INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

ENGINE – is a machine that converts heat energy into mechanical energy. The heat from burning a fuel produces power
which moves the vehicle. Sometimes the engine is called the power plant. Automotive engines are internal combustion
engine because the fuel that runs them is burned inside the engines.

2 TYPES OF ENGINES

1. External Combustion Engine (ECE)- This type of engine

allows combustion of fuel to take place outside of the
engine. The heat is generated by the burning of fuel,
which then converts the water or other fluid into steam.
Once this high-pressure steam is created, causes the
rotation of the turbine. In this type of engine, the fuel
can be anything, right from solid and liquid to even the
gas. You may see these engines working in ships, driving
locomotive, and even at places where electric power is
generated. There are certain advantages of using this
engine including the usage of cheaper fuels along with
solid fuels, more flexible, and high starting torque.

2. Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) - An engine where

combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine is Internal
Combustion Engine. A high pressure and temperature
generated inside the engine cylinder with the burning of the
fuel. This high pressure then exerts on the piston, which is
responsible for the rotation of the wheels. When your car
engine type is this, we only use the highly volatile fuel like
diesel and petrol besides gases. You may find these types of car
engines getting used at places where electric power is used and
automobile industries as well.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENGINES
1. According to Number of Cylinders or pistons
a. Single cylinder/piston engine

b. Two cylinder/piston engine

c. 3 cylinder/piston engine

d. 4 cylinder/piston engine
e. 5 cylinder/piston engine
f. 6 cylinder/piston engine
g. 8 cylinder/piston engine
h. 12 cylinder/piston engine

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2. According to arrangement of cylinders
a. Straight or in-line engine
b. Flat or opposed engine
c. V engine
d. VR engine
e. W engine
f. Radial engine

3. According to location of camshaft

a. Camshaft on block or OHV

b. Overhead camshaft (SOHC & DOHC)

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4. According to number of valves
a. 8 valves
b. 12 valves
c. 16 valves
d. 24 valves

5. According to camshaft drive

a. Timing gears/sprocket
b. Timing chain
c. Timing belt

6. According to type of cooling

a. Air cooled engine

b. Liquid cooled engine

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7. According to number of
strokes per cycle
a. 2 stroke cycle

b. 4 stroke cycle

8. According to types of fuel used

a. Gasoline fuel
b. Diesel engine
c. CNG/LPG

9. According to method of ignition

a. Spark ignition engine

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 b. Compression ignition engine

10. According to firing order

a. 1-3-2
b. 1-3-4-2
c. 1-2-4-3
d. 1-5-3-6-2-4
e. 1-5-4-2-6-3-7-8
f. 1-4-2-5-3-6
g. 1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2
h. 1-2-3-4-5-6
i. 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8

11. According to
make and
model
a. Toyota
b. Isuzu
c. Chevrolet
d. Mitsubishi
e. Nissan
f. Hyundai
g. Ford
h. Mercedes
i. Volvo

12. According to engine size/displacement

a. 125 cc or 0.125L c. 1300 cc or 1.3 L e. 2000cc or 2.0L
b. 250 cc or 0.250L d. 1800 cc or 1.8 L f. 2800cc or 2.8 L

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 13. According to method of installation
a. Longitudinal
b. Transverse

ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
Spark ignition and compression ignition engines are similar in construction. Both have cylinder blocks, cylinder heads,
crankshaft, and bearings. Also both have pistons, connecting rods, and valve trains. The main difference between spark
ignition parts and diesel engine parts is that diesel parts are usually heavier and stronger. This is because the internal
pressure are higher in diesel engines.

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ENGINE MAJOR COMPONENT CONSTRUCTION

1. CYLINDER BLOCK – is the foundation of the engine. All other engine parts are assembled in or attached to the
cylinder block.
Construction:
 The cylinder block is usually made of grey cast iron or aluminium and its alloys.
 While the crankcase is fixed to its bottom. Apart from these other parts like timing gear water pump, ignition
distributor, flywheel, fuel pump etc., are also attached to it.
 Passages are provided in the cylinder walls for the circulation of cooling water.
 Mating surfaces of the block are carefully machined to provide a perfect sealing surface.
 Cylinder block also carries lubrication oil to various components through drilled passages called oil galleries.

