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This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
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Smart Irrigation Systems: Overview

Yomna. Gamal1 , Ahmed Soltan1 , Lobna A. Said 1 (Senior Member, IEEE), Ahmed H. Madian1
and Ahmed G.Radwan1 ,(Senior Member, IEEE)
1
Nanoelectronics Integrated Systems Center (NISC), Nile University, Giza, Egypt

ABSTRACT Countries are collaborating to make agriculture more efficient by combining new tech-
nologies to improve its procedure. Improving irrigation efficiency in agriculture is thus critical for the
survival of sustainable agricultural production. Smart irrigation methods can enhance irrigation efficiency,
specially with the introduction of wireless communication systems, monitoring devices, and enhanced
control techniques for efficient irrigation scheduling. The study compared on a wide range of study subjects
to investigate scientific approaches for smart irrigation. As a result, this project included a wide range
of topics related to irrigation methods, decision-making, and technology used. Information was gathered
from a variety of scientific papers. So, our research relied on several published documents, the majority
of which were published during the last four years, and authors from all over the world. In the meantime,
various irrigation initiatives were given special attention. Following that, the evaluation focuses on the key
components of smart irrigation, such as real-time irrigation scheduling, IoT, the importance of an internet
connection, smart sensing, and energy harvesting.

INDEX TERMS Smart irrigation, Soil monitoring, Smart agriculture, IoT, Energy harvesting.

I. INTRODUCTION of the farm, either through deep percolation or at the surface

runoff [2]. However, often these losses represent missed
Irrigation is considered an artificial utilization of the water
opportunities for water, as they prevent water from arriving at
on the soil using different methods such as pumps, tubes
the downstream diversions. One of the most visible coming
and sprays. Usually, the need for irrigation appears in places
problems is the extension of different water requirements
where the rainfall is irregular, in dry times, or in places where
resources, such as manufactural and urban needs. These are
dehydration is regular [1]. Too many irrigation systems are
used to give water resources a higher value, so as a result,
available with different types according to the environment
researchers favour giving more attention to practices with a
of the soil. The water used in irrigation has many resources,
high wasteful rate. In the upcoming years, irrigation science
such as underground water, through wells or springs; the
obviously, will face problems to maximize usage efficiency
surface water, from lakes, rivers; or other several sources,
[2]. There are three major categories of irrigation systems:
for example, the treated wastewater or desalinated seawater
[2]. Therefore, Therefore, farmers have to save and protect
• Pressurized distribution: The pressurized systems’main
their agricultural water sources by minimizing the potential
components are a trickle, sprinkler, and array of the
of diseases. Since with any groundwater extraction, users of
same systems, where water is carried and spread along
irrigation water need to be careful not to drain groundwater
the land surface within networks of pressurized pipes.
out with a rate greater than it is being regenerated [1].
Besides, many individual systems configurations are
There are two methodologies of modern irrigation systems,
presented by novel features, such as centre-pivot sprin-
the traditional irrigation methodologies and the intelligent
kler systems.
irrigation methodologies .Traditional irrigation is such as
• Gravity-flow distribution: Systems based on gravity-
surface irrigation, drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation.
flow carry and distribute the water at the field level
In the future, several severe and complicated problems will through the overland, free-surface flow regime. These
be met by irrigated agriculture. An example of a significant mentioned surface irrigation methods are split based on
problem is the low efficiency of the water resources for the operational specifications and configuration.
irrigation. A relevant safe approximation is that more than 40 • Drainage flow distribution: An irrigation system using
% of the redirected irrigation water is spent earlier at the level drainage control-sub-irrigation is not commonly used.

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Comparatively huge quantities of irrigation water are

