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TOPIC 4: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY
Definition of terms used in communication
Communication
- Communication is the process of using sound, words, symbols, signs, pictures or signals to pass
message or information from one person to another.
- The message origin is called a sender or a source while the target recipient is a receiver
Data communication
- Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data signals from one point to another through
communication channels
Telecommunication
- This is the use of technology to enable exchange of messages in a form of data and information over
a wired or wireless communication media
- Telecommunication technology involves use of telegraph, telephone, radio television and computer
Telecommunication network
- A telecommunication network is an interconnection of telecommunication equipment like
telephone, mobile, radio, television and computers using transmission media or links.
- The network enables flow of data from the source to destination.
Computer network
- A computer network is an interconnection of computers using transmission media and networking devices to
enable exchange of data.
Information and Communication Technology
- Information and communication technology (ICT) refers to the convergence of computer networks
with telecommunication networks like telephone, mobile, radio, television to provide communication
platform through which people can share information
- ICT provide electronic communication such as mobile internet, electronic commerce, instant
messaging, email, internet radio and digital television broadcasts.
HISTORY OF TELEPHONE AND INTERNET History of telephone
- Telephone was inverted after telegraph.
- Telegraph used a series of dots and dashes(beeps) coded as electrical signals to transmit text character
over a long distance
- Alexander Graham Bell improved telegraph to telephone - Telephone was evolved from the
following three categories:
1. Rotary dial telephone
2. Touch tone dial telephone
3. Mobile
Rotary dial telephones
- These were the first phone to be manufactured and were used from 1919 to 1990 - To use the
phone, one had to use rotary dial.
- They are not common nowadays in offices and homes
- To dial a number, the user puts a finger in the corresponding finger hole and rotates the dial clockwise until it
reaches the finger stop. The user then pulls out the finger, and a spring in the dial returns it to the resting
position
Touch tone dial telephone

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 - These do not have rotary dial but push button keys.
- They are called touch tone dial phones because each button produces a
unique sound when pressed, a feature which is common in mobile
phone.
Mobile phones History of mobile phones
- Mobile phone was first demonstrated by Dr. Cooper in 1973
- Mobile phones are portable i.e. they are small and light and therefore can
fit in a pocket.
- Mobile phones communicate using cellular wireless network that is set up by the government or
mobile service provider.
- Each mobile phone has a special component called Subscriber Identification Module (SIM) card
which identifies each subscriber on the network.
- There are four categories of mobile phones:

1. Basic/conventional mobile phone

- These are phones designed just to make calls and send text and also have a few monochrome games.
- Basic phones are characterized by:
• Small
• Low resolution screen
• Physical keypad
• Limited memory capacity
• Low processing power
- However, some advanced basic phones may have color screen, low resolution camera, QWERTY
keypad and ability to access internet

2. Touch screen feature phones

- These phone have the following characteristics:
• Wide touch screen
• Ability to process graphics in full
• Higher memory capacity
• Powerful processor than basic phone
• High resolution camera

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3. Smartphone
- They have advanced features that make them to operate as computer -
They are characterized by:
• Powerful processor and touch screen
• Powerful operating system (Android, iOS, windows) which makes the phone operate like a
computer
• It has high memory capacity ad has ability to access high speed internet and stream online video.
• High resolution camera with ability to make high definition pictures and videos

4. Tablets
- This phone falls below between phone smartphone and computer in terms of size and processing
power
- Tablet differs with computer because it has a slot where SIM card can be inserted in order to support
voice calls, text messaging and internet access over mobile networks - Characteristics of tablets
are:
• A large touch screen, bigger than smartphone
• Large internal memory capacity
• Powerful processing, more powerful than that of smartphones
• Ability to run several applications and connect to high speed internet
• High resolution screen and camera capable of taking high quality pictures and videos.

USES OF NETWORKS
- Some of the uses of networks include: Electronic banking (e-banking), internet access at homes and work,
Point of Sale(POS) applications, mobile communications, electronic government etc.