The block is a casting that has large holes for the cylinder bores. It also has water jackets and coolant passages. Water
jackets are the spaces between the cylinder bores and the outer shell of the block. Coolant flows through these spaces
to pick up heat and carry it away from the engine. The core clean-out holes allow removal of the cores that formed the
water jackets. The cores are made of sand and shaped like water jackets. They are put into place and hot metal is
poured around them. After the metal has cooled and hardened, the cores are broken up and removed through the
clean-out holes. Then the holes are sealed with plugs. These are called core plugs, freeze plugs, or expansion plugs. If the
coolant in the block starts to freeze, the coolant expands and pushes the plugs out. This may provide some protection
against a cracked block.

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PARTS ATTACHED TO THE BLOCK

A. Crankshafts
The crankshaft is the engine component from which the power is taken. It is one of the main power transmission
sources in all engine parts.

The Crankshaft is the first part of the power transmission system in which the reciprocating motion of the piston is
converted into the rotating motion with the help of connecting rod.

Construction
 The crankshaft is made of casting or forging of heat treated alloy steel and is machined.
 A crankshaft consists of crankpins, webs, balancing weight and main journals and oil holes.
 The big end of the connecting rod is connected to the crankpin of the crankshaft.
 Centre to centre distance between the crankpin and crankshaft is half of the piston displacement during the
stroke.
 Thus one complete revolution of the crankshaft makes two strokes of the piston.

The parts of the crankshaft inside the main bearing are called main journals.
 Balancing weights are provided on the opposite side wed for balancing. The crankshaft has drilled oil passages
through which oil flow the main bearing to the connecting rod bearings.

The front end of the crankshaft carries three devices that

 A gear that drives the camshaft,
 The vibration damper to control torsional vibration, and
 The fan belt pulley. This pulley drives the engine fan, water pump, and generator with a V-belt.
The rear end of the crankshaft carries flywheel. The flywheel tends to keep the crankshaft running at constant.
Next, to the rear end, the main journal and oil seal is fitted. In some engine, oil return threads are provided which return
the lubricating oil to the sump.

Flywheel
The flywheel used in a transmission system of a vehicle.

Construction
 A flywheel is a heavy steel wheel attached to the rear end of the crankshaft.
 The size of the flywheel depends upon the number of cylinders and the construction of the engine.
Working
 During the power
stroke, the engine
tends to speed up and
during the other
strokes, it tends to
slow down.
 The inertia of the
flywheel tends to keep
the running of the
crankshaft at a
constant speed. Hence
the engine speed is
maintained constant.

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PARTS OF A CRANKSHAFT

TYPES OF ENGINE BEARINGS

 Main Bearing
 Thrust Bearing
 Conrod Bearing
 Camshaft Bearing

B. Pistons assembly, with rings installed and

connecting rod, bearings, cap, and pin attached

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 Pistons
Pistons are most important engine parts compared to others. The piston is a cylindrical plug that moves up and down in
the cylinder.

It helps to convert pressure energy obtained by the combustion of fuel into useful mechanical power and it transfer this
power to the crankshaft through the connecting rod.
 The highest position of the piston reaches in the cylinder is called the Top Dead Centre(TDC) and
 The lowest position it reaches is called the Bottom Dead Centre(BDC).

It is provided with pistons ring about 3 to 5 provide a good seal between the cylinder wall and piston. The efficiency and
economy of the engine primarily depend on the working of the piston.

The material used for the piston is mainly.

 Cast iron,
 Aluminium alloy.
 Nowadays aluminium alloys are widely used. It may be either cast or forged.

The piston must possess the following qualities

1. Rigidly to withstand high pressure
2. Light in weight, to reduce the reciprocating mass to perform at higher engine speed.
3. Good heat conductivity.
4. Less noise while operating.

