Booklet on Measurement Topics

Created by: Mr. Lawrence Bathusi Khuwa

Overview

This booklet serves as a comprehensive guide to various measurement

topics, providing essential knowledge and practical insights.
Definition

A pendulum is a weight (or bob) attached to a fixed point that swings back and forth under the
influence of gravity.

Key Concepts

1. Components:
o Bob: The mass at the end of the pendulum.
o String or Rod: Connects the bob to the pivot point.
2. Types of Pendulums:
o Simple Pendulum: A mass on a string in a vacuum.
o Compound Pendulum: A rigid body swinging about a pivot.
3. Motion:
o Exhibits oscillatory motion.
o Motion is periodic, returning to its starting point after a set time (the period).

Energy:

 At the highest point, the pendulum has maximum Gravitational potential energy and
minimum kinetic energy.
 At the lowest point, it has maximum kinetic energy and minimum Gravitational potential
energy.

Applications:

o Clocks (pendulum clocks).

o Seismology (measuring ground motion).
o Engineering (analysing vibrations).

Important Principles

 Restoring Force: Gravity pulls the bob back towards the equilibrium position, causing
oscillation.
 Damping: Over time, friction and air resistance slow down the pendulum's motion.

Pendulum eventually stops due to several factors:

1. Air Resistance: As the pendulum swings, it encounters air resistance, which opposes its
motion and dissipates energy as heat.
2. Friction: Friction at the pivot point (where the pendulum swings) causes energy loss, reducing
the amplitude of oscillation over time.
3. Damping: Any system that exhibits oscillatory motion experiences damping, which gradually
reduces the energy of the system, leading to a decrease in swing amplitude.
4. Energy Transformation: The pendulum continuously transforms kinetic energy (movement)
into potential energy (height) and vice versa. Eventually, energy losses due to air resistance
and friction result in less energy available for motion.
Period (T)

The period of a pendulum is the time it takes for the pendulum to complete one full oscillation,
returning to its starting position. It is typically measured in seconds.

Frequency (f)

Frequency is the number of complete oscillations a pendulum makes in one second. It is the
reciprocal of the period and is measured in hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz equals one oscillation per
second.

Relationship

The period and frequency are inversely related:

number of complete oscillation
 F= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Or

1
F =𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐼𝑂𝐷

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

 P = number of complete oscillation

Or

1
P =𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲

OR
Precautions to consider when working with pendulums, especially in experiments or
demonstrations:

Safety Precautions

1. Secure Setup: Ensure that the pendulum is securely mounted to avoid it falling or swinging
into people or objects.
2. Clear Area: Maintain a clear area around the pendulum's path to prevent accidental injuries
from the swinging bob.
3. Stable Base: Use a stable base to prevent tipping or movement during operation.
4. Weight Limits: Be mindful of the weight of the bob to ensure it is appropriate for the string
or rod being used.
5. Proper Length: Ensure the length of the pendulum is suitable for the intended experiment to
avoid excessive swinging that could lead to instability.
6. Use of Materials: Use materials that are safe and suitable for the pendulum, avoiding
anything that could break easily or cause injury.
7. Monitoring Movement: Always observe the pendulum during operation to detect any
irregularities or potential hazards.
8. Avoid Prolonged Use: If using electronic components (like sensors), avoid prolonged use to
prevent overheating.

Experimental Precautions

1. Controlled Environment: Conduct experiments in a controlled environment to minimize

external factors (like air currents) that could affect the pendulum’s motion.
2. Calibrate Instruments: Ensure any measuring instruments (like timers) are properly
calibrated for accurate results.
3. Repeat Trials: Perform multiple trials to account for variations and ensure reliable data.
4. Document Findings: Keep detailed records of all measurements and observations for future
reference.
Avoiding Errors in Pendulum Experiments

1. Consistent Setup:
o Securely mount the pendulum and ensure a level surface.
2. Careful Measurement:
o Accurately measure the pendulum length and use precise timing methods.
3. Control Variables:
o Maintain constant conditions (length, mass) and perform experiments in a controlled
environment.
4. Repeat Trials:
o Conduct multiple trials for each condition and average the results to minimize random
errors.
5. Minimize Human Error:
o Practice timing techniques and observe the pendulum closely for consistent
measurements.
6. Data Recording:
o Record measurements immediately and consider using graphs for clarity.
7. Calibration:
o Ensure all measuring instruments are calibrated and functioning properly.
8. Use Appropriate Equipment:
o Utilize high-quality materials to reduce friction and wear.