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1. Electronic banking
- This is the use of networked computers to offer banking services like cash withdraw, deposits,
transfers and electronic payment
- Electronic banking encompasses the following services and technologies.
• Automated Teller Machines (ATM)
- ATM machine enables people to withdraw and deposit money in their bank accounts
- The user provides authentication details by entering PIN (Personal Identification Number)
• Internet baking
- Customers perform transactions and view their statements online
- User register with an organization like VISA or MasterCard in order to perform online transaction
internet.
• Mobile banking
- Mobile phones are now used to access bank account to withdraw, deposit, transfer cash, paying bills
and buying mobile airtime.
2. Internet access at home and work
- Computer networks enable access to information at homes and workplaces using computers, laptops, tablets
and mobile phones using wired and wireless means - This support research, access to e-health services and e-
commerce

3. E-commerce
- This enable people to buy and sell goods and services online using phone or computers.
- If e-commerce is done using mobile phones, it is called mobile commerce (M-commerce) 4. Point-
of-sale(POS) services
- This enable people to pay for goods purchased in retail stores using electronic money at the point of
sale using VISA, MasterCard etc.
5. Mobile communications
- Mobile networks facilitate communications and delivery of services like voice, data and money transfer.
6. Electronic government
- Computer networks are enabling government to deliver electronic services to the citizen e.g. payment
of taxes, international trade, application for government documents, electronic identities and passport.
- This enable government to offer efficient services to the citizen

BENEFITS OF NETWORKS
Some of the benefits of using computer networks include: resource sharing, remote communication,
distributed processing facilities, cost effective and reliability 1. Resource sharing
- A resource in the network environment means chart, files, printers, modems, communication links,
storage devices, fax machine, programs and other component that can be share on the network.
- Resource sharing enable sharing of files, exchange of emails, sending faxes and printing.
- Centralized access to data and information leads to less worst of time hence productivity
- In computer networks, shared resources may be attached to a network server and other computers on
the network send request to the server.
2. Remote communication
- In the presence computing environment, computer engineers are faced with two problems:
i. Roaming of officer who by virtue of their work keep on covering long distance away from
workplace
ii. Solving the problem of remote access to the organization’s information so that they can have
up-to-date content or updated information on server
- The problem of roaming has been addressed by development of portable computers like laptops
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 - The problem of access to the network has been addressed by remote communication.
- Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between two communication
devices located in different geographical areas.
- A computer than tries to access resource from another computer on the network is called a remote
client while a computer being accessed is called remote server.
- Remote communication has been made possible by use of wireless communication media
e.g. radio waves, microwave and satellite
- With remote communication, people can share information and pass message over the internet while
at homes without necessarily going to work which increases productivity. 3. Distributed system
- Distributed processing refers to processing of data by interconnected computers located in different
geographical areas.
- In distributed processing, users that processing is distributed but will think that everything is taking
place at their own computer.
- This is different in centralized processing where all data and information is put in one computer
called a server and all computers access from it.
- In distributed computers, files reside on the user’s computer rather than on central server.
- This enables branch offices have their own server to keep files rather than relying on central server.
- The advantage of distributed system is that:
1. The failure of central computer does not affect the operations of other terminals
2. Processing load is shared equally hence no time wastage
4. Cost-effectiveness
- Networks are cost effective in the organization
- This is so because resources like printers are shared on the network.
- An organization may have one printer or fax machine which can be connected to all computers of the
organization and allow all users access it using network.
- People also can send email on internet reducing cost for posting letter.
- Companies also hold video conferencing instead of conducting meetings and therefore save travelling
expenses. 5. Reliability
- A computer network is reliable in two ways:
1. Data is transferred with minimal or no error from source to destination
2. In case one computer breaks down, users can still access internet from other computers
LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKS
- The following are disadvantages of computer networks: security issues, high cost of installation cost, moral
and cultural effects, spread of terrorism and drug trafficking, and over reliance on networks.
1. Security issues
- Data and information transmitted over a computer network is prone to illegal access.
- It can be tapped by unauthorized user as it travels from source to destination
- This can be overcomed by encrypting the data with password before it is sent
2. High initial cost
- The initial cost of buying hardware and software may be very high.
3. Social-cultural effects
- Children may have access to pornographic movies which may result in premarital sex, as well as drug and
substance abuse
4. Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking
- Internet provides good environment for the spread of illegal activities such as terrorism and drug
abuse
- Terrorists and drug traffickers use internet for network for their business communication

