PHYSICS PROJECT

BONAFIDECERTIFICATE

This is to certify that................................................studying

In grade……………at.......................................................for
The academic the year has successfully completed his
…………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..Physics project and submitted
the report for AISSCE board practical examination held
on…………………………………….

TEACHER PRINCIPAL

INTERNALTEACHER EXTERNALTEACHER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I want to thank my Physics teacher, for his valuable
guidance and kind approach in creating more interest in the
subject.
I want to thank the management for allowing us to
undertake this project and providing us with the resources to
make this project a successful one.
I would all so like to thank my classmates for their
kind cooperation and help completing the project.
 TABLEOFCONTENTS

 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALREQUIRED
 DIAGRAM
 GRAPH
 USES
 CONSTRUCTION
 WORKING
 CONCLUSION
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
The internal resistance of a cell is an essential factor affecting its
efficiency and performance. It is defined as the opposition to the flow of
electric current within the cell. When a current flows, some energy is lost in
overcoming this internal resistance, resulting in a decrease in the terminal
voltage.Understandinginternalresistanceiscrucialforoptimizingthedesign of
batteries used in various applications.

The internal resistance of a cell is a crucial parameter that influences

its performance, efficiency, and overall lifespan. When a cell is in operation,
it converts stored chemical energy into electrical energy, facilitating the flow
of current to power various devices. However, internal resistance acts as a
hindrance to this flow, leading to energy loss in the form of heat.

Definition of Internal Resistance

Internal resistance is defined as the opposition to the flow of
electric current within the cell. It results from various factors such as the
materials used in the electrodes, the electrolyte composition and the physical
design of the cell. As current flows through the cell, the internal resistance
causes a voltage drop, affecting the terminal voltage () available for external
circuits.

Importance of Internal Resistance

Efficiency: High internal resistance can lead to significant energy losses,

reducing the efficiency of batteries. For example, in high-drain applications,
such as electric vehicles or power tools, excessive internal resistance can limit
performance and increase heat generation.
Battery Life: Overtime, the internal resistance of a cell can increase due
to aging, chemical degradation or physical damage. 3This degradation can lead
to a decrease in the battery's ability to hold a charge and may necessitate early
replacement.
Design Considerations: Knowledge of internal resistance informs battery
design and selection for specific applications. Engineers strive to minimize
internal resistance to enhance the performance and reliability of energy
storage systems.
MATERIALREQUIRED
To measure the internal resistance of a cell, the following materials are required:

1. Standard cell(battery)
2. Voltmeter
3. Ammeter
4. Variable resistor(Rheostat)
5. Connecting wires
6. Switch

1.Standard Cell(Battery)
Description: A standard cell or battery will serve as the primary source of
electromotive force (EMF). Common examples include alkaline batteries, lead-
acid batteries, or lithium-ion batteries.
Purpose: The battery provides the necessary voltage for the experiment.

2.Voltmeter
Description: An electronic device used to measure the voltage across two
points in a circuit.
Purpose: The voltmeter will be connected across the terminal the battery
to measure the terminal voltage () under different load conditions.

3.Ammeter
Description: A device used to measure the current flowing
through the circuit.
Purpose: The ammeter will be placed in series with the circuit to measure
the current () drawn from the battery.
4.Variable Resistor(Rheostat)
Description: An adjustable resistor that allows control of the current in
the circuit.
Purpose: The variable resistor is used to change the load on the battery,
enabling the measurement of voltage and current at different load levels.

5.Connecting Wires
Description: Copper or insulated wires to connect the components of the
circuit.
Purpose: Wires will connect the battery, voltmeter, ammeter and variable
resistor in a complete circuit.

6.Switch
Description: A device used to open or close the circuit.
Purpose: The switch allows for convenient control of the circuit, enabling
measurements to be taken without changing the connect
DIAGRAM

Diagram of Experimental Setup

A clear diagram illustrating the experimental setup is essential for
understanding the arrangement of components. Below is a detailed
description of the layout:

Battery (Cell): Represented as a rectangle labeled "Battery."

Variable Resistor: Shown as a zigzag line connected to the battery and the
ammeter.
Ammeter: Plotted in series with the variable resistor, indicating
the current flow direction.
Voltmeter: Connected parallel to the battery to measure the terminal
voltage, with its terminals labeled.

