CONTENTS

q Introduction
q Types of walls
q External walls
► Materials for external walls
► Types of external walls
► Walls of block construction
q Internal walls
q Cavity walls
q Opening in walls
 m
o

1. INTRODUCTION
q By definition a wall is a continuous, usually vertical
structure of brick, stone, block, concrete, timber, or metal
thin in proportion to its height and length.
q Wall is one of the most essential components of a building.
q The is:
► To to make it
more functional and useful.
► To
► Give
► Also to
3
m
o

1.INTRODUCTION (cont...)
are:
►Strength and stability
►Resistance to weather
►Durability and freedom from maintenance
►Fire resistance
►Resistance to passage of heat
►Resistance to passage of sound

4
q A distinction between various types of wall can be made
in two different ways: Foundation
walls
Walls in sub
structure
Basement
Based on their walls
position
in the building External
Walls in walls
Types of super
walls structure Internal walls
Load bearing
walls
Based on
their function
Partition
walls
5
■ The function of foundation wall is to

and effect of the

underground, such as and
should be taken into consideration.

■ The function of basement wall is to:

• Support vertical loads (if load bearing)
• Resist lateral loads, and
• Protect the building from dampness.
6
■ Must provide protection against , should

■ Be .

■ Internal walls are basically required to

■ They should have sufficient
and should be

■ The must be sufficient to carry the loads placed on it.

■ The loads are calculated from the live and dead loads on the
structure supported by the wall
■ wind pressure must also be taken into account. 7
1. MATERIALS FOR EXTERNAL WALLS
q Different materials are employed for the construction of
external walls such as:

q The materials employed depend on several factors such as:

■ Local availability of the material
■ The standard of the house planned
■ Climatic conditions
■ Cost of the material
■ Aesthetic requirements
■ Skilled labour availability
■ Function of the wall to be constructed
■ Fire resistance requirement 8
q External walls can be classified in different groups according
to their and

9
q Walls composed of are of block construction.
q They are formed from fairly small units set in matrix of cement
mortar.
q The properties and strength of such wall depend on:

q Walls made up of stone, brick, hollow and solid concrete blocks, etc.
are included in this category.

10
 q Brick walls are widely used

q Brick is .

Ancient Babylonian Roman Fourteenth

Egyptian civilization civilization century

q The production of bricks for various purposes has advanced

significantly and it is now excellent building material all over the
world having:

q The practice of using bricks for construction in Ethiopia is not old.

q The process of brick production in Ethiopia is far from accurate and
doesn’t benefit from the current advances in brick technology.

11
 .

q Clay for the production of brick must possess some specific properties:
: which permits it to be shaped or moulded,
: to maintain its shape after forming,
when subjected to rising temperature.
q There are generally in brick manufacturing:

12
Types of clay bricks
q Different types of bricks can be produced depending on the types
of clay, the moulding and firing process:

15
 Field test for soils Field test for burnt Laboratory tests
clay bricks

• Balls of about 8cm are shape,

moulded with hands & plainness, color checks direction of loading
allowed to dry. : properly same as that to be
• Moulding bricks of burnt & free from applied in practice.
standard size cracks brick emits a 24 hrs
metallic ring. cold water or 5 hrs
boiling water test.
scratching surface with : results
a knife. from dissolved salts &
spoils the appearance .

16
 MINIMUM COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF BRICK (ES C.D4.001)
Class Average of 5 brick [MPa] Individual brick [MPa]

A 20 17.5
B 15 12.5
C 10 7.5
D 7.5 5.5

MAXIMUM WATER ABSORPTION (ES C.D4.001)

class 24-hrs immersion (%) 5-hrs immersion (%)
Avg. of 5 bricks Individual brick Avg. of 5 bricks Individual brick
A 21 23 22 24
B 22 24 23 24
C,D No limit No limit No limit No limit

18
q Brick masonry is sometimes preferred over other types of
masonry for the following reasons:
■ Bricks are , and hence they can
be laid in any definite pattern.
■ Bricks are Hence they
can be easily handled.
■ Brick .
■ The .
done with bricks.
can be easily constructed in brick
masonry.

19
 A course is a horizontal layer of masonry units.
the longer face of a brick as seen in the elevation of the wall.
the shorter face of a brick as seen in the elevation of the wall.
Lap is the horizontal distance between the vertical joints of
successive brick courses.
Bed is the lower surface of the brick when laid flat.
It is a portion of the brick with the cut made longitudinally and is
used to close up bond at the end of the course.
It is a portion of a brick obtained by cutting a brick
length wise into two portions.
It is obtained by cutting the triangular piece between
the center of one end and the center of the other side.