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5. Over-reliance on network
- Most organization today have stopped using manual operations.
- This means that their business processes depend on computer networks
- Therefore, the disadvantage is that if the network fails or goes down, all system in the organization
are brought to halt.
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
- A communication system consists of terminal device, communication channels and transmission
media that enable exchange of message between users of the system.
- A communication system has the following elements:
1. Message source
2. Transmitter
3. Communication channel
4. Receiver
5. Message user
 Message source
- This is the person who wants to send the message across the communication system - The
message source may want to make telephone call, send email, chart etc.
 Transmitter
- This is the terminal equipment that receives a message from the source and coverts it to a format that
can be transmitted on the channel
- A transmitter can be a computer, radio, TV
 Communication channels
- A communication channel is a transmission media through which data and information flow
- A channel carries the coded message from the transmitter to the receiver using signal that can flow
through it
 Receiver
- A receiver is a terminal equipment that get the transmitted message from the channel and decodes it
before presenting it to the user.
- It could be computer, mobile phones, radio tuner etc.
 Message user
- This is a person who is the target recipient of the message.

Information Transmitter Receiver Information

Channel
source user

Nodes
Figure 4: Communication system

NETWORKING DEVICES
- Communication devices is made up of several devices.
- These networking devices enable transmission of data signals from the source to destination.
- Generally, devices connected to the communication medium can be classified into two broad
categories:
1. Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
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 2. Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE)
Data Terminal Device
- Data terminal equipment (DTE) is a device at both ends of the communication network that concerts
user information into signals at the source or reconvert signals at the destination.
- Examples of DTEs include: desktop computers, mobile phone, laptops, tablets and Personal Digital
Assistants (PDAs)
Data Circuit-terminating Equipment
- Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) also known as Communication equipment’s refers to
devices used to establish, maintain and terminate communication session between DTE (Data source)
and its destination.
- DTE is an interface between data terminal equipment and communication media.
- Some examples of DCEs include: Network Interface Card(NIC), modems and Codecs, hubs, bridge,
repeaters, routers, gateways, switches and access points
1. Network Interface Card(NIC)
- Network interface card creates a physical connection between the computer and transmission media.
- It is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the motherboard.
- Network interface cards has ports at the back in which terminated ends of a network cable can be
plugged.

-
Modems and codecs
- A modem converts a signal from digital to analog form before transmission aver analog media while
a codec converts an analog signal to digital form for transmission via digital medium.
- At the receiving ends, terminal devices convert the signal to original form.

2. Hubs
- A hub also called concentrator is a component that connects computers on Local Area Network and
relay signals from one computer to another.
- A hub transmits signals by broadcasting them to all computers on the network.
- After the signal is broadcasted, the computer whose address is on the message picks the message
from the network.
- The increase in broadcast range can lead to what is called broadcast storm on the network
- Broadcast storms refers to a condition where network is overwhelmed with messages making
communication impossible

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3. Bridge
- A bridge is a network device that determine the appropriate network segment for which aa message is
meant for delivery.
- A bridge can divide a busy network into segments to reduce network traffic.
- The purpose of using bridge is to:
1. Expand the length and number of stations that a segment can support
2. Reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcast only in the data destination segment of the
network
- A bridge makes sure that packets that are not meant for a particular segment are not broadcasted in
that segment.

