half cycle (0 to π) of the supply SCRs T1 and T2
are forward biased and they are triggered at firing angle α.
Hence current starts flowing the load.

• Load voltage same as supply

voltage from α to π. Since the
load is resistive, waveforms of
Vo and io are same.

• T1 and T2 turn off when the

supply voltage becomes zero
at π.
• During the negative half cycle of the supply SCRs T3 and T4 are
forward biased and they are triggered at firing angle π+α.
Hence current starts flowing the load.

• Load voltage same as supply

voltage from π +α to 2π. Since the
load is resistive, waveforms of Vo
and io are same.

• T3 and T4 turn off when the

supply voltage becomes zero at
2π.
• Average output voltage Vdc (or) Vo
1 2𝜋
𝑉𝑑𝑐 (𝑜𝑟)𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 0

2 𝜋
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 𝛼 𝑜

1 𝜋
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 𝛼 𝑚

𝑉𝑚 𝜋
𝑉𝑜 = (−cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 𝛼

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 = (−cos 𝜋 − (− cos 𝛼))
𝜋

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 = (1 + cos 𝛼)
𝜋

• Average output current Idc (or) Io = Vo/R

• RMS load voltage(Vrms) or (Vorms)

1 2𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 0 (𝑉𝑜 )2𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
2𝜋

2 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼 𝑉𝑜 2𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
2𝜋

1 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼 (𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)2 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
𝜋

(𝑉𝑚 )2 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼
sin2 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
𝜋

(𝑉𝑚 )2 𝜋 1−cos 2𝜔𝑡

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼
( )d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
𝜋 2
 (𝑉𝑚 )2 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡) d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
2𝜋 𝛼

(𝑉𝑚 )2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝜋 1/2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (𝜔𝑡 − ) ]
2𝜋 2 𝛼
(𝑉𝑚 )2 sin 2𝜋 sin 2𝛼 1/2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ ((𝜋 − ) − (𝛼 − ))]
2𝜋 2 2

(𝑉𝑚 )2 sin 2𝛼 1/2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (𝜋 −𝛼+ )]
2𝜋 2

𝜋−𝛼 sin 2𝛼 1/2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚 [( + )]
2𝜋 4𝜋

𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔
• RMS value of load current (𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 ) =
𝑹
 Single phase fully controlled Bridge
converter(Two quadrant converter) – ‘RL’ Load

• Inductance L is used in this circuit to reduce the ripple.

• A large value of inductor (L) is used for continuous steady current
in the load.
• A small value of L will produce a discontinues load current for
large firing angles.
• In the positive half cycle (0 to π) of the supply SCRs T1 and T2 are
forward biased and they are triggered at firing angle α. Hence current
starts flowing the load.

• Load voltage same as supply voltage(Vo=VS) from α to π and π to (π+α).

• At 𝜔𝑡 = α to π, the load current (io) increasing (energy stored in

inductor) and 𝜔𝑡 = π to (π+α), the load current(io) decreasing.

• The load current io is assumed to be continuous(because of very large

inductance). The load current flows from source to load, which is taken
positive.
• At 𝜔𝑡 =π, source voltage reverses, the
current is maintained in the same
direction at constant magnitude, which
keeps the thyristors T1 and T2 in the
conducting state.

• T1 and T2 turn off when the current

becomes zero at π+α.
• In the negative half cycle (π to 2π) of the supply SCRs T3 and T4 are
forward biased and they are triggered at firing angle π+α. Hence current
starts flowing the load.

• At ωt= (π+α) to 2π, the load current (io) increasing (energy stored in
inductor) and ωt= 2π to (2π+α), the load current(io) decreasing.

• The load current io is assumed to be continuous(because of very large

inductance). The load current flows from source to load, which is taken
positive.

• At ωt=2π, source voltage reverses, the

current is maintained in the same
direction at constant magnitude,
which keeps the thyristors T3 and T4 in
the conducting state.

• T3 and T4 turn off when the current

becomes zero at 2π+α.
• Here two modes of operation are possible in fully controlled rectifier
bridge circuit because the power flow in the converter can be in
either direction.