20
Terminologies (cont...)
■ Bevelled closer: A special form of king closer in which half width
is maintained at one end and full width is maintained at the other
end.
■ Mitred closer: It is a portion of a brick whose one end is cut
splayed or mitred for full width.
q Bat: It is the portion of the brick cut across the width. Thus, a
bat is smaller in length than the full brick.
■ Half bat: equal to half the length of the original brick
■ A three-quarter-bat: its length equal to three-quarters
■ Bevelled bat: A bat with its width bevelled
q Racking back: It is the termination of a wall in a stepped fashion.
q Toothing:It is the termination of the wall in such a fashion that each
alternate course at the end projects.
21
22
q For getting good bond, the following rules should be observed:
I. The brick should be of .
t.
II. The amount of lap should be minimum
and
III. Use of , except in special locations.
IV. In alternate courses,
in the course below or above it.
V. The should be along the same
.
VI. It is preferable to provide

23
 r
m

§ Bond is the system of laying bricks in such a manner that there is no

vertical joint in any row or course immediately above or below the one
considered.

§ Is the one in which

§ This pattern is
Used as partition walls, sleeper walls, chimney stacks, etc

24
25
q Is the one in which .

q The pattern is

q This

26
q This is . And it is
.

27
28
29
 to the quoin header in alternate
courses to develop the face lap.
q Every header is centrally supported over the stretcher below it.
each course presents

• Alternate headers and stretchers are laid in each course.

• It presents better appearance than English bond.
Comprised of double Flemish bond
facing and English bond backing and hearting in each course.
• It combines

30
31
32
q This is the of
the wall.

■A

33
Types of brick bonds (cont...)

q This is

at the quoin with the .

■ In

34
Types of brick bonds (cont...)

q The bonding bricks are kept at to the direction of the wall.

And it is
■ The

■ It is provided at
■ Raking bonds are of two types: and

35
Types of brick bonds (cont...)

q This bond is similar to except that

■ It is commonly used for making

Zigzag bond
36
 A) BRICK WALLS (CONT...)
Types of brick bonds (cont...)

q Is used for the

where and

q This type of bond is ,

q Garden walls are of three types:
§ Garden wall English bond: The header course is provided only after
3-5 stretcher courses.
§ Garden wall Flemish bond: Each course contains one header after
3-5 stretchers continuously placed, through out the length of the
course.
§ G arden wall monk bond: Type of garden wall Flemish bond in
which each course contains one header after two successive stretchers.
37
38
 A) BRICK WALLS (CONT...)
Joints in brickwork
D Joints are the weakest part of a masonry structure and they require
special care in laying and finishing.
D The purpose of finishing joints is to improve the appearance of brickwork
and to make it more water proof.
D The finishing of joints as the brickwork proceeds is termed as jointing
whereas finishing of joints after the brickwork has been completed is called
pointing.
D Generally, brickwork is jointed by the mortar while
it is green.
D Pointing consists of raking out the green mortar in the joint to a depth of about
20mm and then refilling the joint with fresh mortar.

40
A) BRICK WALLS (CONT...)
Types of pointing finishes

43
 A) BRICK WALLS (CONT...)
q Causes of failure of brick masonry
i. By if it is overloaded: providing adequate dimensions
ii. By : providing a strong mortar
iii. By : Can be prevented by
breaking vertical joints in brickwork
q Defects in brick masonry

q Maintenance of brickwork

47
q The stones used for masonry should be hard, durable, tough and
sound and free from weathering, decay or defects like cavities,
cracks, sand holes, injurious veins, patches of loose or soft materials etc.
q Rocks from which building stones are obtained, are divided into three
groups:
i. Igneous rock: the chief building stones in this class are
, etc.
ii. Sedimentary rocks: The principal building stones in this group are
. These are used in floors, steps, facing
works, columns, walls etc.
iii. Metamorphic rocks: the common building stones are and .
Since marble is costly it is not used for masonry but used for flooring,
facing work, steps, ornamental works etc.