Piston clearance

The piston is usually small in diameter than the bore of the cylinder. The space
between the cylinder and the cylinder wall is called the piston clearance. This piston
clearance provides a space for a layer of lubricant between the piston and cylinder wall to
reduce friction.
Generally, piston clearance is
 0.025mm to 0.100mm.
Proper clearance should be maintained between the piston and the cylinder wall.
 If the clearance is too small, there will be a loss of power from excessive friction, more wear, seizing of the
piston in the cylinder.
 If the clearance is too much, the piston slap will result. Piston slap means sudden tilting of the cylinder as the
piston moves down during the power stroke.
It prevents piston seizure due to high temperature. If there is on clearance then it is not possible to reciprocate piston
inside the cylinder.

Functions of piston
some of the important function of the piston as follows
 To transmit the power developed by fuel combustion to the crankshaft through the connecting rod.
 To form a seal so that high-pressure combustion gases do not escape to the crankcase.
 Piston serves as a support for the small end of the connecting rod.
 To suck the charge and push out the exhaust gases.

Constructional Features
The cross-section of a piston is shown in the figure.
 The top of the piston is called the head or crown.
 Towards the top of the piston, a few grooves are cut to house the piston rings. The bands left between the
grooves are known as lands.

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  The part of the piston below the ring is called Skirt is provided with bosses on the inside to support the piston
pin (Gudgeon pin).
 The distance between the axis of the piston pin and the top of the piston crown is called compression height.

Type of pistons

Piston materials: Cast Iron, Aluminium, Lo-Ex Alloy, Invar, Steel alloy. Protective coating: Cadmium plating, Anodised
pistons, Tinned pistons, Chromium plating

 Piston Rings
The piston rings are fitted into the grooves of the piston to maintain a good seal between
the piston and the cylinder wall.

The number of piston rings used is about 2 to 4 compression rings and 1 to 2 oil control
ring was used but in modern design the number if rings usually three out of which one is
the oil control ring.

The function of piston rings

 To form a seal for the high pressures gases from the combustion chamber entering into the crankcase.
 The piston ring provides easy passage for heat flow from the piston crown to the cylinder walls.
 To maintain sufficient lubrication oil on cylinder walls throughout the entire length the piston travel, hence it
minimizes the cylinder wear.

Construction
The figure shows the piston ring construction:
 The ring is generally cast individually and machined carefully so that when in the position it is able to exert
uniform pressure against the cylinder walls.
 A gap has been cut at the end.
 In practice, the piston ring end gap when installed is kept about 0.30 to 0.35mm.
 The gap is almost closed when the piston is inside the cylinder, so that piston and cylinder.

The piston ring end gap may be

 Butt type
 Taper type
 Lap type

Material for piston rings

The material generally used for piston rings is
 fine-grained alloy cast iron containing silicon and manganese. It has good heat and wears resisting qualities.
Chromium plated rings are also used for the top ring, which is subjected to the highest working temperatures and the
corrosive action of the combustion products.

Types of Piston Rings

Mainly there are two types of piston rings as follows.
 Compression rings: Fig shown a simple sketch of Compression rings. these rings effectively seal the compression
pressure and the leakage of the combustion gasses. these are fitted in the top grooves. They also transfer heat
from the piston to the cylinder walls.
 Oil control rings: The Figure shows a simple sketch of oil control ring. The main purpose of the oil ring is to
scrape the excess oil from the liner and return it back to the oil sump during the downward and upward

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 movement of the piston. It prevents the oil from reaching the combustion chamber. One of two oil control rings
is used in a piston. If two rings are used one has fitted above and other is fitted below the gudgeon pin in the
piston These rings are provided with drain holes or slots. these slots allow the scraped oil to reach into the oil
sump through the piston holes.

 Connecting Rod
Fig showed a connecting rod. It is fitted in between the piston and crankshaft.
The main function of the connecting rod is to convert the reciprocating motion of the
piston into the rotary motion of the crankshaft.

It must be light and strong enough to withstand stress and twisting forces.