Sources of Errors in Pendulum Experiments

1. Measurement Errors:
o Inaccurate measurement of pendulum length and timing.
2. Environmental Factors:
o Air resistance and temperature changes affecting motion.
3. Friction:
o Pivot friction slowing down the pendulum and air friction causing energy loss.
4. Human Error:
o Inconsistent timing and subjective observations.
5. Material Limitations:
o Stretching of the string and uneven mass distribution of the bob.
6. External Influences:
o Vibrations from nearby sources and potential magnetic fields affecting motion.
7. Model Assumptions:
o Idealized conditions not reflecting real-world scenarios.
 Practical questions and answers related to pendulum experiments:

Question 1: How can you determine the period of a pendulum?

Answer: To determine the period of a pendulum, you can:

1. Measure the length L from the pivot point to the centre of mass of the bob.
2. Release the pendulum and use a stopwatch to time how long it takes to complete several oscillations (e.g., 10
swings).
3. Divide the total time by the number of swings to get the average period T.

Question 2: What happens to the period if you double the length of the pendulum?

Answer: If you double the length LLL of the pendulum, the period TTT increases. The period is proportional to the square
root of the length. Direct Proportionality: The period increases with the square root of the length. Doubling the length
increases the period by a factor of about 1.414

Question 3: How can you reduce the impact of air resistance on your experiment?

Answer: To reduce the impact of air resistance, you can:

1. Use a heavier bob that is more streamlined.

2. Conduct the experiment in a vacuum chamber, if possible.
3. Minimize the swing amplitude, as larger swings experience more air resistance.

Question 4: How do you ensure accurate timing when measuring the period?

Answer: To ensure accurate timing:

1. Use a digital timer or stopwatch with good precision.

2. Practice starting and stopping the timer to improve reaction time.
3. Measure multiple oscillations and divide by the number of swings for an average period, which reduces
timing errors.

Question 5: Why is it important to keep the angle of release small?

Answer: It’s important to keep the angle of release small (typically less than 15 degrees) to ensure that the motion
approximates simple harmonic motion. Larger angles introduce non-linear behaviour and can affect the accuracy of
the period calculation, as the restoring force will not be directly proportional to the displacement.

Question 6: How can you determine the frequency of a pendulum from the period?

Answer: To determine the frequency from the period T, use the formula:

1
F =𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐼𝑂𝐷

After measuring the period of the pendulum (the time for one complete oscillation), simply take the reciprocal of that value
to find the frequency in hertz (Hz)
Question 7: What factors could cause discrepancies in your experimental results for the period of
a pendulum? (Discrepancies in experimental results are differences or inconsistencies between what you
expect to see and what you actually measure)

Answer: Discrepancies in experimental results can be caused by:

1. Measurement inaccuracies: Errors in measuring the length or timing.

2. External disturbances: Vibrations or air currents affecting the swing.
3. Friction: Variations in friction at the pivot point.
4. Non-ideal conditions: Using a pendulum with a bob that does not behave as a point mass or a string that
stretches.

Question 8: If you want to test the effect of mass on the period of a pendulum, what should you
keep constant?

Answer: When testing the effect of mass on the period, you should keep the following constant:

1. Length of the pendulum: Ensure that the length from the pivot to the centre of mass remains unchanged.
2. Angle of release: Keep the release angle small and consistent.
3. Type of string or rod: Use the same material to minimize variability in friction and elasticity.

When testing the effect of mass on the period of a pendulum, you should keep the following
factors constant:

1. Length of the Pendulum: The distance from the pivot point to the centre of mass of the bob should remain
unchanged.
2. Amplitude of Swing: The angle at which the pendulum is released should be kept small and consistent
(ideally less than 15 degrees) to ensure accurate results.
3. Type of Bob: Use bobs made of the same material and shape to avoid differences in air resistance.
4. Environmental Conditions: Conduct the experiment in a controlled environment to minimize variations in
air currents, temperature, and humidity.
5. Pivot Point: Ensure that the pivot point is secure and does not change position or introduce friction.

DIAGRAM
Diagram Instructions:

1. Pendulum Setup:
o Draw a vertical line to represent the pivot point at the top.
o From the pivot point, draw a string or rod downwards at an angle. This represents the pendulum.
o At the end of the string, draw a small circle to represent the pendulum bob.
2. Labelling:
o Label the pivot point (P).
o Label the length of the string (L).
o Mark the angle of release (θ) at the top of the bob.
o Indicate that mass (m) of the bob is constant.
3. Environmental Conditions:
o Draw arrows around the setup to show that the experiment should be in a controlled environment.
o Optionally, add a label for air resistance and note that it should be minimized.