• Mode-1 Rectification Mode 𝛼 < 90° and Mode- 2 Inversion Mode

𝛼 > 90°

• If 𝛼 < 90°, the voltage at the load terminals is positive. Therefore,

the power flows from ac side to dc side and the converter operates
as a rectifier (i.e.) power flows from source to load.

• If 𝛼 > 90°, the voltage at the load terminals is negative. Therefore

the power flows from dc side to ac side and the converter operates
as a line commutated inverter.

• In this mode power flows from load to source.

• In practical situation, a dc battery is connected in the load side, then

only we can get inversion.
Mode-1 Rectification Mode 𝜶 < 𝟗𝟎°
Mode- 2 Inversion Mode 𝜶 > 𝟗𝟎°
• Average output voltage Vdc (or) Vo

1 2𝜋
𝑉𝑑𝑐 (𝑜𝑟)𝑉𝑜 = 0
𝑉𝑜 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋

2 𝜋+𝛼
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 𝛼

1 𝜋+𝛼
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 𝛼

𝑉𝑚 𝜋+𝛼
𝑉𝑜 = (−cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 𝛼
 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 = (−cos(𝜋 + 𝛼) − (− cos 𝛼))
𝜋
cos 𝐴 + 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 ,
−cos 𝜋 + 𝛼 = cos 𝛼

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 = (cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛼)
𝜋

2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 = cos 𝛼
𝜋

• Average output current Idc (or) Io =𝑉𝑜 /R

 Average output voltage,
2𝑉𝑚 Control characteristics
𝑉𝑜 = cos 𝛼
𝜋
2𝑉𝑚
• If 𝛼 = 0° , 𝑉𝑜 =
𝜋

• If 𝛼 = 90° , 𝑉𝑜 = 0

2𝑉𝑚
• If 𝛼 = 180° , 𝑉𝑜 = −
𝜋

• By varying the firing angle (0° to 180°), the average load

voltage can be varied from continuously from positive
maximum to negative maximum, assuming continuous load
current flow at the output(dc) terminals.

• Because the average load voltage is reversible even though the

current flow in the output terminals is unidirectional.
• RMS load voltage(Vrms) or (Vorms)

1 2𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 0 (𝑉𝑜 )2𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
2𝜋

2 𝜋+𝛼
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼 𝑉𝑜 2𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
2𝜋

1 𝜋+𝛼
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼 (𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)2 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
𝜋

(𝑉𝑚 )2 𝜋+𝛼
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼
sin2 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
𝜋
 (𝑉𝑚 )2 𝜋+𝛼 1−cos 2𝜔𝑡
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼
( )d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
𝜋 2

(𝑉𝑚 )2 𝜋+𝛼
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡) d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
2𝜋 𝛼

(𝑉𝑚 )2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝜋 + 𝛼 1/2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (𝜔𝑡 − ) ]
2𝜋 2 𝛼

(𝑉𝑚 )2 sin 2(𝜋+𝛼) sin 2𝛼 1/2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ ((𝜋 +𝛼− ) − (𝛼 − ))]
2𝜋 2 2

(𝑉𝑚 )2 sin 2(𝜋+𝛼) sin 2𝛼 1/2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (𝜋 +𝛼−𝛼 − + )]
2𝜋 2 2
 (𝑉𝑚 )2 1
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (𝜋 − (sin 2 𝜋 + 𝛼 − sin 2𝛼)]1/2
2𝜋 2

sin 𝐴 + 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵

sin 2 𝜋 + 𝛼 = sin 2𝜋 cos 2𝛼 + cos2𝜋 sin 2𝛼
sin 2 𝜋 + 𝛼 = sin 2𝛼
(𝑉𝑚 )2 1
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (𝜋 − (sin 2𝛼 − sin 2𝛼)]1/2
2𝜋 2

(𝑉𝑚 )2 (𝑉𝑚 )2 1/2 𝑉𝑚

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (𝜋)]1/2 = [ ] =[ ]
2𝜋 2 2

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ ] = 𝑉𝑆
2
To find the rms value of load current (Irms)

• Voltage equation of the circuit given by

𝑑𝑖𝑜
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖𝑜 + 𝐿
𝑑𝑡

• io consist of two components

(steady state current(is) + transient state current(it))
io=is+it
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
• Steady state current, is = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑅2 +𝑋𝐿 2 𝑍

−1 𝑋𝐿
Where, 𝜑 = tan ( ), (XL= 𝜔𝐿)
𝑅

𝜑-is the angle by which rms current(IS) lags VS.