Construction:
 The connecting rod usually has I-beam cross-section and is
made of alloy steel of duralumin by drop forging.
 Nowadays it is also cast from malleable or spheroidal
graphite
 The small end of the connecting rod has either a solid eye
used to connect the piston by the piston pin.
 The big end of the connecting rod is always split is used to
connect the crank pin of the crankshaft.

 Piston Pin
The piston pin is also called wrist pin or gudgeon pin. It is used for connecting the small end of
the connecting rod and the piston.

Construction: It is made hollow to reduce weight and it is made from case hardened steel.
Mainly there are three types of piston pins as follows.
 Set screw types piston pin.
 Semi-floating piston pin
 Fully floating piston pin

Fig (a) shown Set screw type piston pin, This pin is fastened to the piston to the piston by a SET SCREW such that the
connecting rod end swivel has required by the combined reciprocating and rotary motion of the piston and crankshaft.
Fig (b) shown the Semi-floating piston pin, It is fastened to the connecting rod with a clamp screw.

Fig (c) shown Fully floating piston pin. The pin floats in both the piston bosses and the small end of connecting rod. It is
prevented from coming in contact with the cylinder wall by two circlips.

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C. Cylinder liners
These are cylindrical shapes used in the cylinders to avoid the problem of cylinder
wear. It is one of the most important functional parts to make up the interior of an
engine.

These can be replaced after they are worn out. These are made of special alloy iron
containing silicon, manganese, nickel and chromium.
Usually, these are cast centrifugally. These liners resistance to wear and corrosion.
These liners are of the oil hardening type and offer considerably longer life
for the engine.

Cylinder liners are of two types

 Dry liners:

Construction: The construction of a dry liner is shown in the figure. This liner is
made in the shape of a barrel with a flange at the top which keeps it into position.
The entire outer surface bears against the cylinder block casting and hence these are it be machined accurately at both
outer and inner faces.
The liner should not be too loose, otherwise, the heat dissipation becomes poor because of the absence of good contact
with the cylinder block.

 Wet liners:
The figure shows a simple sketch of the wet liner. These liners will be in direct contact with the
cooling water at their outer face.

Thus, these liners need not be machined very accurately at the outer surface. However, they have
been machined accurately at the inner surface.
They are resisting corrosion with continuous contact with cooling water. and they coated with
aluminium at their outer surface.
Construction
 At the top, the liner is provided with a flange which fits into the groove in the cylinder block.
 At the bottom of the liner is provided with a groove, generally three in number.
 The middle groove is left empty for drainage for any water that may leak from the upper ring.
 And in the top and bottom ones are inserted packing ring, made of synthetic rubber.

Comparison of the dry and wet liner

Dry Liners
 Dry liners may be provided either in the original design or even afterwards.
 The construction of the cylinder block very complicated. The cooling effect is not very good.
 Accurate machining of dry liners for perfect contact with the cylinder casting is essential.
 In this type, it cannot be finished before fitting. A leak-proof joint is not necessary.

Wet Liners
 Wet liners have to be included in the original design. The construction of the cylinder block is simple.
 The cooling effect is better because the liner will have direct contact with cooling water.
 Accurate machining is not essential. In this type, they can be finished before fitting.
 A leak-proof joint should be made between wet liner and cylinder block.

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 D. Cam Shaft
A camshaft is a shaft on which cams are mounted. A cam is a device that changes the rotary motion of the camshaft into
the linear motion of the follower. A camshaft is responsible for the opening of the valves.

Construction
 A camshaft has a number of cams along the length, two cams for each cylinder, one to operate the inlet valve
and the other the exhaust valve.
 In addition, the camshaft has an eccentric to operate the fuel pump and gear to drive the ignition distributor and
oil pump.
 The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft. The camshaft gear has twice as many teeth as the gear on the
crankshaft.
 Camshaft made from forged alloy steel.