49
 ROCK

CHEMICAL HARDNESS
GEOLOGICAL PHYSICAL

SILICONS SOFT ROCKS

STRATIFIED
IGNEOUS

ARGILLACEOUS
MEDIUM
SEDIMENTARY UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS

FOLIATED HARD
METAMORPHIC CALCAREOUS
ROCKS

VERY HARD
ROCKS
50
B)​ STONE WALLS
TESTS FOR STONES
qThe building stones are tested for their different properties:
i. Attrition test: This test is carried out to find out the rate of wear of stones
(Daval’s attrition test machine).
ii. Crushing test: The compressive strength of stone can be found out with
the help of this test.
iii. Hardness test: To determine the hardness of a stone (Dorry’s testing
machine). Coefficient of hardness is determined.
iv. Impact test: to determine the toughness of a stone. Toughness index is
determined.
v. Water absorption test: to determine the water absorption capacity of a
stone.

51
B)​ STONE WALLS
QUALITIES OF GOOD BUILDING STONE
q A good building stone should posses the following qualities.
should be greater than 100 N/mm2
decent in appearance, capable of preserving their color
uniformly and free from clay holes, spots of other colors etc
: should be durable which depends up on its chemical
composition, texture, resistance to environment and positioning.
easily carved, moulded, cut and dressed.
The coefficient of hardness should be more than 17.
The wear of stone should be maximum 3%.
specific gravity of good stone should be minimum 2.7.
compact fine texture free from cavities, cracks and soft fragments.
T.I. > 19 good stones, T.I < 13 poor stones.
different water absorption depending upon the porosity.
A good stone should be able to resist the environment attack.
A good stone must preserve its shape in case of fire. 52
 B) STONE WALLS
CLASSIFICATION OF STONE MASONRY (CONT...)
q Depending upon the arrangement of stones in the construction, degree
of refinement used in shaping the stone and finishing adopted stone
masonry can be classified as:
I. Rubble masonry:
■ The block of stones used are either or

■ The masonry has , since are used.

II. Ashlar masonry:
■ Consists of blocks of

■ The blocks may be either The

height of stone varies from 25-30 cm

54
B) STONE WALLS
CLASSIFICATION OF STONE MASONRY (CONT...)
Stone
Masonry

Rubble Masonry

Dry Rubble

55
 ng
Cha e

B) STONE
WALLS
CLASSIFICATION OF STONE MASONRY
I. RUBBLE MASONRY

q The of stone
walling. The stones used are of

in
arranging the stones in such a way that they
adequately distribute the pressure over the
maximum area at the same time long
continuous vertical joints are avoided.

The work is to form

courses varying from 30-40 cm thick. All the
courses are .

56
 B) STONE WALLS
CLASSIFICATION OF STONE MASONRY

§ Uses stones having

The

§ The stones with

and are

§ Use the same stones as used for

but
 B) STONE WALLS
CLASSIFICATION OF STONE MASONRY

§ The wall consists of

, but the

The stones are

These stones
are bedded in position to show
face joints running irregularly in
all directions. There are two
types of polygonal walling:
and
 B) STONE WALLS
CLASSIFICATION OF STONE MASONRY

The stones used are or ,

which vary in width and thickness from
7.5-15 cm and in length from 15-30 cm.
The face arrangement of the cobbles
may be either coursed or un-coursed
or built to courses. The strength may be
increased by introducing lacing courses.

Dry rubble masonry is that rubble masonry, ,

This type of construction is
the , and requires . This may be
used for , such as etc.
 B) STONE WALLS
CLASSIFICATION OF STONE MASONRY
II. ASHLAR MASONRY

§ This is
Each stone is cut to

§ The of course is generally

§ The beds and sides of each stone block are just in

the same manner as for Ashlar fine, but

§ A strip, about 25mm wide and made by means of a chisel is

provided around the perimeter of the rough dressed face of each
stone.
 B) STONE WALLS
CLASSIFICATION OF STONE MASONRY

A strip, about 25mm wide and made by means of a chisel

is provided around the perimeter of the exposed face of every stone.

This is a
in
which the strip provided
around the
perimeter of th

Due to the chamfering, a

is formed in between
adjacent blocks of stone.
 B) STONE WALLS
CLASSIFICATION OF STONE MASONRY

q This type of masonry is

q The verticaljoints are and

q It is adopted in , etc.

q Ashlar facing masonry is provided

,
q The sides and beds of each block are

q The of the stone are

q One of the .
q It consists of hardened cement and may be or
or
q It is made from conventional
These include:
, etc.
q Various types of blocks are manufactured to be used for wall
construction.