4. Repeaters
- A repeater receives data from one segment of a network, cleans it to remove any distortion, boosts it
and then sends it to another segment.
- Repeater broadcasts to all segments which may lead to broadcast storm.
- However, a repeater eliminates the problem of attenuation
5. Router
- A router interconnects different networks and directs the transfer of data packets from one source to
destination.
- Routing depends on network address.
- Each network has a unique address
- All the computers from the same network have same network address but different host number.
- The router receives the packet from a computer on the network and checks the destination’s network
address and passes it to that network which then passes to the host address.
- Some routers combine the function of bridge and routers called brouter.

6. Gateways
- A gateway provide access to the device on Wide Area network or internet -
Gateway software may be installed in a router to access internet.
- A gateway is the most powerful internetwork device because of its ability to convert
data across different internetwork architecture and protocol.

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7. Switch
- A switch is s device that forward packet directly to addressed node without broadcasting.
- A node is an equipment on the network.
- A switch transmit data by connecting by connecting two nodes point-to-point - Because data is not
broadcasted as hub, it reduces the problem of broadcast storm.
- Note that some hubs are configured to function as switch and are called intelligent hub.
- Switch are more expensive that hub.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION DEVICES

- These are devices which allow communication without using wires.
- Some of the most common devices used in wireless communication include Wireless Access point
and Antenna.
1. Wireless Access Point
- This is a component used to extend local area network.
- It is access point to a wired network to people who have wireless devices like smartphone, PDAs,
laptops and desktops

2. Wireless antenna
- This is a device mounted indoors or outdoors to extend wireless network to the surrounding buildings
- It is used to propagate radiowaves, microwave or infrared waves that carry data to be received by
access point in the surrounding.

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3. PCMCIA card
- A Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (CMCIA) adapter is an addon card inserted
into a device such as PDA or laptops in order to enable wireless communication between the device and the
wired network server.

DATA SIGNAL TRANSMISSION

Terms used in data signal transmission
- Some terms used in data communication include: data signal, signal modulation and demodulation,
multiplexing, bandwidth, baseband, broadcast transmission and attenuation.
6. Data signal: this is a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data. In communication, data
signal can either be analog or digital in nature
- Analog is made up of continuous wave form while digital data is made up of a noncontinuous discrete signal

+1
+1

-1
-1

Although the two graphs look different, they repeat themselves at equal time interval. Electrical signals of this
nature are said to be periodic. Generally, a periodic wave representing a signal can be described using he
following parameters:
1. Amplitude (A)
2. Frequency (f)
3. Periodic time (T)
Amplitude: Amplitude is the maximum displacement that the waveform of an electrical signal can attain. For
example, the amplitude of the electrical signals is 1.
Frequency (f): Frequency is the number of cycles made by signal in one second. It is measured in units called
hertz (Hz). Hz is equivalent to 1 cycle/second

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Periodic time(T): The time taken by a signal to complete one cycle is called periodic time (T). periodic time
is given by T= 1/f, where f is frequency of the wave.

7. Signal modulation and demodulation: This is the process of converting data signals to and from a form
that is suitable for transmission over a transmission medium.
- A modem converts a digital signal to analog signal to be transmitted over analog telephone line a
process called modulation
- At the receive end, another modem converts back analog signal to digital form a process known as
demodulation.

8. Multiplexing: multiplexing is the process of sending multiple data signal over the same medium.
Demultiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed signal at the receiving end.
- Imagine a situation where 100 computers in town A want to communicate with 100 computers in town B. if
multiplexing is used, each of the computers in town A will need a direct cable linking it to another in town B.
however, with multiplexing, the computers can be made to share a single cable lied between two towns hence
save cost.