percolate within the root zone and form drainage, or
underground water flow [3].
In places where water is rare, water management is vital.
Agriculture is also impacted, as a significant amount of water
is used. Water adaptation techniques are being studied due
to the probable repercussions of global warming to make
sure that there is water accessible for food both produc-
tion and consumption. As a consequence, the number of
studies focused on lowering irrigation water demand has
steadily risen over time. However, sensors on the market
for farming irrigation systems are expensive, making this
device unsustainable for small-scale farmers. On the other
FIGURE 1: Smart Irrigation Systems Building Layers
hand, companies are producing low-cost sensing devices that
may be linked to nodes to construct cost-effective agriculture
monitor and irrigation management systems.
The main objectives of irrigation systems are minimizing usage efficiency and information were introduced in the late
labour and resources requirements and maximizing the effi- 1970s when water demand began to rise with population
ciencies [3]. The management practices with the most effects growth and natural resource depletion. The scenario necessi-
depend on irrigation systems type and design. Several well- tated the improvement of the irrigation technique, The stress
known problems determine how far the irrigation system day index (SDI), Factors of normalised crop susceptibility
succeeds, such as determining when to irrigate the soil, what (NCS), the evapotranspiration (ET) crop canopy, and climate
is the suitable quantity of water, and the ability to improve variables were all recognised as important in achieving irri-
efficiency. When selecting an irrigation system, many con- gation optimization [14]–[23] . After 1989, when the Internet
siderations must be taken into account. Such as crop type, became available to the general public, it sparked the devel-
location of the farm and farmer, and the time of the year. opment of control systems based on the internet and web-
Generally, all these factors must cover the system compati- based data storage [24]–[29]. IN 2000 WSNs have begun to
bility with the best services of the farm, the topographic and gain traction as a simple and effective solution for monitoring
properties of the soil, crop specs, economic feasibility, and the environment. Actuators and sensors for many WSN appli-
some social constraints [4]. cations, including agricultural, have been developed. WSNs
Sensors made with technological innovations are con- value existing irrigation systems by giving the grower in-
stantly evolving and designed to be intelligent, integrated, stant input on the crop’s water requirements. Also, construct
and smaller, thanks to the widespread application of IoT WSNs that can monitor and regulate irrigation water applica-
technology in agriculture, influenced by the growth of the tions using different methods, and efficient routing protocol
digital technology, and embedded sensors. Soil, weather, [30]–[34]. Precision agriculture researchers have been paying
water, and crop sensors are examples of agricultural sensors close attention to smart applications and approaches for
with highly varied functionalities. These sensors that sense a irrigation, soil fertilization, insect management, and disease
variety of offer invaluable assistance in collecting agricultural forecasting [35]–[39] by employing cutting-edge advanced
production data. technologies including Machine Learning (ML), Artificial
Several studies have focused at the use of smart technol- Intelligence (AI), Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), and
ogy in agriculture, such as IoT,Wireless Sensor Networks the Internet of Things (IoT). [40]–[43]. Fig. 2 shows this
(WSNs), and smart sensors [5]–[8]. Other survey studies on progression.
improving water productivity in agriculture [9]–[13].
The studies fail to demonstrate how monitoring and control III. REAL TIME IRRIGATION SCHEDULING SYSTEMS
systems improve the accuracy of agriculture water produc- Through the regulation of soil moisture, Irrigation schedules
tivity. This study adds to the current knowledge by merging that are updated in real-time aim to reduce to increase harvest
intelligent crop water monitoring systems with irrigation con- yields and reduce crop water stress. Evaporation (E) and
trol methods to enhance water productivity. Different smart transpiration (T), sometimes known as evapotranspiration
irrigation systems building layers described by Figure 1. (ET), require water for crops. However, too much water is
detrimental to a variety of plants. The quantity of water
II. IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT needed by plants is evaluated by their growing stage, climate,
This section shows how irrigation has changed through and crop kind. So, Irrigation solutions that improve water ef-
time from 1970 through 2022, in four separate periods. ficiency are scheduled [44]. In arid sandy soils, determine the
Researchers were interested in irrigation optimization from effects of various irrigation scheduling methods on corn yield
1970 to 1985 because of the introduction of intelligent mon- and water productivity and provide irrigation scheduling
itoring systems and water limitations for irrigation. Water suggestions that optimize marginal profit per unit of applied
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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3251655

FIGURE 2: Irrigation development from 1970 to present

water. Statistics that measure the degree of fit were calculated during the growing crops season. When the soil moisture
by comparing dry matter, crop phenology, soil moisture, ET, content falls a certain threshold defined by the supplier of
and grain yield simulation and observation. Three irrigation allowed control depletion calculated by multiplying by the
scheduling options were tested in this study: (i) irrigation water depth obtainable for the crop, The irrigation is started
scheduling based on soil water, (ii) watering schedules based using the NN-based irrigation methodology. The irrigation
on ET thresholds, and (iii) irrigation scheduling based on rate was chosen to bring the soil water in the root zone
growth stage ET. The long-term model results showed that amount back to the capability of the field. The NN approach
it is more effective to schedule watering at regular intervals was compared to the RZWQM2-based Reported water stress
for greater yield than varied intervals based on ET, and (WS) technique. The study found that while the developed
the widely accepted threshold of 50% available soil water NN model accurately soil moisture estimation variations with
content (AWC) in the Production of crops was found to be a minimal errors throughout the primary crop cycle, lower soil
practical irrigation scheduling choice for Production of corn moisture error was more significant, lowering scheduling
on arid sandy soils. In the system of soil-land-atmosphere, AI performance.
algorithms are used to understand the soil moisture dynamic Forecasts of evapotranspiration (ETo) can help with ir-
behaviour,which would then be implemented in a low-cost rigation scheduling and water resource management. For
controller to create efficient irrigation timelines. In order to forecast ETo, three cutting-edge deep learning algorithms
conserve water and maintain yield, a neural network(NN) were tested: long short-term memory (LSTM), convolutional
model ensemble was evaluated and proven to boost the LSTM (ConvLSTM), and one-dimensional CNN (1D-CNN)
accuracy and moisture resistance in the soil forecasting and [49]. Table 1 represent different smart scheduling irrigation
scheduling performance. The effectiveness of the ensemble- systems from the type of crop and scale that it made on also
based NN irrigation organising approach was comparable to the benefits of each one.
that used in the RZWQM2-WS technique, and that outper-
formed the ET-based technique and improved water balance
by up to 20 IV. IRRIGATION SYSTEM TECHNIQUES
Water can be collected from various sources and used in a
A. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IRRIGATION variety of irrigation methods. However, the ultimate goal is
SCHEDULING SYSTEM to distribute water evenly across the entire field, ensuring that
each plant receives an adequate amount of water [3]. The
Artificial intelligence algorithms might be used to compre-
modern irrigation systems are to supply water to the crops
hend the dynamics of soil moisture in the soil and crop
or the root zone directly. Modern methods efficiently reduce
atmosphere framework, Which could then be implemented
wasted water, uniformly distribute the provided amount of
in a low-cost control system to develop efficient irrigation
water and energy conserved and efficiently manage the irri-
time slots [45]–[47]. This research looked at [48], a NN
gation phase. The diagram in Fig. 3 shows the modern and
model to gain knowledge from the Root Zone Water Quality
traditional irrigation techniques.
Model (RZWQM2), an agricultural systems model based
on processes to forecast soil moisture in the plant roots
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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
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TABLE 1: smart scheduling irrigation systems

