228 Science for Engineering

A thermocouple may be used with a battery- or mains- Construction

operated electronic thermometer instead of a millivoltmeter.
These devices amplify the small e.m.f.’s from the thermocou- Resistance thermometers are made in a variety of sizes,
ple before feeding them to a multi-range voltmeter calibrated shapes and forms depending on the application for which
directly with temperature scales. These devices have great they are designed. A typical resistance thermometer is shown
accuracy and are almost unaffected by voltage drops in the diagrammatically in Fig. 32.4. The most common metal used
leads and junctions. for the coil in such thermometers is platinum even though
its sensitivity is not as high as other metals such as copper
and nickel. However, platinum is a very stable metal and
Problem 1. A chromel-alumel thermocouple generates provides reproducible results in a resistance thermometer. A
an e.m.f. of 5 mV. Determine the temperature of the hot platinum resistance thermometer is often used as a calibrating
junction if the cold junction is at a temperature of 15° C device. Since platinum is expensive, connecting leads of
and the sensitivity of the thermocouple is 0.04 mV/° C. another metal, usually copper, are used with the thermometer
to connect it to a measuring circuit.
Temperature difference for The platinum and the connecting leads are shown joined
at A and B in Fig. 32.4, although sometimes this junction
5 mV may be made outside of the sheath. However, these leads
5 mV D D 125° C
0.04 mV/° C often come into close contact with the heat source which
Temperature at hot junction can introduce errors into the measurements. These may be
eliminated by including a pair of identical leads, called
D temperature of cold junction C temperature difference dummy leads, which experience the same temperature change
D 15° C C 125° C D 140 C
◦ as the extension leads.

Principle of operation
Now try the following exercise
With most metals a rise in temperature causes an increase
in electrical resistance, and since resistance can be measured
Exercise 142 Further problem on the thermocouple accurately this property can be used to measure temperature.
(Answer on page 355) If the resistance of a length of wire at 0° C is R0 , and its
1. A platinum-platinum/rhodium thermocouple generates resistance at q° C is Rq , then Rq D R0 ⊲1 C aq⊳, where a is
an e.m.f. of 7.5 mV. If the cold junction is at a tem- the temperature coefficient of resistance of the material (see
perature of 20° C, determine the temperature of the hot Chapter 34).
junction. Assume the sensitivity of the thermocouple Rearranging gives:
to be 6 µV/° C.
Rq − R0
temperature, q =
aR0
32.4 Resistance thermometers
Values of R0 and a may be determined experimentally or
Resistance thermometers use the change in electrical resis- obtained from existing data. Thus, if Rq can be measured,
tance caused by temperature change. temperature q can be calculated. This is the principle of

Protective sheath
(made of glass, quartz, porcelain Coil (of platinum, or nickel,
or metal) or copper)
Former
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(made of
Copper mica or
dummy leads ceramic)
A
Copper
extension B
leads
Insulation spacers
(such as mica or
ceramic tubing)

Fig. 32.4
 The measurement of temperature 229

operation of a resistance thermometer. Although a sensitive Advantages and disadvantages of a platinum coil
ohmmeter can be used to measure Rq , for more accurate
determinations a Wheatstone bridge circuit is used as shown Platinum is commonly used in resistance thermometers since
in Fig. 32.5 (see also Chapter 42). This circuit compares an it is chemically inert, i.e. un-reactive, resists corrosion and
unknown resistance Rq with others of known values, R1 and oxidation and has a high melting point of 1769° C. A dis-
R2 being fixed values and R3 being variable. Galvanometer advantage of platinum is its slow response to temperature
G is a sensitive centre-zero microammeter. R3 is varied variation.
until zero deflection is obtained on the galvanometer, i.e.
no current flows through G and the bridge is said to be Applications
‘balanced’.
Platinum resistance thermometers may be used as calibrating
At balance: R2 Rq D R1 R3 devices or in applications such as heat treating and annealing
processes and can be adapted easily for use with automatic
recording or control systems. Resistance thermometers tend
R1 R3
from which, Rq = to be fragile and easily damaged especially when subjected
R2 to excessive vibration or shock.

and if R1 and R2 are of equal value, then Rq D R3 Problem 2. A platinum resistance thermometer has a
resistance of 25  at 0° C. When measuring the tem-
perature of an annealing process a resistance value of
60  is recorded. To what temperature does this corre-
spond? Take the temperature coefficient of resistance of
R1 R2 platinum as 0.0038/° C.