9. Bandwidth: bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that a transmission channel can carry at any
one time. For example, a certain cable transmitting 100mbps (mega bits per second) is said to have
100 Mbps bandwidth.
10. Baseband signal: Baseband signal is a digital signal that is generated and fed into a transmission
medium without modulation. The signal takes forms of voltage of different magnitudes applied to the
medium. Only one signals can be sent at a time
11. Broadband transmission: In broadband transmission, analog signals are transmitted over the
transmission medium using different frequencies. This means that several data signals can
simultaneously be sent through the same medium at different frequencies. Frequency bands between
these data signals prevent them from overlapping.
12. Attenuation: This is decrease in magnitude and energy of a signal as it progressively moves along
transmission medium. If the signal is not boosted, it is totally lost along the way and may never reach
the destination. Attenuation is minimized by placing a repeater station along the medium at
appropriate distance.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
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- Communication networks can be classified as either circuit switched, packet switched, or message switched.
1. Circuit switched network
- In circuit switched network, a dedicated line has to be set before data is sent from source to destination. All
the data is sent through the dedicated connection.
Example of such networks are telephone network and dial-up network
Advantages of circuit switching
i. Communication entities enjoy dedicated connection
ii. Data is sent through the same path from source to destination
Disadvantages of circuit switching
i. Inefficient utilization of communication channels since even when the link is underutilized, other
devices cannot use it.
ii. Circuit switching communication is expensive in terms of set-up cost and bandwidth utilization. iii.
Lack of error localization means a broken link means the entire communication breaks down.
2. Packet switched network
- In packet switched networks, a message is broken down into small tokens called packets, serialized
and sent over the network to the destination.
- Each packet follows its own route to the destination and there is no dedicated connection hence many
users can use the same link at a go.
Advantages of packet switching
i. Efficient utilization of communication channels since many users can share the same channel
ii. Cheaper communication costs because no setup cost is required
iii. Error to message are localized i.e. if a packet becomes damaged only that packet needs to be reset.
Also if the link breaks, the packet can be routed through available channels.
Disadvantages of packet switched.
i. Routing of packets from source to destination is required.
ii. Assembling of packets at the destination node requires computing effort.

3. Message switched networks

- In message switching, an entire message is sent from one node to the next then forwarded to the next
until the message reaches the destination.
- Nodes have special memories called buffers for storing messages then forwarded them.
Advantages of message switching
i. Transmission efficiency is greater since message can share channel ii. Message
priorities can be set on the network
iii. Since the next route is determined from the current node, more efficient routing of message is possible.
Disadvantages
i. Long messages can dominate the channel at the expense of others ii. Nodes
must have large storage capacities and forward messages.
DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA
- Data signals cannot be sent from one place to another without medium of communication.
- A communication media is physical(wired) or wireless channel
- In networking data communication media can be divided into two categories:
1. Communication using cable (physical media)
2. Wireless communication (wireless media)
Communication using cables (physical media)
The main distinguishing characteristics of physical media is that data is transmitted from the source to
destination through a physical channel such as copper cables.

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- The electrical signal is propagated through the cable from source to destination - There are
several types of physical transmission media but the most common are:
1. Two wire open line cables
2. Twisted pair cables
3. Coaxial cables
4. Fibre optic cables
1. Two-wire open line
- Two-wire open cable is made up of two parallel copper wires separated by a plastic insulator.
- They are most used in telecommunication network to transmit voice signals

Although the plastic insulator is meant to reduce interference called crosstalk, their linear nature allows an
electromagnetic field to build around them during heavy data transmission which may cause interference to
the signal.
- The wire also captures environmental frequencies e.g. radiowave hence causing noise in transmission
channel.
- In data communication, the word noise refers to unwanted signals picked up by the channel

2. Twisted pair cables

- A twisted pair cable is made up of two solid copper wire twisted around each other in a double helix
manner.
- The winding of the wire is meant to reduce the build-up of electromagnetic field around the two wires
as they transmit data.
- Twisted wire cables are used to transmit both voice and data signals.
- The two common twisted pair cables are
1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
2. Shielded twisted pair cable (STP)