This gives 1:2 gear ratio, the camshaft turns at half the speed of the crankshaft.
Working
 Thus, every two revolutions of the crankshaft produce one revolution o the camshaft and one opening and
closing of each valve, in the four-cylinder engine.
 Thus there is correct opening and closing of the valves takes in relation to the position of the piston in the
cylinder.
There are three types of camshaft drive mechanism as follows,
 Gear drive.
 Chain drive.
 Belt drive.

Camshaft assembly for

OHC engine

Camshaft for OHV

PARTS OF A CAMSHAFT ASSEMBLY

 Main Journals
 Valve Cam Lobes
 Front End
 Rear End
 Oil holes
 Distributor Drive Gear (some engine)
 Fuel pump Cam Lobe( some engines)

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E. Front and rear cover
with oils seals attached
F. Oil pan,
strainers/screen, oil
pump, and oil filter
G. Lower Crankcase if
equipped
H. Gaskets and seals
I. Starter, alternator,
power steering pump,
a/c compressor
mounting brackets, idler
pulleys and belt
tensioners

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 2. CYLINDER HEAD – is cast from cast iron or aluminum alloy. They are machined to take the various parts that are
attached to or installed in the heads. The cylinder head forms the top of the combustion chamber. The piston
and rings form the bottom.

Construction

 It is usually made up of cast iron and aluminium alloy.

 The top of the cylinder is covered by a separate cast piece know as the cylinder head.
 The cylinder head is attached to the cylinder block by means of studs fixed to the block gaskets are used to
provide a tight, leak-proof joint between the head and block.
 Cylinder head contains a combustion chamber above each cylinder.
 It also contains valve guides, valve seats, ports, coolant jackets and threaded holes for spark plugs for gasoline
engines or injectors and glow plug for diesel engines. It incorporates passages for the flow of cooling water.

Types of Cylinder Head

Depending upon the valve and port layout, the cylinder head may be classified into two types as follows:

 Loop flow type: In the loop, flow types the inlet and the exhaust manifolds are on the same side, which facilitates
preheating of the intake air.
 Offset cross flow type: Offset cross flow types the inlet and the exhaust manifolds are
placed on different sides of the cylinder head.

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PARTS ATTACHED TO THE CYLINDER HEAD
a. Intake manifold with gasket, carburetor assemble or throttle body, sensors or sending units for EFI engines
b. Exhaust manifold with gasket
c. Camshaft assembly for OHC engines
d. Intake and Exhaust Valve and spring assembly, rocker arm assembly
e. Valve or cylinder head cover with gasket
f. Distributor assembly for gasoline engine
g. Spark plugs for gasoline engine
h. Glow plugs for diesel engine
i. Fuel injectors for diesel engine and EFI gasoline engine

 Manifolds
There are separate sets of pipes attached to the cylinder head which carry the air-fuel mixture and the exhaust gases,
these are called manifolds. It is generally made of cast iron so that it is able to withstand the high temperature of the
exhaust gases.

Construction
 It consists of the air intake, throttle body, intake manifold flange for tail-pipe and flange for a carburettor.
Working
 The air goes into the air intake travels through, throttle body into the intake manifold and from there it goes
into the engine through the cylinder head.
 The inlet manifold carries the air-fuel mixture from the carburettor to the cylinders.
 The exhaust manifold is the set of pipes carrying exhaust gases from the cylinder head to the exhaust system.

 Engine Valves
Engine valves are essential to control the timing of air-fuel mixture entry into
the cylinder and combustion products out of the cylinders.

Construction
 These are located at the inlet and outlet opening of the engine
cylinder.
 The valves fit on the valve seats in their closed position.

 It consists of a head and a stem. The valve face usually with an angle
of 30° to 45° is ground perfectly, since it has to match with the valve seat for perfect sealing.
 The stem has a spring retainer lock groove and the stem end is in contact with cam for up and down movements
of the valve.

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 3. CRANKCASE
The oil pan and the lower part of the cylinder block together are
called the crankcase. It is the bottom portion of the cylinder block, in
which the crankshaft is fitted.