Type of crop Scale of Field irrigation scheduling technique contribution Ref.
Net groundwater depletion
open Field Improving water use efficiency
Irrigation water performance (IWP),
wheat experiment while reducing [50]
water performance (WP),
for 16 years groundwater pumpage for irrigation
Total yearly water consumption (ETa)
permits the
Raspberry Pi and xbee devices to collect data Volumetric Water Content in
and the soil is close to
plants open Field [51]
used to define irrigation time the field capacity value,
using membership functions soil moisture is
towards the optimal value.
NN model accurately predicted
Moisture in the soil variations With minimal errors,
root zone occurred with low error rate the NN model estimates
open Field [49]
of plant during the principal harvest period soil moisture changes
the error was greater at lower during the main crop cycle.
soil moisture, lowering scheduling performance.
By solar panels, the photovoltaic
The Smart Photovoltaic Irrigation water system deliver
olive orchard [52]
Manager (SPIM) to meet Irrigation of crops needs,
avoiding the emission of 1.2 tn CO2 eq
Field data and the
Using climatological, agricultural, Irrigation scheduling model
CROPWAT model
bean and soil data as input, user-friendly [53]
were used to
a daily water balancing approach is used. and adaptable.
test the model.

FIGURE 3: Different techniques of irrigation.

A. SURFACE IRRIGATION SYSTEM colation and unequal irrigation water distribution are most
The surface irrigation system is expected to supply the root commonly associated with poor irrigation application effi-
zone reservoir uniformly and efficiently to avoid plant stress ciency, some studies try to solve this problem to make surface
and ensure resources conservation such as water, nutrient, irrigation more efficient [54]–[58].
energy, and labour. Other usages for the irrigation system are Assessing Irrigated farming land resource elements output
cooling the climate around some sensitive fruits and vegeta- on a long-term basis Physical soil features, such as Soil level,
bles or warming the climate to save the plants from damage drains, and texture, in addition to land ramp, land utilize,
by frost in freezing areas. In addition, an irrigation system has and nearness to water sources [54], [55]. In [54] there are
to leach salts expanding in the root region. Besides, it might two goals: (1) to evaluate acceptable surface irrigation land
be used to soften the soil in preparation for better farming or and (2) to evaluate suitable areas for irrigation purposes on a
to fertilize the field and distribute insecticides [3]. small, medium, and wide scale. An Analytic Hierarchy Pro-
Because of its simplicity and minimal energy use, one of cess incorporating a Geographic Information System (GIS)
the most common types of irrigation is surface irrigation based multi-criterion (MCE) making decisions was used to
extensively used method of irrigation. Although deep per- determine the soil’s suitability for irrigation systems. Highly
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appropriate (S1), mildly appropriate (S2), mildly appropri- B. DRIP IRRIGATION