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables do not have a shield that prevent electromagnetic interference (EMI)
from the environment. The cable is therefore susceptible to noise and signal interference.
The noise may come from lightening sparks, radio frequencies or radiation from spark plugs in motor vehicle.
- Therefore, UTP is not suitable in the environment that are electrically “noisy” - The alternative is to
use STP that has cable pairs.
- Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) is similar to Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) except that a wrapped
around the wires protect them from noise.
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 - Twisted pair cables are categorized into groups according to the data transmitted and maximum rate of
transmission as shown in the table below:

Category Suitable for transmitting Speed (max.limit)

Cat 1 Voice Less than 1 Mbp
Cat 2 Data 1 Mbps
Cat 3 Data 16 Mbps
Cat 4 Data 20 Mbps
Cat 5 Data 100 Mbps
Cat 6 data 200 Mbps
Most organization today use cat 5 and cat 6 twisted pair to set Local Area Network

Example 1
A student typed an e-mail to send over internet at a speed of 100 Mbps. Calculate the maximum number of
characters that can be sent per second if each character consists of 8 bits.

Solution
100 × 1 × 106 100 × 1 000 000
8 8
Characters per second = =

= 12 500 000 characters per second

Although twisted pair cables support high data rates of up to 100 Mbps, they suffer from attenuation.
Therefore, an amplifying device called repeater must be installed.
The advantages of twisted pair cabling include:
i. It is easier to set up network media because UTP cables are widely available
ii. Devices used to set up UTP network are cheap and readily available
iii. UTP cables are cheaper because of mass production for telephone use
The disadvantages of twisted pair cabling include
i. UTP connection suffers high attenuation
ii. It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping (interception of communication
between two parties by a malicious third party)
iii. It has low data transmission rate as compared to fibre optic cables

1. Coaxial cables
- A coaxial cable resembles a cable that is used to connect television antenna to a television set.
It is called a coaxial cable because it has a copper core (coax) which may be of solid copper wire surrounded
by a dielectric material.
- The dielectric material is then surrounded by mesh conductor which is covered by a shield making the
cable more resistant to electromagnetic interference than the twisted pair cable.
- The shield and the insulation protect the cable from frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic
interference (EMI).
- Although the cable has better protection against magnetic interference than twisted pair cables, it has a
moderate protection against magnetic interference - The diameter of the centre core determine
attenuation rate.
- The thinner the core, the higher the attenuation rate. Data is carried in coax n a form of direct current
(d.c).

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 - Coaxial cable has a bandwidth of up to 1Gbps (Gigabits per second) hence it is used as a network
backbone. A good example is a cable that is used to connect different networks between building and
routing trunk calls in telecommunication.
- Two types of coaxial cables are:
1. Thin coaxial cable also called thinnet: has one dielectric insulator
2. Thick coaxial cable also called thicknet: has two dielectric insulators around the core and is thicker
than thinnet

Advantages of coaxial cables are:

1. They are stable even under high transmission rate
2. They have high bandwidth compared to twisted pair cables
3. They are capable of carrying voice, data and video signal simultaneously
4. They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than twisted pair cables.
Disadvantages of coaxial cables include:
1. Thick cables are hard to work with
2. Coaxial cables are relatively more expensive to buy and to install as compared to twisted pair
Local area network established using coaxial cables is difficult to troubleshoot and maintain. So many people
use twisted pair instead of coaxial cable.