75
I. Concrete blocks are , .
Hence .
II. Blocks are and therefore .
III.Because of their , the

IV.There is a .
V. Because of , the number of joints in the
masonry is less. This results in
VI.Because of , the resulting wall has better insulating
properties against
VII.Blocks can , and do not require
plaster or any other covering.
76
q The following points should be kept in mind while
manufacturing the concrete masonry blocks:
i. The should not be leaner than 1:6.
ii. Blocks should be

, to obtain better
finish.
iv. After taking the blocks out of mould they should be kept
under

v. Bocks should be

77
78
79
80
81
 Checking horizontal block spacing Filling in the walls b/n corners
Story or course pole

Cutting off excessive mortar

82
Tooled mortar joints
83
q Walls of monolithic construction could either be .
q The and the are composed
of materials, which are placed in a plastic state into a mould.

q Concrete walls can be The two greatest

advantages of concrete wall are:
, and
.
q Freedom of design is expressed by the ease with which it can
be made to take up
q Reinforced concrete wall thickness may be from 8cm up, and
the

84
q Panel walls are used
, which leaves the spaces
in the uprights to be filled.
q Generally they consist each
of which fulfils a specific purpose
q They are principally used with the .
q Requirements to be fulfilled are:
■ Resistance to ,
■ Protection against , and
■ Providingsatisfactory .
q Some of the materials used for panel wall construction are
, etc.
85
q An internal wall or partition wall is a which is
constructed to

q A partition wall may be either

Generally partition walls are

I. Should be
II. Should be to which the
occupation of the building is likely to subject them.
III. Should be

86
v. Should be as
vi. Should be as
vii. Should act as , specially when it divides two rooms.
viii. Should be .

q Partition walls are of the following types:

87
P
w

is the one which consists of

q The
or

q The inner and the outer leaves of the wall

through out the height of the wall.
q For a cavity wall to be effective, it is essential that the leaf is
entirely disconnected from the outer leaf,
q The
q The two leaves are securely tied together with suitable
or
q The ties should be placed at
88
 cavity walls are able to prevent dampness effectively.
cavity walls have about 25% greater insulating value than the
solid walls.
cavity walls reduce sound and noise pollution.
they are cheaper and economical.
loads on foundations are reduced because of lesser solid
thickness.

I. Damp proof course should be built into separate widths under each leaf
of the wall and divided by cavity.
II. No mortar or any other thing should get accumulated in the cavity.
III. Cavity should be free from projections.
IV. The contact b/n inner and outer wall should be least.
V. Head of openings should be carefully attended to for damp prevention.
VI. Ties must be of rust proof materials and should be able to prevent
transmission of water from inner surface to the outer surface.
89
 a n ge V
XC

4. CAVITY WALLS (CONT...)

91
q Openings are invariably left in the walls for the provision of doors,
windows cupboards, etc.
q These openings are bridged by the provisions of either

q An arch is normally a of either stone, Concrete steel,

etc.
q Arches are constructed where:
■ Loads are heavy,
■ Span is large,
■ Strong abutments are available, and
■ Architectural appearance is required.
92
5 OPENINGS IN WALLS
5.1 Arches (cont...)

93
5 OPENINGS IN WALLS
5.1 Arches (cont...)

94
5 OPENINGS IN WALLS

q A lintel is a , which
q Lintels are

q At is a minimum requirement.
q For very long spans, the bearing for the lintel end should be equal
at least to its depth.

q Lintels are classified according to the material of their construction.

a) Timber lintels: are the oldest type of lintels and are not
commonly used nowadays. They can not take greater load and
are vulnerable to fire and decay.

95
 5. OPENINGS IN WALLS
5.2 Lintels (cont...)
Types of lintels
D Lintels are classified according to the material of their construction.

b) Stone lintels: not widely used as the stone used for this
work is not available at all places.
c) Brick lintels: Plain brick lintels are not structurally strong
and they are not used in large openings and where loads are
heavy. Instead reinforced bricks are used.
d) Steel lintels: Are provided where the opening is large and
where the superimposed loads are heavy.
e) Reinforced concrete lintels: have replaced practically all
other types of lintels because of their strength, rigidity, fire
resistance, economy and ease in construction. Can be used on
any span and they may be cast in place or available as precast.
96
5 OPENINGS IN WALLS
5.2 Lintels (cont...)
Types of lintels

98
 ng
Cha e Vi e
-X

w.
w

d o c u- t r a c k. c
o

THANK YOU!

10
2