Construction
 This is a rigid construction made of grey cast iron or
aluminium. Either it can be cast integrally with the block or
can be cast separately and attached to the block with bolts.
 The crankcase is shaped simply like a box having no bottom.
Oil pan or sump forms the bottom half of the crankcase.
Working
 The function of the crankcase is to provide support for the main journals and bearing of the crankshaft, rigidly
maintaining the alignment of their axes of rotation under various engine loads.
 The crankcase is supported in the crankcase through a number of bearing called the main bearing.

 Oil Pan
The bottom half of the crankcase is called the oil pan or sump. It is attached
to the crankcase through set screws and with a gasket to make the joint
leak proof. The oil pan serves as a reservoir for the storage, cooling and
ventilation of engine lubricating oil.

At the bottom of the oil sump, a drain plug is provided to drain out the dirty oil at the time of oil replacement. Generally,
the sump is made of pressed steel sheet or aluminium alloy casting is used.
The various functions of the oil pan as follows
 To store the oil for the engine lubrication system.
 Oil pan used to collect the return oil draining
 To serve as a container for impurities or foreign matters
 Oil pan provides for cooling of the hot oil in the sump.
Working
 The oil pump in the lubricating system draws oil from the oil pan and sends it to all working parts in the engine.
 The oil drains off and runs down into the pan.
 Thus there is a constant circulation of oil between the pan and the working parts of the engine.

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MAIN COMPONENT PARTS OF AN ENGINE, ITS DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION

1. STATIONARY PARTS

a. Cylinder Head – the topmost part of the engine which covers the cylinder block. It seals the compression
leakage through a cylinder head gasket.
b. Cylinder Bore or Sleeve – the smooth, round and hollow surface in the cylinder block where the piston
reciprocates.
c. Cylinder or Engine Block – is bottom or lower part where the cylinders or sleeves are mounted. Also water
passages or jackets and oil galleries are seen in this block.
d. Crankcase – forms the lower portion of the cylinder block. The crankshaft and/or camshaft, oil pump and
other accessories are attached.
e. Oil Pan – is the reservoir of engine oil. It is the lowermost part of the engine.
f. Exhaust manifold – a set of tubes that carries exhaust gases from the cylinder head to the exhaust system. It
is attached to the cylinder head so the exhaust port in the head align with the tube openings.
g. Intake manifold – a set of tubes that carries air-fuel mixture from the throttle valves to the intake ports in
the cylinder head.
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 h. Connecting rod bearings – are also called split bearings are placed between the connecting rod and
connecting rod cap. It carries the load imposed by high compression and combustion pressures during
engine operation. Pressurize engine oil passes the clearance between the connecting rod journal and
bearing surface to reduce friction as the crankshaft rotates.
i. Main bearings – are placed in the engine block and main bearing cap. Pressurized engine oil passes between
the crankshaft journal and bearing oil hole and groove surface to reduce friction between them.
j. Thrust bearing or washer – is used to limit the endplay. The thrust bearing is one of the crankshafts main
bearing that has flanges on its two sides.
k. Camshaft bushings – are cylindrical bearing that reduces friction between the camshaft journal and bushing
as oil passes through them.
l. Piston rings – are fitted into the piston ring grooves. Two types are used the compression rings and oil
control rings. Compression rings seal compression and combustion pressures while the oil control rings
scrape oil from the cylinder walls. The piston rings also minimize the friction between the piston and
cylinder wall thereby minimizing wear.

2. MOVING PARTS

a. Piston – usually made of a cast aluminum alloy, reciprocating or moving up and down the cylinder bore as
the engine is cranked or operated. As it moves up and down it performs significant events called strokes.

b. Connecting rod – a connecting link between the piston and the crankshaft, it transmit the reciprocating
motion of the piston to the crankshaft in a rotary manner.

c. Crankshaft – it changes the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion through the connecting
rod. It is provided with a crank pin or journal where the connecting rod is attached. The flywheel is attached
on its rear end while the timing gear is attached to the front end.

d. Valves – a long metal stem on which there is a flat top. They control or regulate the flow of air-fuel mixture
from the carburetor to the engine cylinder (Intake valve) and the discharging of burned gases out of the
cylinder (Exhaust valve).