Rq D R0 ⊲1 C aq⊳, where R0 D 25 , Rq D 60  and

A G C a D 0.0038/° C. Rearranging gives:
Rq  R0 60  25
temperature, q D D
aR0 ⊲0.0038⊳⊲25⊳
R3 ◦
= 368.4 C

Now try the following exercise

B
Rq Dummy
leads Exercise 143 Further problem on the resistance ther-
mometer (Answer on page 355)

Fig. 32.5 1. A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of

100  at 0° C. When measuring the temperature of a
heat process a resistance value of 177  is measured
A resistance thermometer may be connected between using a Wheatstone bridge. Given that the temperature
points A and B in Fig. 32.5 and its resistance Rq at any tem- coefficient of resistance of platinum is 0.0038/° C,
perature q accurately measured. Dummy leads included in determine the temperature of the heat process, correct
arm BC help to eliminate errors caused by the extension to the nearest degree.
leads which are normally necessary in such a thermometer.

Limitations 32.5 Thermistors

Resistance thermometers using a nickel coil are used mainly A thermistor is a semi-conducting material – such as mix-
in the range 100° C to 300° C, whereas platinum resistance tures of oxides of copper, manganese, cobalt, etc. – in the
thermometers are capable of measuring with greater accuracy form of a fused bead connected to two leads. As its tem-
temperatures in the range 200° C to about 800° C. This perature is increased its resistance rapidly decreases. Typical
upper range may be extended to about 1500° C if high resistance/temperature curves for a thermistor and common
melting point materials are used for the sheath and coil metals are shown in Fig. 32.6. The resistance of a typical
construction. thermistor can vary from 400  at 0° C to 100  at 140° C.
230 Science for Engineering

measuring the temperature of molten metals, the interiors of

furnaces or the interiors of volcanoes. Total radiation pyrom-
Nickel eters can also be used in conjunction with devices which
Platinum record and control temperature continuously.
Copper
Resistance

Total radiation pyrometer

A typical arrangement of a total radiation pyrometer is shown

in Fig. 32.7. Radiant energy from a hot source, such as
a furnace, is focused on to the hot junction of a thermo-
couple after reflection from a concave mirror. The temper-
ature rise recorded by the thermocouple depends on the
Semiconductor
amount of radiant energy received, which in turn depends
on the temperature of the hot source. The galvanometer G
Temperature shown connected to the thermocouple records the current
which results from the e.m.f. developed and may be cal-
Fig. 32.6 ibrated to give a direct reading of the temperature of the
hot source. The thermocouple is protected from direct radi-
ation by a shield as shown and the hot source may be
Advantages viewed through the sighting telescope. For greater sensitiv-
The main advantages of a thermistor are its high sensitivity ity, a thermopile may be used, a thermopile being a number
and small size. It provides an inexpensive method of mea- of thermocouples connected in series. Total radiation pyrom-
suring and detecting small changes in temperature. eters are used to measure temperature in the range 700° C to
2000° C.

Optical pyrometers
32.6 Pyrometers
When the temperature of an object is raised sufficiently two
A pyrometer is a device for measuring very high tempera- visual effects occur; the object appears brighter and there is a
tures and uses the principle that all substances emit radiant change in colour of the light emitted. These effects are used
energy when hot, the rate of emission depending on their in the optical pyrometer where a comparison or matching is
temperature. The measurement of thermal radiation is there- made between the brightness of the glowing hot source and
fore a convenient method of determining the temperature of the light from a filament of known temperature.
hot sources and is particularly useful in industrial processes. The most frequently used optical pyrometer is the dis-
There are two main types of pyrometer, namely the total appearing filament pyrometer and a typical arrangement is
radiation pyrometer and the optical pyrometer. shown in Fig. 32.8. A filament lamp is built into a telescope
Pyrometers are very convenient instruments since they arrangement which receives radiation from a hot source, an
can be used at a safe and comfortable distance from the image of which is seen through an eyepiece. A red filter is
hot source. Thus applications of pyrometers are found in incorporated as a protection to the eye.

Mirror

Shield Thermocouple
Sighting
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telescope

Radiation
Hot from hot
source source

Fig. 32.7