ate (S3), and presently not appropriate (N) were the four Drip irrigation is a critical method for dealing with the
categories used to classify irrigation land suitability. In [56] world’s scarcity of water. Trickle irrigation is another name
Using Remote Sensing (RS) and GIS techniques, analyze for drip irrigation. Drip irrigation is a type of irrigation in
land surface water availability and suitability for surface which water is given drop by drop to the root region of plants.
irrigation in the Gilgel Gibe watershed. The availability of Because evaporation and runoff are reduced, this technique
surface water was assessed by creating a flow duration curve can be the most water-efficient type of irrigation. In modern
(FDC), and assessing the Gilgel Gibe River’s 90% available agriculture, drip irrigation is frequently used in conjunction
flow. The appropriateness of the land surface was estimated with organic or inorganic (plastic) mulches, which provide
using an MCE technique that took into account the communi- additional benefits such as reduced evaporation, increased
cation among important land suitability characteristics such soil warmth, weed control, etc. The issue of drip irrigation
as Slope, type of soil, river closeness, and land utilization. To emitter blockage, on the other hand, has a significant effect on
determine the importance of one element over another using irrigation uniformity and efficiency, even causing the system
a couple comparison matrix in order to favour one above the to be disabled and crop productivity to be reduced [58].
other for physical land viability. This research [60] presents an automated drip irrigation
system. The technology is tested on a paddy field for three
Simulation optimization models help determine the best
months. In comparison to conventional flood and drip irri-
system performance. The primary goal of this study was to
gation systems, it saves roughly 41.5 % and 13% of water,
create and verify the Evaluation, Design, and Optimization
respectively, according to the experimental setting.
of Irrigational Model (EDOSIM), such as a surface irrigation
This study [61] shows the consequences of surface drip ir-
model of simulation optimization. The quantity estimate ac-
rigation (DI), subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), and alternating
curacy was applied to simulation, which included designing
drip irrigation (ADI) on tomato yield and soil microbes in the
or evaluating basin, furrow, and border irrigation. Twenty
roots reactions. The homogeneity of moisture distribution in
meta-heuristic techniques were used to optimize the results.
the soil in the root region (0–60 cm depth) was diminished
The quantity of water that has entered into the soil was
according to the sequence SDI > DI > ADI. The SDI
determined in this irrigation-based model without obtain-
procedure in lengths of tomato roots 4.83 and 3.94 times
ing advanced or recession data [59]. When the EDOSIM
larger than the ADI and DI methods. Root length was 1.23
technique’s simulated results were compared to those of the
times longer in the ADI treatment than in the DI treat-
SIRMOD software’s Hydrodynamic technique, it was found
ment, resulting in different root-soil microbial interactions.
that the proposed method for estimating the volume of infil-
The SDI treatment had the most positive root-soil–microbe
tration and the EDOSIM model performed well, with CRM
interactions, then came ADI and DI. Variations in root-
= 0.005, NRMSE = 4.2 %, RMSE = 0.068, and R2 = 0.988.
soil–microbe reactions controlled tobacco yield. Compared
In addition, the Shuffled Complex Evolution (SCE) method
to the DI and ADI methods, the SDI method boosted tomato
has been discovered to become the most effective approach
field outcomes by 9.77 % and 7.77 %. Tomato yields were
to improve field performance; the objective function was
24.09 % greater in the ADI method than in the DI method.
lowered in all fields [59].
As a result, various drip watering systems can govern tomato
This study [57] increased surface irrigation efficiency up to productivity by influencing root-soil-microbe reactions. The
86.6 %. An IoT-based system was established and tested in a findings can be used to improve the drip irrigation method to
layout of a level basin with a fixed end in sandy loams soil control root-soil microbe reactions and boost tomato yield.
using a wireless link between the soil moisture sensors and Compared to previous irrigation methods, the modern drip
an auto checkpoint that can be remotely managed using data irrigation system saves a large quantity of water. Moreover,
from real-time soil moisture conditions. Aiming to improve some crops, such as paddy, require a varying quantity of
irrigation efficiency, an effort was made to place the sensor water as they grow.
in the most appropriate place in the basin layout. To control This research [62] is to assess evaluate production effi-
the water flow, an aluminium automatic-check gate with a ciency (WP), economic water productivity (EWP), and land
steel framework was installed in the water supply system con- productivity levels (LEP) ) in cotton using various amounts
centration. Three soil moisture sensors based on capacitance of irrigation water and drip system(SDI and subsurface drip
were put at 37.5, 15, and 7.5 cm depths at 25%, 50%, and irrigation (SSDI)).The results of an experiment conducted
75% of the field’s length. There are three distinct operational during the growing of cotton seasons for two years, 2016
schedules based on the location of the soil moisture sensors and 2017, were evaluated. SSDI reduced water need and
that were investigated under 40 %, 30 %, and % soil moisture increased the productivity of water by using an irrigation
deficiency situations. The study found that sensors should be water quantity based on plant water requirements. As a result,
put at 37.5 cm depth and 25 % distance from the injector in this method was more relevant to farming methods. Finally,
increased moisture in the soil deficit conditions. When there WPIng, EWP,WP, and LEP all need to be taken into account
is a lack of moisture, sensors shall be placed at 7.5 cm depth to enhance water productivity and save water savings for
and 75 % length from the entrance. [57] farmers and irrigation techniques [62].
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This study [63] used pear to see two years of irrigation parameters that directly affect the choice of the irrigation
studies, taking into account the two aspects of drip irrigation method, such as soil type, suitable slopes, suitable crops,
systems pipe design and soil moisture lower rate. Five drip suitable irrigation water, and the layout of each system.
irrigation modes and control techniques were used to inves-
tigate the impact of drip irrigation techniques on the water V. SMART IRRIGATION SYSTEM MONITORING
productivity of the field and enhance the effective utilisation It is necessary to keep track of specific factors influencing
of water resources. As a result, it was found that the SSDI plant development and growth to improve water use effi-
with two points under a soil moisture lower level of 60 % ciency. Contextual monitoring of intelligent irrigation ne-
FC was the optimal irrigation method in a pear field after cessitates the accumulation of actual data on soil status,
considering all factors. plant health, and climatic variables in the cropped region via
cutting-edge communication technologies [67].
C. SPRINKLER IRRIGATION The IoT, AI, cloud computing, and edge computing play
The concept of sprinkler irrigation is to spray water into the essential roles in increasing agricultural land productivity and
air and fall as a rainfall pattern. The spray output water is irrigation efficiency. Technologies such as crop and soil mon-
controlled by the pressure of the water and passes via a net- itoring using IoT, data analysis using artificial intelligence
work of pipes, which comes out through tiny nozzles. Nozzle to make appropriate decisions, irrigation systems that work
sizes should be selected carefully depending on the sprinkler automatically, and weather measurement and predicting are
formatting and operating pressure. The quantity of water in high demand to enhance the quality of crops and recognize
required for crop irrigation and refill the root region can be diseases in insects and plants, leading to increased crop
used almost uniformly at a reasonable rate, the leakage rate of efficiency with a significant reduction in farmers’ reliance
the soil [64]. Many crops can be planted under the sprinkler on human labour. The plant field can be monitored using
irrigation method, such as vegetables like Onion, Potato, sensors and IoT devices. Edge computing gathers Sensor data
Carrot, Garlic, Lettuce, and others; spices like cardamom is gathered inside the field and sent to the cloud, where it
and pepper; flowers like jasmine and carnation; oilseeds like is processed and analyzed to determine the best course of
sunflower, groundnut and safflower; and fibres like Cotton action based on the analysis. As a result, crop production will
and Sisal [65]. Sprinkler irrigation is appropriate for different increase while water, fertilizer, and pesticides will be used
types of soil except for heavy clay [3]. Also, it provides less in the field crop [68]. WSN are an exciting and important
mobility to the system as well as saving water. Appropriate technology that has made remarkable progress in recent
for irrigating plants where the plant population for every years and can be used in various fields; agriculture is one
unit area is high and is most appropriate for oilseeds and of the fields where WSN are broadly used and successfully
vegetables [3]. There are many types of sprinkler irrigation deployed [69]–[71]. The utilization of WSN technology to
based on portability, like fully portable, semi-portable, semi- manage and control irrigation methods is a perfect scenario
permanent, and fully permanent sprinkler systems. for ensuring rational and effective water use, which con-
Reduced sprinkler working pressure can significantly re- tributes to the gravity of the global crisis of water [5]. Figure
duce the energy required for sprinkler irrigation. How- 4 shows the possible monitoring types in intelligent irrigation
ever, the sprinkler’s hydraulic performance changes are un- systems.
avoidable as working pressure is reduced and nozzle shape
changes. Therefore, experiments were carried out to examine
the impact of operating pressures, injector shape, and injec-
tor diameter on the rate of flow, the throw radius, irrigation
water rate, droplet dimensions, droplet speed of the rotating
sprinkler, and kinetic energy of water droplets that influence
the surface soil to assess the spray properties of various
non-circular sprinklers. The watering similarity coefficients
for circular and non-circular injectors were calculated by
varying rectangular sprinklers’ spacing and operating pres-
sures. Under the same operating pressure and nozzle size, the
circulation flow rates and non-circular injectors were equal, FIGURE 4: Monitoring techniques in smart irrigation.
while the circular nozzle’s throw radius was greater than that
of the non-circular nozzle. In addition, the circular nozzle Soil quality (SQ) evaluation is required to track changes
generates larger droplets than the non-circular nozzle [66]. in soil performance as a result of management practices. Soil
On the other hand, the sprinkler heads, which are split into quality measurement also warns of the potential effects that
three types, are based on how they are used to distribute the various primary land use activities may have on long-term
water over the entire land and how much. soil quality. In addition, it can assist in determining whether
In Table 2 a brief comparison between different irrigation soil quality is deteriorating over time and what factors may be
methods is provided; the comparison is according to several able to contribute to soil degradation. This data is then used
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TABLE 2: Comparison between different of irrigation.