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2
• Transient state current, (it)
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑅𝑖 𝑡 +𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡
• Apply Laplace transform
𝑅𝐼 𝑠 +𝐿𝑆𝐼 𝑠 −𝐴 =0

𝐼 𝑠 𝑅+𝑆𝐿 =𝐴

𝐴
𝐼 𝑠 =
(𝑅 + 𝑆 𝐿)

𝐴 𝐴 1
𝐼 𝑠 = =
𝑅 𝐿 𝑅
𝐿(𝑆 + ) (𝑆 + )
𝐿 𝐿
𝑅
−𝐿𝑡 𝐴
𝐼 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑒 ( = 𝐴1 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝐿
io=is+it
𝑅
𝑉𝑚 −𝐿𝑡
𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 + 𝐴1 𝑒 ---(1)
𝑍

Where, A1 can be obtained from the boundary conditions at

𝛼
𝜔𝑡= 𝛼, At this time i𝑜 = 𝐼𝑜 , and t = , substitute in equation (1)
𝜔

𝑅𝛼
𝑉𝑚 −𝐿𝜔
IO = sin 𝛼 − 𝜑 + 𝐴1 𝑒
𝑍

𝑅𝛼
𝑉𝑚 −
IO - sin 𝛼 − 𝜑 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝜔𝐿
𝑍

𝑉
IO− 𝑍𝑚 sin 𝛼−𝜑 𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝛼
+ 𝜔𝐿
𝐴1 = 𝑅𝛼 = IO - sin 𝛼−𝜑 x𝑒 ---(2)
− 𝑍
𝑒 𝜔𝐿
• Equation (2) substitute in Equation (1)
𝑅𝛼 𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉 −𝐿𝑡
𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 +(IO - 𝑚 sin 𝛼 − 𝜑 )x 𝑒 𝜔𝐿 𝑒
𝑍 𝑍

𝑅𝛼 𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 ( − 𝑡)
𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 +[IO - sin 𝛼−𝜑 ]x𝑒 𝜔𝐿 𝐿
𝑍 𝑍

𝑅𝛼 𝑅𝛼
𝑉𝑚 𝑉 (𝜔𝐿 − 𝐿 𝜔) 𝛼
𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 +[IO - 𝑚 sin 𝛼−𝜑 ]x𝑒 t=
𝑍 𝑍 𝜔

𝑅𝛼 𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 ( − 𝜔𝑡)
𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 + [IO - sin 𝛼−𝜑 ]x𝑒 𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐿 (𝜔𝑡= 𝛼)
𝑍 𝑍

𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 − 𝜔𝐿 (𝜔𝑡−𝛼)
𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 +[IO - sin 𝛼 − 𝜑 ]𝑒 ---(3)
𝑍 𝑍
𝑓𝑜𝑟(𝛼 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 𝜋 + 𝛼)
 Single phase Half controlled (or) Semi
controlled Bridge converter - R Load
• Half controlled converters are known as semi
converter.
• A semi converter uses a mixture of diodes and
thyristors and there is a limited control over
the level of dc output voltage.
• A semi converter is one-quadrant converter.
• A one quadrant converter has one polarity of dc output
voltage and current at its output terminals is the output
voltage and current is always positive.
• It is also known as two pulse converter.
• The half controlled bridge converter circuits are two
configurations.
Two configuration- (a) Symmetrical configuration and
(b) Asymmetrical configuration

P P D2

D1

• The half controlled converter circuit consists of two SCRs T1

and T2, two diodes D1 and D2.
• During the positive half cycle of the
input supply, SCR T1 and diode D1 are
forward biased when SCR T1 is
triggered at a firing angle 𝜔𝑡 = 𝛼 the
SCR T1 diode D1 comes to the on state.