DESCRIPTION

Steps to Conduct the Experiment:

1. Set up the pendulum by attaching the string to the stand and hanging a mass at the bottom.
2. Measure and record the length of the pendulum.
3. Choose a small angle for release and ensure it remains constant.
4. Release the pendulum and time how long it takes to complete several oscillations.
5. Repeat for each mass, ensuring all other variables remain constant.

Question 9: How can you visualize the oscillation of a pendulum for a classroom demonstration?

Answer: To visualize the oscillation:

1. Use a video camera: Record the pendulum in motion and play it back in slow motion to analyze the swings.
2. Draw a graph: Create a time vs. position graph by measuring the position of the bob at regular intervals.
3. Use a pendulum simulation: Utilize online simulations or apps that visually demonstrate pendulum motion,
showing how changes in length and mass affect the period.

Question 10: What should you do if the pendulum doesn’t swing back and forth uniformly?
Answer: If the pendulum does not swing uniformly:

1. Check for obstructions: Ensure nothing is blocking the pendulum’s path.

2. Inspect the pivot: Make sure the pivot point is smooth and free of excessive friction.
3. Evaluate the string or rod: Ensure it is not twisted or damaged, which could cause irregular motion.
4. Adjust the release angle: Ensure the angle is small enough to maintain simple harmonic motion

(Harmonic motion is a type of movement that repeats itself in a regular way.

Examples of Harmonic Motion:

1. Simple Pendulum: As the pendulum swings, it moves back and forth around its resting position.
2. Mass on a spring: When a mass is attached to a spring and pulled, it oscillates around the point where the
spring is neither compressed nor stretched.
3. Sound Waves: Vibrations in a medium (like air) that create sound can be described as harmonic motion.
4.

TAKING FROM VERNIER SCALE CALIPER

Steps to Read a Vernier Caliper:

 1. Understand the Scale:
o The main scale (fixed) has markings usually in millimeters or inches.
o The vernier scale (sliding) has additional markings that allow for more precise measurements.
2. Zero Check:
o Before measuring, close the caliper jaws and check if the zero on the vernier scale aligns with the
zero on the main scale. If not, there might be a calibration error.
3. Measure the Object:
o Place the object between the jaws of the caliper (the inside jaws for internal dimensions, the outside
jaws for external dimensions).
o Ensure the caliper is snug against the object but not overly tight.
4. Read the Main Scale:
o Look at the main scale and note the value just before the zero of the vernier scale. This is your whole
number measurement.
5. Read the Vernier Scale:
o Look along the vernier scale to find the line that best aligns with any line on the main scale. This
gives you the decimal or fractional part of the measurement.
o Count the number of divisions on the vernier scale from the last whole number on the main scale to
the aligned line.
6. Combine the Readings:
o Add the main scale reading to the vernier scale reading. This gives you the final measurement.

Example:

 Main scale reads 5 mm.

 The aligned line on the vernier scale is the 4th line.
 If each division on the vernier represents 0.02 mm, then the vernier reading is 4 × 0.02 mm = 0.08 mm.

Final Measurement:

5mm + 0.08mm = 5.08mm

 Micrometre screw gauge

How to Use a Micrometer Screw Gauge:

1. Zero Check:
o Close the micrometer gently and check if the zero on the thimble aligns with the zero on the sleeve.
If not, there might be a calibration error.
2. Placing the Object:
o Open the micrometer by rotating the thimble. Place the object between the anvil and the spindle.
3. Taking the Measurement:
o Turn the thimble until it gently touches the object. Avoid over-tightening to prevent damaging the
object or the micrometer.

Reading the Measurement:

1. Read the Sleeve:

o Look at the last whole number on the sleeve scale before the thimble scale. This is your whole
number measurement.
2. Read the Thimble:
o Look for the line on the thimble that aligns perfectly with any line on the sleeve scale. This gives you
the fractional part of the measurement.
3. Combine the Readings:
o The measurement is typically in millimeters. For example, if the sleeve reads 5 mm and the thimble
reads 0.35 mm (the aligned line), then the total measurement is:

5mm+ 0.35mm= 5.35mm

Triple beam balance
Answer: measuring from the lower part of the clamp ensures that you are capturing the relevant length for pendulum
dynamics, leading to more accurate results in determining the acceleration due to gravity.

Answer: To enhance the overall accuracy and reliability of the experiment, leading to a more precise calculation of
the acceleration due to gravity. (-Reduced Random Error: -Easier Measurement: -Statistical Reliability:-Improved
Precision :)
 60
Answer: workings = 24sec +
100

=24.6 seconds