3. Fibre optic cable

- Fibre optic is one of the latest transmission media used in local and wide area network.
- Instead of transmitting data signals using electronic signals, fibre optic cables uses visible light to
transmit data from one point to another on a network.
The electrical signals from the source are converted to light signals then propagated along the cable. The
source has a Light Emitted Diode (LED) which convert electric signal to light.
At the receiving end, a photosensitive device is used to convert the light back to electric signal
- The fibre optic cable is made up of:
• Core: is a central part of the cable and is made of a hollow transparent or black
• Cladding: is a single protective layer surrounding the core. It has some light bending
characteristics in that, when the light tries to travel from the core to the cladding, it is
redirected back to the core. This is why even if a fibre optic cable is bent into coils and light
signals is inserted at one end, it will still be seen coming out of the other end.
• Buffer: the buffer surrounds the cladding and its main function is to strengthen the cable.
• Jacket: it is the outer covering of the cable.
Types of fibre optic cables
- The fibre opic cable can be classified into two categories namely: single mode and Multimode fibre optic
cable
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1. Single mode fibre cable
- Has a narrow centre core
- The light in the cable takes one path through it.
- Because of this, it has a very low attenuation rate and is preferred for long distance transmission
- It has a bandwidth of 50 Gbps which is higher than that of twisted pair’s 100 Mbps
- Single mode fibre is very expensive and requires very careful handling during installation
2. Multimode fibre cable
- Has a thicker core than the single mode.
- It allows several light rays to be fed in the cable at an angle.
- Because of this multiple light signals navigating the cable at the same time, distortion of the signal is
possible
- Multimode cables have high attenuation rate and are usually used for shorter distance than single mode

- In a fibre optic cable, data signals travel as a light through the core, due to total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection occurs when light travels from optically dense medium

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such as glass to less optically dense medium such as air. When light travels from optically dense
medium, it is refracted away from the main normal point to the ray deviate so far away from
normal making it refracted rather than being refracted.

Figure below shows how a fibre based network transmit data from source to destination.

The advantages of fibre optic cabling include

1. It is immune to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping
2. It supports high bandwidth
3. Can be used as a backbone in wide area network because it has low attenuation rate 4.
Can be used in a highly flammable places because they do not generate electrical signals
5. It is smaller than copper hence ideal for space limited situation.
The disadvantages of fibre optic cabling
1. Connecting devices and the media are expensive
2. Installing is difficult because cable must be carefully handled 3.
It is relatively complex to configure

Wireless communication (unbounded media)

- Wireless communication media is a type of media that is used to transmit data from one
point to another without using physical connection.
- A transmitting antenna and aerial facilitates the communication
- Examples of wireless transmission media include
1. Microwave
2. Satellite
3. Radiowaves
4. Infrared transmission
- They all use different frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum. The diagram below
shows an electromagnetic spectrum
- All the waves travel at the speed of light
1. Microwave transmission
- Microwave frequencies range from about 3GHz to 40GHz on the electromagnetic
spectrum.
- In networking, microwave is suitable for making point to point transmissions.
- This means that a signal is directed through a focused beam from transmitter to a receiver
station.
- Due to their small wavelength, they easily release their energy in water as heat hence they
are also used in making domestic kitchen appliance.

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2. Satellite communication
- A satellite is a relay station. It has a parabolic dish with an antenna fixed on them to focus
on a narrow beam towards a satellite in space - A satellite has three main
components:
1. Transmitter earth station: that set up uplink to the satellite in order to transmit data.
2. A satellite: it receives, amplify and transmit the signal to a receiving earth station via
a downlink frequency that is different from that of the uplink so as to avoid
interference with the uplink signal.
3. Receiving earthstation: that would receive and send signal on the other side of the
globe

- The new trend in microwaves uses Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) technology
which uses a very small satellite dish used to transmit both data, radio and TV
communication.
- The VSAT is mounted on a roof enables direct access to satellite communication instead
of having to go through a state owned by the gateways.
- Figure below shows how VSAT is used to connect two locations to communicate
network set up to enable two laptops in geographically desperate locations to
communicate.