Switch: Placed in series with the circuit for easy control.

GRAPH

Ohm’s law for a cell

Ohm's Law is a fundamental principle in electronics and electrical
engineering that relates voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) in an electrical
circuit. For a cell, Ohm's Law can be applied to understand how internal
resistance affects the per formance of the cell. The law can be expressed as:

V=I.R

Where:

V=Voltage across the circuit (in Volts)

I=Current flowing through the circuit (inAmperes)

R= Total resistance in the circuit (in Ohms)

Application of Ohm’s Law to a Cell
When applied to a cell, Ohm's Law can be modified to account for the internal
resistance of the battery. The total voltage provided by the cell () can be
expressed as the sum of the voltage drop across the internal resistance and
the terminal voltage () measured across the load. The relationship can be
described by the following equation:

E=V+I.r

Where:

E=Electromotive force (EMF)of the cell(in Volts)

V= Terminal voltage across the load (in Volts)

I=Current drawn from the cell (inAmperes)

r= Internal resistance of the cell (in Ohms)

Understanding the Equation

1. Electromotive Force(EMF):
The EMF () is the maximum potential difference the cell can provide
when no current is flowing (open-circuit condition).It represents the
energy provided by the cell per unit charge.

2. Terminal Voltage:
The terminal voltage () is the voltage output of the cell under
load conditions. It is less than the EMF due to the voltage drop caused
by the internal resistance when current flows.

3. Current Flow:
The current () flowing through the circuit affects both the terminal voltage
and the internal resistance. As current increases, the voltage drop across the
internal resistance () also increases, leading to a lower terminal voltage.
 ELECTROMOTIVEFORCE (EMF)
Electromotive Force (EMF) is a core concept in electrical science, often
referred to as the "voltage" generated by a cell or battery when it isn’t
connectedtoanexternalcircuit.EMFrepresentstheenergyavailablefromacell to
drive electric charges through a circuit.

Definition of EMF
Electromotive Force (EMF) is the energy supplied by a source (like a
battery or cell) per unit charge when no current is flowing through the
circuit (an open-circuit condition).

Symbol: E
Units: Volts
(V)

Mathematically, EMF can be defined

as: E= W
Q

- E is the EMF(in volts),

- W is the work done or energy provided by the cell(in joules),
- Q is the electric charge (in coulombs).

This formula illustrates that EMF is a measure of the cell’s potential to

do work (push charges) per unit charge.

EMF VS Terminal Voltage

While EMF is the theoretical maximum voltage a cell can provide, the
actual terminal voltage (or output voltage) is lower when the cell is part of a
closed circuit with current flowing. This difference occurs because some of the
energy is lost as the current passes through the cell's internal resistance.

Terminal Voltage (): The voltage measured across the cell's terminal
sunder load conditions.
Relationship with EMF:

V=E–I. r

V=Terminal voltage,

E=Electromotive force

(EMF),

I=Current flowing through the circuit,

r= Internal resistance of the cell.

This equation shows that as current increase, the (representing the voltage
drop due to internal resistance) increases, thereby reducing the terminal
voltage.

Importance of EMF in Understanding Internal Resistance

Understanding EMF is crucial because it provides insights into a cell's

maximumcapabilitybeforecurrentisdrawn.ThedifferencebetweenEMFand
terminal voltage highlights:

1. Powerless: The energy lost within the cell itself, due to internal
resistance, which affects the efficiency.

2. Battery Efficiency: Lower internal resistance means less difference

between EMF and terminal voltage, resulting in better
performance.

3. Battery Life: High internal resistance, especially in a cells,

reduces the available terminal voltage, even if the EMF remains
unchanged.

4. EMF and terminal voltage, resulting in better performance.

USES
Uses of Internal Resistance

Understanding the internal resistance of a cell is essential for

various applications, as it directly impacts how cells and batteries
function in real- world devices. Here’s a breakdown of its uses, practical
examples, and technological applications.

Application of Internal Resistance

Internal resistance affects the performance of a cell in severs always.
Knowing the internal resistance helps engineers and designers:

1. Optimize Power Output: Lower internal resistance means less

voltage drop, allowing for more efficient energy delivery.

2. Enhance Battery Life span: Monitoring internal resistance can

predict battery health and lifespan. As resistance increases with age,
the cell’s ability to provide high current decreases.