Surface Irrigation Sprinklers Irrigation
Drip Irrigation
Spray type Rotor type Rotate
Basin Irrigation Border Irrigation Furrow Irrigation
sprinklers sprinklers Nozzles
Preferred clay
Sandy soils with increased
soils with medium
It mainly depends flow rates,
Soil Type Most of the soil types. infiltration rates Most of soil types
on the crops. though adaptable to
or deep
most soil types.
homogenous loams.
Any farmable slope,
Can be adapted to Flatter land Suitable slopes have Uniform-flat or
Suitable slopes whether flat or rippling.
any farmable slope. surfaces are to be uniform slopes the tiny slopes
wide areas
easier to 0.05% : 2% with a max
small and
construct basins. to avoid soil erosion. slope of 0.5%,
ground limited
wide areas
and water
landscape. resources
areas.
Many types
Row crops More suitable with of crops,
Suits many Field, and tree crops.
(vegetables, soft fruit), close-growing especially
Crops field crops And water can be sprayed over
tree and vine crops crops like the row crops
as paddy rice or under the crop canopy.
are all suitable. alfalfa or pasture. and the growth
of the tree crops.
The irrigation water should
The irrigation Two methods: be clean
Normal water like the
Sutable Water water should be Direct method, and free of sediments to avoid
traditional irrigation systems
free of any sediments. Cascade method. any problems in the
sprinkler nozzle.
Pump unit, Control head The dimensions and the shape of basins, borders,
Pump unit
Main and sub-main lines or furrows depend on the stream size, soil type, slopes,
System Layout Mainline or sub-mainlines
emitters, drippers, irrigation depth, and other parameters such as
Laterals
or laterals the farm size.

to support us manage our soil resources more sustainably in content are not instantaneous, this method is primarily used
the future. as a guide [73].
Farmers frequently use the feel method. This method in-
1) Soil Moisture Monitoring dicates how well the soil is irrigated based on the feel and
The temporary storage of water in soil is known as soil appearance of the soil. A person with experience may be
moisture inside a shallow level of the earth’s top surface in able to judge things more accurately and provide guidance
comparison to the quantity of freshwater resources world- for scheduling irrigation events. This method, however, lacks
wide. It is vital in all spatial scales, agricultural, hydrological, precision when it comes to deciding how much to irrigate and
and weather forecasting processes. It is critical in detecting when to irrigate. As a result, while this method is inaccurate,
water stress and managing irrigation. Soil moisture data can it is useful when no other options are available. The direct
also be used to forecast natural disasters like dryness and method entails collecting soil from the field, weighing it, and
flooding, as well as environmental changes like sandstorms oven drying it at 105 °C to calculate the moisture of the soil.
and erosion. Accurate estimation of soil moisture through in The total soil water content is determined by the difference
situ measurement, on the other hand, is prohibitively expen- in mass between wet and dry soil samples. This method
sive because it necessitates a replication sampling process is also known as the Thermo Gravimetric or Gravimetric
to evaluate the periodic change in soil moisture. Because method. The bulk density of the soil can be used to convert
soil moisture is extremely dynamic, both temporally and a weight-based estimate of soil water content to a volumetric
spatially, it must be monitored continuously. There are sev- assessment [73].
eral methods to ascertain the moisture status of the soil; Volumetric techniques determine indirectly, soil mois-
the techniques can be summarized in Fig. 5. All of these ture content by measuring some variable in the soil profile.
methods have advantages and disadvantages and should be As a result, these techniques are more useful for real-time
used with caution depending on the project’s requirements irrigation management decisions. These techniques employ
and demand [72]. The accuracy level depends on weighing a variety of principles, based on which they are broadly
accuracy, though these errors are negligible compared to soil classified (i) Dielectric sensors and (ii) Neutron moderation.
variability in the field. This technique is pretty accurate, but (i) Dielectric sensors operate by determining the soil’s
there are practical issues, such as the fact that measurements dielectric constant. It measures a nonconducting material’s
are not instantaneous and results must be obtained at least ability to transmit electromagnetic waves or pulses. Because
48 hours after sampling, which precludes its use for real- the dielectric constant of dry soil is lower than that of
time irrigation scheduling. Because estimations of soil water water, even small changes in soil quantity have a significant
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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
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FIGURE 5: Techniques for measuring soil moisture indirectly