• Now the load current flows through the path P-T1-R-D1-N.

• During this period, we can get output voltage and current are
positive.

• At 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋,the load voltage and load current reaches to zero,

then SCR T1 and diode D1 comes to off state due to natural
commutation.
• During the negative half cycle of the
input supply, SCR T2 and diode D2
are forward biased when SCR T2 is
triggered at a firing angle
𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋 + 𝛼, the SCR T2 diode D2
comes to the on state.
• Now the load current flows through the path N-T2-R-D2-P.

• During this period, we can get output voltage and current are
positive.

• At 𝜔𝑡 = 2𝜋, the load voltage and load current reaches to zero,

then SCR T2 and diode D2 comes to off state due to natural
commutation.

• During the period (π+α to 2π ) SCR T2 and diode D2 are

conducting.
• Average output voltage Vdc (or) Vo
1 2𝜋
𝑉𝑑𝑐 (𝑜𝑟)𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 0

2 𝜋
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 𝛼 𝑜

1 𝜋
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 𝛼 𝑚

𝑉𝑚 𝜋
𝑉𝑜 = (−cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 𝛼

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 = (− cos 𝜋 − (−cos 𝛼)) = (1 + cos 𝛼)
𝜋 𝜋

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 = (1 + cos 𝛼)
𝜋
• Average output current Idc (or) Io = 𝑉𝑜 /R
• RMS load voltage(Vrms) or (Vorms)

1 2𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 0 (𝑉𝑜 )2𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
2𝜋

2 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼 𝑉𝑜 2𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
2𝜋

1 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼 (𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)2 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
𝜋

(𝑉𝑚 )2 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼
sin2 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
𝜋

(𝑉𝑚 )2 𝜋 1−cos 2𝜔𝑡

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼
( )d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
𝜋 2
 (𝑉𝑚 )2 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡) d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
2𝜋 𝛼

(𝑉𝑚 )2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝜋 1/2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (𝜔𝑡 − ) ]
2𝜋 2 𝛼
(𝑉𝑚 )2 sin 2𝜋 sin 2𝛼 1/2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ ((𝜋 − ) − (𝛼 − ))]
2𝜋 2 2

(𝑉𝑚 )2 sin 2𝛼 1/2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (𝜋 −𝛼+ )]
2𝜋 2

𝜋−𝛼 sin 2𝛼 1/2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚 [( + )]
2𝜋 4𝜋

𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔
• RMS value of load current (𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 ) =
𝑹
Single phase Half controlled (or) Semi
controlled Bridge converter - RL Load
• The inductance value should be large so the
load current should be continuous.

P P
 Symmetrical configuration
• During the positive half cycle(0 to π). SCR T1 and
Diode D1 are forward biased.

• At 𝜔𝑡 = 𝛼, SCR T1 and diode D1 comes to the ON

state. Now the current flows through the path
P-T1-R-L load-D1-N.

• At 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋, the supply voltage reverses. The

diode D2 is forward biased since diode D1 is
already conducting. Then diode D2 comes to the
ON state and the load current passes through D2
and T1.

• The diode D1 is reverse biases due to supply

voltage and it turns off.

• Thus, the load current freewheels through the

path L-D2-T1-R during the interval from 𝜋 to
(𝜋+𝛼). During this period output voltage should
be zero because of closed current path.
• During the negative half cycle (π to 2π). SCR T2
and Diode D2 are forward biased.

• At 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋 + 𝛼, SCR T2 and diode D2 comes to

the ON state. Now the current flows through the
path N-T2-R-L load-D2-P.

• At 𝜔𝑡 = 2𝜋, the supply voltage reverses. The

diode D1 is forward biased since diode D2 is
already conducting. Then diode D1 comes to the
ON state and the load current passes through D1
and T2.