3. Improve Device Efficiency: Devices like smart phones, laptops, and

electric
vehiclesrelyonlowinternalresistancetomaximizethetimetheycanoperateona
single charge.
Construction
The construction of a cell is crucial to understanding its functionality,
efficiency, and the factors that influence internal resistance .The design and
materials used in each component play a significant role in determining the
internal resistance and overall performance of the cell.

Key Components of a Cell

1. Anode(Negative Electrode)
The anode is the electrode where oxidation occurs during the
discharge process. It releases electrons into the external circuit and ions
into the electrolyte.
Material: Common materials for anodes include lithium (in lithium-ion
batteries) and zinc (in alkaline batteries).The material's properties, like
conductivity and chemical reactivity, impact internal resistance.

2. Cathode(Positive Electrode)
The cathode is the electrode where reduction takes place. It accepts
electrons from the external circuit and ions from the electrolyte.
Material: Different cathode materials, such as lithium cobalt oxide in lithium-
ion batteries or manganese dioxide in alkaline cells, affect internal resistance.
High conductivity materials help lower internal resistance, allowing for efficient
current flow.

3. Electrolyte
The electrolyte is the medium that facilitates ion transport between
the anode and cathode. It plays a crucial role in determining the internal
resistance of a cell.
WORKING
A cell generate electricity through electro chemical reactions between
its electrodes (anode and cathode) and the electrolyte. The process involves
the movement of ions within the electrolyte and electrons in the external
circuit. Internal resistance impacts how efficiently this process occurs, as it
opposes the flow of current and reduces the cell’s overall voltage output.

How a Cell Works

1. Electrochemical Reactions
At the anode, an oxidation reaction takes place, where atoms lose
electrons and become positively charged ions .These electrons are then
pushed into the external circuit, creating an electric current.
At the cathode, are diction reaction occurs, where ions from the
electrolyte gain electrons, allowing the reaction to continue.
Example: In a typical lithium-ion cell, lithium atoms at the anode
release electrons and lithium ions, which travel to the cathode through the
electrolyte.

2. Ion Flow in the Electrolyte

Electrolyte to reach the cathode, while the electrons travel
through the external circuit to reach the cathode, where they reunite
with the ions.

3. Electron Flow in the External Circuit

The electrons flow from the anode to the cathode via the external
circuit.Thisflowofelectronsprovidesthepowerneededtooperateexternal
devices, like lights, motors, or phones.
The flow rate (current)is influenced by the cell’s internal resistance;
higherresistancelimitstheamountofcurrentthecellcandeliver,reducingthe
available power.
4. Voltage Output and Internal Resistance
ElectromotiveForce(EMF):TheEMFisthetheoreticalvoltageacellcanprovide
Without any load (no current flowing).
Internal Resistance: When a cell is connected to a load, the internal
resistance causes a voltage drop within the cell, so the actual output voltage
(terminal voltage) is less than the EMF.
Voltage Drop Formula: The relationship is given by Ohm’s Law, where:

V terminal = EMF – (I × r)

This voltage drop explains why cells with high internal resistance have
lower terminal voltage under load.

5. Energy Loss as Heat

Internal resistance not only reduces the voltage but also causes energy
to be dissipated as heat. This is why high-drain devices, which draw a lot of
current, can cause cells to heat up.
The energy loss due to internal resistance can be calculated by, where
the power is lost as heat. This heat generation can reduce the cell’s efficiency
and may even damage it if the temperature becomes too high.

Role of Internal Resistance in the Working of a Cell

1. Limiting Current Flow: Internal resistance limits the maximum current a
cell can supply. For high-performance applications, low internal resistance
is essential to provide steady and high current.

2. Impaction Battery Life: The higher the internal resistance, the less efficient
the cell becomes, as more energy is lost as heat. This can reduce battery life,
especially in high-drain applications.

3. EfficiencyandPowerDelivery:Indevicesthatrequirecontinuouspower(like
laptops or electric vehicles), cells
CONCLUSION
The internal resistance of a cell is a fundamental property that
Significantly impacts the cell’s efficiency, life span and overall per formance in
various applications. Understanding internal resistance is essential for
designing efficient power sources and optimizing their performance in Real-
world scenarios.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
●https://www.physicsclassroom.com
●https://www.hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu
●https://en.wikipedia.org/