influence on the electromagnetic properties of soil water. An at the other end is buried in the soil. As the soil dries,
alternating electric field is generated in the surrounding do- water is drawn out of the tensiometer, causing the pressure
main medium by dielectric sensors. The cumulative complex reading to fall, indicating that the soil moisture decreases.
electrical impedance of the media is determined by monitor- When the cup is irrigated, soil water returns and the pressure
ing the currents and voltages influenced in the measuring rods decreases. Tensiometers are sensitive to conditions in a large
by this field. The form and volume of the electric field are soil volume and are simple to install and maintain.
determined primarily by the form and size of the electrodes New techniques several researchers have captured, rep-
used for the sensors. Dielectric sensors are classified into resented and discussed some new techniques, which are
several types based on the output signal, which include Time discussed below. The majority of these techniques are highly
Domain Reflectometry (TDR), Capacitance or Frequency advanced and used at various scales.
Domain Reflectometry (FDR), Time Domain Transmission (i) Temperature distribution this method employs fibre
(TDT), Amplitude Domain Reflectometry (ADR), and Phase optics to evaluate changes in soil thermal conductivity in
Transmission sensors (PT), different in aspects of the use, terms of soil moisture and ambient temperature. In this
maintenance, measurement requirements, accuracy, and cost paper, In [75] they use the active distributed temperature
[74]. sensing (A–DTS) method that advances ground heat transfer
(ii) Neutron moderation There are two types of neutron efficiency, which detects soil moisture through a thermal
moderation methods to monitor the soil water content. The behaviour caused by an active electrical charge. In that order,
neutron scatters method is determined by the interplay of the correlation in both thermal conductivity and soil water
high energy (fast) neutrons in the soil with the nuclei of content was formed using this method for silt, clay, natural
hydrogen atoms. The other technique determines the at- soil, and sand.
tenuation of gamma rays as they travel through soil. Both This paper [76] proposes a new approach for determining
methods make use of portable devices to collect measurement evaporation rates of underground water that combines the
invariance at fixed monitoring sites and necessitate accurate actively heated fiber-optic (A-HFO) technique with vadose
calibration, better with the soil where the devices are to zone technique, with the evaporation front remaining at the
be used [74]. When properly calibrated, neutron probes are soil surface. The A-HFO approach produced soil moisture
highly accurate. They not affected by salts, have a large characteristics assessments with a locative resolution of 6.5
measuring radius, and can measure at various depths. They mm and an inaccuracy of 0.026 m3 m-3. The calculation
are, however, extremely costly radiation hazards (requiring produced a somewhat different soil moisture profile than the
certified personnel), which can be hard to calibrate and measured one, with the greatest changes occurring near the
install. Table 3 shows the advantage and disadvantages of soil surface.
dielectric and Neutron moderation sensors. (ii) Microwave Moisture monitoring has remained a chal-
Tensiometric sensors are those that measure the potential lenge for agricultural outcomes with high water content.
of soil matrices. Tensiometers, electric resistance sensors, In [77] a brand-new microwave detecting system based on
thermal conductivity sensors, and psychrometers are some a technique of multi-frequency sweeping was constructed
of the most commonly used. The most common resistance using components purchased off-the-shelf and implemented
types are electric and tensiometers. A tensiometer is a water- for the moisture collected data from sweet corn. To collect
filled tube designed to mimic the movement of a plant root. enough data moisture, a signal with frequency sweep (in-
A porous cup with negative pressure (vacuum) measured cludes 41 frequencies ranging from 2.60 to 3.00 GHz) was
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TABLE 3: Volumetric soil moisture sensors.

Types of
pros. cons.
sensors
i) Small sensing volume.
Independent of soil texture temperature
TDR ii) Requires soil calibration.
or salt content.
iii) High cost.
i) Small sensing sphere.
i) Can determine water content at any depth.
FDR ii) Require perfect conduct
ii) Can provide the exact soil water content.
with soil to get accurate results.
i) Can provide the exact soil water content
Resistive Calibration is required as soil,
ii) High precision when the soil’s ionic
sensor and ionic concentrations change.
concentration doesn’t change
i) Small sensing volume,
i) Because of standard circuitry, it is
ii) Soil specific calibration,
ADR inexpensive.
iii) Measurement affect
ii) With proper calibration,it is accurate.
of air gaps and stones
i) Accurate with large scale Soil disturbance during
TDT ii) Because of standard circuitry, installation necessitates
it is inexpensive. permanent installation.
i) Inexpensive
ii) Accurate with large scale Need to permanently installed
PT
iii) Accurate with soil Soil specific calibration
specific calibration
i) Water can be measured
i) High cost
Neutron at any phase
ii) Hazard radiation
moderation ii) Accurate with large volume
iii) Insensitivity to small variation
at any depth
i) High cost and difficult to use,
Can measure mean ii) Measurement in highly
Gamma water content with depth stratified soil produces
attenuation as well as moisture large errors
content changes over time iii) Changes in soil bulk density
have an impact.