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 - In VSAT setup, the satellite produces a strong signal that can be received by a satellite
dish antenna of only 2 meters in diameter.
- The signals are decoded using a decoder which is plugged directly to television set or
computer.
3. Radio communication
- Radio waves are omnidirectional i.e. They start from a central point and spread outwards
in all directions.
- As they travel outwards, the energy emitted by the waves spreads outwards over the
covered area. The waves are radiated into the atmosphere by a radio frequency antenna at
constant velocity
- Radio waves are not visible to a human eye
- Figure below shows how radio waves are propagated between transmitting station and
the receiving station.

- They are used in radio and television broadcasts.

- Data can also be transmitted over radio communication channels, so instead of laying a
telephone cables between two towns that are far from each other, radio waves
transmission can be used to connect the two towns.
- Radiowaves can be of high frequency, very high frequency or ultra-high frequency
• High frequency: signal is directed by propagating it to ionosphere of the earth.
The ionosphere will reflect the signal back to the surface and the receiver will
pick it. The challenge of this is that signals may be intercepted by unauthorized
parties
• Very high frequency (VHF): radio waves are transmitted along the earth’s
surface. The challenge of this is that signals will attenuate at the horizon so a
repeater is needed to amplify the signal. It is commonly used in ‘walkie-talkie’
technology.
• Ultra high frequency (UHF): radiowaves can be made to follow an even
narrower and direct path to the receiver than very high frequency. So is popular in
horizon limited broadcasts.

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4. Bluetooth technology
- It is a worldwide and a shortrange radio technology that enable people to use handheld
communication devices such as phones and PDAs to access internet.
- A network of Bluetooth enabled device is called Wireless Personal Area Network
(Wpan0 or piconet.

5. Infrared transmission
- Like radiowaves, infrared waves are not visible to human eye.
- Communication is achieved by having infrared transmitter and receiver which should be
within line of sight in the same room.
- Two people can communicate with each other in the same room using their phones which
has this technology.
- The devices must maintain line of sight

Advantages of wireless communication

1. Wireless medium is flexible in operation as compared to wired i.e. devices can be moved
around without losing access to the network
2. Wireless network can span a large geographical area
3. Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do not
have physical infrastructure such as telephone lines.
Disadvantages of wireless communication
1. It is relatively difficult to establish or configure
2. The initial cost is high

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TRANSMISSION MODES
- Data can be transmitted using different ways or modes. The following are common modes:
1. Parallel transmission mode
2. Serial transmission mode
3. Simplex transmission mode
4. Half duplex transmission mode
5. Full duplex transmission mode

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 Parallel transmission
- In parallel a set of data lines or bus is used to transmit data from one device to another simultaneously.
The bus is usually 1 byte (8-bits), 2 bytes, 32 bytes or 64 bytes.
- This mode of data transmission is common in the following areas:
1. Between computer components that are connected to the motherboard e.g. transfer os data from
memory to the processor.
2. Transfer of data from computer to other peripheral devices e.g. printer
 Serial transmission
- I serial transmission data is sent as a string of 0s and 1s, one after another over a communication link.
- This is most common transmission mode.
- When the computer gets data from the network, it converts it from serial to parallel mode using a special
memory called buffer. The data is then read from this memory using parallel mode
 Simplex transmission
- In this mode, there is one-way transmission of data.
- The sender sends the data and the recipient receives it and cannot send the response back to the sender
over the link - Examples of simplex are
1. Radio tuner at home
2. Television transmission
Simplex transmission
Transmitter Receiver

 Half duplex transmission

- In this mode, two-way communication is possible over the communication link but not simultaneous.
- The sender sends the message and after finishing, the recipient is allowed to send back the reply. An
example of this is two-way press to talk radio e.g. walkie talkies
Half Duplex transmission
Transceiver Transceiver

 Full duplex transmission

- In this mode, data can travel on the channel in both directions simultaneously - Examples include:
1. Computer communication on the network e.g. Sending emails, instant messaging
2. The telephone calls

Full Duplex transmission

Transceiver Transceiver

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