• The diode D2 is reverse biases due to supply

voltage and it turns off.

• Thus, the load current freewheels through the

path L-D1-T2-R during the interval from 2𝜋 to
(2𝜋 + 𝛼 ). During this period output voltage
should be zero because of closed current path.
• Here we can seen that the conduction period of thyristors and diodes are
equal, therefore this circuit is called as symmetrical configuration.
Symmetrical configuration
 Asymmetrical configuration
• During the positive half cycle(0 to π). SCR P
T1 and Diode D1 are forward biased.

• At 𝜔𝑡 = 𝛼, SCR T1 and diode D1 comes to

the ON state. Now the current flows
through the path P-T1-L-R load-D1-N.

• At 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋, the supply voltage reverses. The diode D2 is forward

biased since diode D1 is already conducting. Then diode D2 comes
to the ON state and the load current passes through D1 and D2.

• The SCR T1 is reverse biases due to supply voltage and it turns off.

• Thus, the load current freewheels through the path R-D1-D2-L

during the interval from 𝜋 to (𝜋+𝛼). During this period output
voltage should be zero because of closed current path.
 Asymmetrical configuration
• During the negative half cycle(π to2π). SCR T2 and P
Diode D2 are forward biased.

• At 𝜔𝑡 = π + 𝛼, SCR T2 and diode D2 comes to the

ON state. Now the current flows through the path
N-D2-L-R load-T2-P.

• At 𝜔𝑡 = 2𝜋, the supply voltage reverses. The diode D1 is forward biased since
diode D2 is already conducting. Then diode D1 comes to the ON state and the
load current passes through D1 and D2.

• The SCR T2 is reverse biases due to supply voltage and it turns off.

• Thus, the load current freewheels through the path R-D1-D2-L during the interval
from 2𝜋 to (2𝜋+𝛼). During this period output voltage should be zero because of
closed current path.

• In this converter configuration, the conduction periods of thyristors and diodes

are unequal. Hence this circuit configuration is known as the asymmetrical
configuration.
Asymmetrical configuration

P
• Average output voltage Vdc (or) Vo
1 2𝜋
𝑉𝑑𝑐 (𝑜𝑟)𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 0

2 𝜋
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 𝛼 𝑜

1 𝜋
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 𝛼 𝑚

𝑉𝑚 𝜋
𝑉𝑜 = (−cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 𝛼

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 = (− cos 𝜋 − (−cos 𝛼)) = (1 + cos 𝛼)
𝜋 𝜋

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑜 = (1 + cos 𝛼)
𝜋
• Average output current Idc (or) Io =𝑉𝑜 /R
• RMS load voltage(Vrms) or (Vorms)

1 2𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 0 (𝑉𝑜 )2𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
2𝜋

2 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼 𝑉𝑜 2𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
2𝜋

1 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼 (𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)2 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
𝜋

(𝑉𝑚 )2 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼
sin2 𝜔𝑡 d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
𝜋

(𝑉𝑚 )2 𝜋 1−cos 2𝜔𝑡

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼
( )d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
𝜋 2
 (𝑉𝑚 )2 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝛼
(1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡) d(𝜔𝑡)]1/2
2𝜋

(𝑉𝑚 )2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝜋 1/2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (𝜔𝑡 − ) ]
2𝜋 2 𝛼
(𝑉𝑚 )2 sin 2𝜋 sin 2𝛼 1/2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ ((𝜋 − ) − (𝛼 − ))]
2𝜋 2 2

(𝑉𝑚 )2 sin 2𝛼 1/2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ (𝜋 −𝛼+ )]
2𝜋 2

𝜋−𝛼 sin 2𝛼 1/2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚 [( + )]
2𝜋 4𝜋
To find the rms value of load current (Irms)

• Voltage equation of the circuit given by

𝑑𝑖𝑜
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖𝑜 + 𝐿
𝑑𝑡

• io consist of two components

(steady state current(is) + transient state current(it))
io=is+it
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
• Steady state current, is = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑅2 +𝑋𝐿 2 𝑍

−1 𝑋𝐿
Where, 𝜑 = tan ( ), (XL= 𝜔𝐿)
𝑅

𝜑-is the angle by which rms current(IS) lags VS.

𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2
• Transient state current, (it)
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑅𝑖 𝑡 +𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡
• Apply Laplace transform
𝑅𝐼 𝑠 +𝐿𝑆𝐼 𝑠 −𝐴 =0

𝐼 𝑠 𝑅+𝑆𝐿 =𝐴

𝐴
𝐼 𝑠 =
(𝑅 + 𝑆 𝐿)

𝐴 𝐴 1
𝐼 𝑠 = =
𝑅 𝐿 𝑅
𝐿(𝑆 + ) (𝑆 + )
𝐿 𝐿
𝑅
−𝐿𝑡 𝐴
𝐼 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑒 ( = 𝐴1 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝐿
io=is+it
𝑅
𝑉𝑚 −𝐿𝑡
𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 + 𝐴1 𝑒 ---(1)
𝑍

Where, A1 can be obtained from the boundary conditions at

𝛼
𝜔𝑡= 𝛼, At this time i𝑜 = 𝐼𝑜 , and t = , substitute in equation (1)
𝜔

𝑅𝛼
𝑉𝑚 −𝐿𝜔
IO = sin 𝛼 − 𝜑 + 𝐴1 𝑒
𝑍

𝑅𝛼
𝑉𝑚 −
IO - sin 𝛼 − 𝜑 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝜔𝐿
𝑍

𝑉
IO− 𝑍𝑚 sin 𝛼−𝜑 𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝛼
+ 𝜔𝐿
𝐴1 = 𝑅𝛼 = IO - sin 𝛼−𝜑 x𝑒 ---(2)
− 𝑍
𝑒 𝜔𝐿
• Equation (2) substitute in Equation (1)
𝑅𝛼 𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉 −𝐿𝑡
𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 +(IO - 𝑚 sin 𝛼 − 𝜑 )x 𝑒 𝜔𝐿 𝑒
𝑍 𝑍

𝑅𝛼 𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 ( − 𝑡)
𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 +[IO - sin 𝛼−𝜑 ]x𝑒 𝜔𝐿 𝐿
𝑍 𝑍

𝑅𝛼 𝑅𝛼
𝑉𝑚 𝑉 (𝜔𝐿 − 𝐿 𝜔) 𝛼
𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 +[IO - 𝑚 sin 𝛼−𝜑 ]x𝑒 t=
𝑍 𝑍 𝜔

𝑅𝛼 𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 ( − 𝜔𝑡)
𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 + [IO - sin 𝛼−𝜑 ]x𝑒 𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐿 (𝜔𝑡= 𝛼)
𝑍 𝑍

𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 − 𝜔𝐿 (𝜔𝑡−𝛼)
𝐼𝑜 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 +[IO - sin 𝛼 − 𝜑 ]𝑒 ---(3)
𝑍 𝑍
𝑓𝑜𝑟(𝛼 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 𝜋 + 𝛼 )
 Operation with practical R-L loads
• In practical circuits, the load will always be a
combination of some finite resistance R with
inductance L.

• The actual values of R and L decides the amount of

energy stored by the load and the time taken to
release that energy in the process of freewheeling.

• Hence the operation of the semi converter (with R-L

load), is divided into two modes, depending on the
nature of the load current. Continuous current
mode and discontinuous current mode
 Continuous current mode
• The continuous conduction mode, the load current increases
and decreases gradually and has a finite ripple but due to the
higher value of load inductance, the load current does not go to
zero.

• During the freewheeling

intervals, the load
current decreases from
Imax to Imin.

• This mode is preferred in

the motor control
application as it yields
better results.
 Discontinuous current mode
• The discontinuous current mode, the load current decreases
to zero in the freewheeling interval even before the next SCR
is turned-on.

• The load current ripple

content increases and
the conduction angle
for the devices
decreases.

• This mode is not

suitable for applications
like dc motor speed
control.
Comparison between half controlled and fully
controlled converter