used as the earliest detected signal. agriculture. The study has been built around monitoring tech-
niques for irrigation scheduling and control. Furthermore,
VI. CONTROL a discussion on future research chances based on study
Soil moisture sensor device handheld with an integrated gaps has also been organized. In this relation, it is noted
controller for controlling a soil moisture sensor. To generate that a mixture of soil-based, weather-based, and plant-based
an electrical signal of precise frequency, an oscillator is monitoring techniques, combined with a discrete forecasting
used, and to get the moisture content of the soil used; a control method, should be studied in open fields. In contrast
sensing unit is used. The controller could be an 8051, AVR, to environmentally controlled agriculture research, open-
PIC, or another microcontroller. It controls the sensor circuit area agricultural-irrigation systems face uncertainties that
in accordance with the software system dumped into the must be investigated. Thus, future studies will focus on the
controller. The soil moisture sensor could be a capacitance development of process dynamics approaches for irrigation
sensor, a granular matrix sensor, or something similar. De- systems, as well as the impacts of intelligent controlling and
pending on the type of controller, the oscillator may be a monitoring techniques on irrigation productivity in open field
crystal oscillator, a Hartley oscillator, or another type of agricultural systems.
oscillator to provide clock signals. The sensing unit could
be a gravimetric probe, a neutron probe, or other similar VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
sensing units, and the sensing unit’s material may be a This paper is based upon work supported by the Egyptian
conducting material such as copper, metal, aluminium or Academy of Science, Research, and Technology (ASRT)
another such material. The sensing unit is inserted into the under grant of JESOR project #5280.
soil to determine the moisture content, which is displayed
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YOMNA .GAMAL received the B.Sc. degree in
the category, mechanism, and controlling methods of chemical clogging in
drip irrigation system,” Agriculture, vol. 12, no. 2, p. 202, 2022.
electronics and communication engineering from
[59] M. Akbari, M. Gheysari, B. Mostafazadeh-Fard, and M. Shayannejad, Cairo University in 2021. She was a Research As-
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algorithms,” Agricultural water management, vol. 201, pp. 46–57, 2018. Center at Nile University. Her research interests
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mode affects tomato yield by regulating root–soil–microbe interactions,”
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AHMED SOLTAN received the B.Sc. and M.Sc.
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degrees and the Ph.D. degree in electronics and
irrigation management system using machine learning and open source
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communication from Cairo University, Cairo,
49, 2018. Egypt, in 2004, 2008, and 2014, respectively.,He
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[67] E. A. Abioye, M. S. Z. Abidin, M. S. A. Mahmud, S. Buyamin, M. H. I. with the School of Engineering, Newcastle Uni-
Ishak, M. K. I. Abd Rahman, A. O. Otuoze, P. Onotu, and M. S. A. Ramli, versity, Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K. He was a Teacher Assistant with the
“A review on monitoring and advanced control strategies for precision Faculty of Engineering, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt, for nine years
irrigation,” Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, vol. 173, p. 105441, and was a Research and Development Firmware Engineer for eight years.
2020. He was also a Research and Development Manager for an LED company at
[68] A. K. Pandey and A. Mukherjee, “A review on advances in iot-based tech- Qatar for one year and half. His current research interests include smart en-
nologies for smart agricultural system,” Internet of Things and Analytics ergy harvesting systems and power management for biomedical implantable
for Agriculture, Volume 3, pp. 29–44, 2022.
devices and lab-on-chip systems. He is also interested in the thermal impact
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of the implantable devices on the human tissues, embedded system design
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for lab-on-chip system, the investigation of fractional circuits and systems,
and Neuroscience, vol. 2022, 2022.
[70] P. K. Singh and A. Sharma, “An intelligent wsn-uav-based iot framework specifically in fractional-order analog filters for signal processing, and
for precision agriculture application,” Computers and Electrical Engineer- fractional-order modeling for biomedical applications. He published more
ing, vol. 100, p. 107912, 2022. than 50 papers in prestigious journals. His research aims to establish a new
[71] I. Angelis, A. Zervopoulos, A. G. Alvanou, S. Vergis, A. Papamichail, healthcare monitoring system and diagnosis on the fly by development of
K. Bezas, A. Stylidou, A. Tsipis, V. Komianos, G. Tsoumanis et al., “Smart autonomous devices.,Dr. Soltan received the 2014–2016 Best Thesis Award
agriculture: A low-cost wireless sensor network approach,” in Information from Cairo University for his Ph.D. thesis
and Communication Technologies for Agriculture—Theme I: Sensors.
Springer, 2022, pp. 139–172.

VOLUME 4, 2016 11

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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3251655

LOBNA A. SAID (Senior Member, IEEE) re- AHMED H. MADIAN (Senior Member, IEEE)
ceived the B.Sc., M.Sc., and Ph.D. degrees in received the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from Cairo
electronics and electrical communications from University, Egypt, in 2002 and 2007, respectively.
Cairo University, Egypt, in 2007, 2011, and 2016, He is currently a Professor with the Department
respectively. She has been the Director of the of Electronics and Computer Engineering, Fac-
Microelectronics System Design Master Program ulty of Engineering and Applied Science, Nile
(MSD) and the Co-Director of the Nanoelectronics University, Giza, Egypt. Since September 2015,
Integrated System Design Research center (NISC) he has been the Director of the Microelectronics
since September 2021. She is currently a full-time System Design Master Program. Since 2016, he
Associate Professor at the Faculty of Engineering has also been the Director of the Nanoelectronics
and Applied Science, Nile University (NU). She has over 125 publications Integrated System Design Research Center (NISC). He has published more
distributed between high-impact journals, conferences, and book chapters. than 150 papers in international conferences and more than 150 articles in
She has an H-index of 22, as reported by the Scopus database. She was international journals. His H-index is currently 20. He served in the many
involved in many national/international research grants as PI, Co-PI, or technical and organizing committee of many international conferences.
a Senior Researcher/Member. Her research interests are interdisciplinary, His research interests include circuit theory, low-voltage analog CMOS
including modeling, control, optimization techniques, analog and digital circuit design, current-mode analog signal processing, memristors, fractional
integrated circuits, fractional-order circuits and systems, memristors, non- systems, VLSI, encryption systems, and mixed/digital applications on field
linear analysis, and chaos theory. In 2019, she was selected as a member programmable gate arrays. He has been a member of the National Radio
of the Egyptian Young Academy of Sciences (EYAS) to empower and of Science Committee (NRSC), since 2018. He is currently an IEEE Egypt
encourage young Egyptian scientists in science and technology and build Section Secretary and a member of Ex-COM. He is the Founder of IEEE
knowledge-based societies. In 2020, she was elected as the Co-Chair of Circuits and systems (CASS) Egypt Technical Chapter and the Co-Founder
EYAS and an African Academy of Science (AAS) Affiliate Member. In of the IEEE Robotics and Automations (RAS) Egypt Technical Chapter.
2020, she was also chosen to be a member of the Arab-German Young He won the Best Researcher Award (Dr. Hazem Ezzat Award 2017) for his
Academy of Sciences and Humanities (AGYA). In 2021, she was selected outstanding research profile. He received many research grants as a principle
to be a member of the Council for Future Studies and Risk Management, investigator (PI), CO-PI, or a consultant from different national/international
ASRT, Egypt. She served on the many technical and organizing committees organizations. He is actively serving as a reviewer in several journal and con-
of many international conferences and organized special sessions. She won ference publications, including IEEE conferences and journals. He served as
the State Encouragement Award in 2019 and the Dr Hazem Ezzat Prize a guest associate editor for many international journals.
for the Outstanding Researcher NU in 2019 and 2020. She has received
the Excellence Award from the Center for the Development of Higher
Education and Research in 2016. She is one of the top 10 researchers at
NU from 2018 to 2019 and from 2019 to 2020. Her name was in the Top
2% of Scientists According to Stanford Report of 2019, released in 2020.
She has received the recognized reviewer award from many international
journals. She was awarded the IEEE Outstanding Branch Counselor and
Branch Chapter Advisor Award in 2021. Based on the Scival database, she
is in the top 5 authors worldwide for the research tracks “Fractional Order;
Differentiators; Low Pass Filters (T.21555)” part of Topic Cluster TC.522-
Fractional; Fractional Order; Derivatives. She has been the Vice Chair of
research activities at the IEEE Computational Intelligence Egypt Chapter
and the Counselor of the IEEE NU Student Branch since 2018. She has also
been the Co-Chair of WIE in the IEEE CAS Egypt Technical Chapter since
2021.

12 VOLUME 4, 2016

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 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Access. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3251655

AHMED G. RADWAN (SM-IEEE, Fellow AAS)

is the Vice President for Research, Nile University
and Professor in the Faculty of Engineering, Cairo
University, Egypt. He was the former center di-
rector of NISC-Nile University, and TCCD-Cairo
University, and the center director of Nanoelec-
tronics Integrated Systems Design (NISC), Nile
University. Dr. Radwan is selected as a member
in the national committee of mathematics, and ap-
plied science research council as well as member
of the first council of the Egyptian Young Academy of Science, and MC
Observer to COST Action CA15225. Dr. Radwan has more than 365 papers,
H-index 45, more than 6400 citations and six US patents in several inter-
disciplinary concepts between mathematics and engineering applications.
Dr. Radwan on the top authors worldwide for the two research tracks
(T.21555 & T.8806) based on SciVal database. Previously, he was a visiting
professor-ECE, McMaster Univ.-Canada [2008-2009], then part of the first
research teams of KAUST, KSA [2009 -2011]. Dr. Radwan received the
Scopus award in engineering and technology 2019, State first class medal of
science and arts, State-excellence award 2018, Cairo University excellence
award for research 2016, Abdul Hameed Shoman award in basic sciences
2015, State Encouragement award for research 2012, Prof. Mohamed Amin
Lotfy award 2016, Cairo University Encouragement award 2013, and Prof.
Hazem Ezzat best researcher awards Nile University during 2015-2017.
He supervised more than 30 M.Sc. and PhD. students where 8 of them
received the best thesis awards in their institutes (4 PhD and 4 M.Sc.). In
addition, one of these M.Sc. theses won the first rank in Egypt among all
engineering schools and in all disciplines during 2016-2018. He received
best paper/poster awards from several international conferences, and the
Cairo University international publications award for the top researchers
during 2011-2019 individually. He received many research grants from dif-
ferent national/international sponsoring agencies with more than 10 MEGP,
founder of the NILES international conference http://nilesconf.org/, founder
of the series “Undergraduate Research Forum” http://ugrf.nu.edu.eg/, chair-
man of several international conferences, involved in the TPC of several
international conferences, Associate Editor of several international journals
such as: Journal of Advanced Research, Circuit, Systems and Signal Process-
ing, Journal of Engineering and Applied Science, Journal of Mathematical
Problems in Engineering, and lead/guest editor for different special issues.

VOLUME 4, 2016 13

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