e. Camshaft – the shaft that actuates/operates the various intake and exhaust valves through its cam lobes. It
has a timing gear on its front end and meshed either by gear tooth or sprocket, chain or belt to the
crankshaft timing gear.

f. Vibration damper – power strokes tend to twist the crankshaft to about 4000 pounds of force on the
crankpin/journal. This force tries to push the crankpin ahead of the rest of the crankshaft. Then as the force
on the crankpin recedes, the crankshaft untwists (torsional vibration). The vibration damper helps control
this torsional vibration to smoothen the rotation of the crankshaft

g. Flywheel – attached to the rear end of the crankshaft to help smooth out the power surge from the power
strokes and also serves as the mounting surface of the clutch or torque converter.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS ON ENGINE CONSTRUCTION

1. What are the two main parts of an engine?

2. Name the stationary part of an engine and their functions.
3. Name the moving parts of an engine and their functions
4. Name the parts of an OHV valve train.

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 1. Bore – inside diameter of the cylinder
2. Stroke – or Piston Stroke is the distance piston
travels between its highest point (TDC) and its lowest
point(BDC)
3. Piston Displacement – also called swept volume and
cylinder displacement. This is the volume that the
piston displaces or sweeps out as it moves from BDC
to TDC or the difference between the minimum and
maximum cylinder volume. Piston Displacement can
be determined by the formula:

PD = Bore X stroke
= π D2 x L/4
Note:
π = 3.14
1 cubic inch = 16.39 cubic centimeters(cc)
1 liter = 61.02 cubic inches
= 1000 cc

4. Engine Displacement – is the total piston displacement or by

multiplying the piston or cylinder displacement by the number of
cylinders or pistons.
Engine Displacement = PD x n
Where n = no. Of cylinders

5. Compression ratio – is the measure of how much the air-fuel

mixture is compressed during the compression stroke. Engine
with higher compression ratios produce more power.
Compression ratio is found by dividing the volume of the cylinder and
combustion chamber when the piston is at TDC. The volume with the
piston at TDC is the clearance volume or combustion chamber volume.
This is the volume that remains above the piston as TDC. The
Compression ratio for gasoline is up to 12:1.
For Diesel engine is up to 24:1

Compression Ratio = Cylinder Volume + Clearance Volume

Clearance Volume

6. Air – fuel ratio – the proportions

of air and fuel supplied to the
engine cylinders for combustion

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 7. Stoichiometric ratio – is the ideal or theoretical air and fuel mixture of a gasoline engine which is 14.7:1. At this
ratio of 14.7 parts of air to 1 part fuel, both the oxygen content of the air and the fuel will be consumed
completely and the engine will produce its maximum power for the amount of air and fuel supplied.

8. Volumetric Efficiency – is the measure of how completely the cylinder

fills with air-fuel mixture during the intake stroke. The cylinder fills
completely (100%) when the mixture is drawn in slowly. It also the
measure how air moves into and out of the engine cylinder. High ratio
indicates good air flow

9. Engine torque – Is the force exerted by the crankshaft through the drive
train to the wheels. Engine torque results from combustion pressures
pushing down on the pistons. When a piston is moving down on the
power stroke, it applies torque through the connecting rod to the engine
crankshaft.
10. Engine power – is the power available from the crankshaft to do work. The most common unit of measure for
power is the Horsepower (Hp). A horsepower is a measure of the rate at which a horse can work. This is 33,000
ft-lb of work per minute.
The formula for horsepower is:
Formula 1:
Hp = L x W/t Where: Hp = horsepower
L = length in feet through which W is exerted
W = force in pounds exerted through distance L
T = time in minutes required to move W through L

Horsepower can also be calculated if engine torque and speed is known

Formula 2:
Hp= torque ( ft-lbs) x rpm / 5252

Formula 3:
Hp = x L x R.P.M. / 13,000 x N (Numbers of cylinders)

Example 1
Take the diameter or bore and multiply it by itself on a four inch bore this gives sixteen( �2 ). Now multiply sixteen by the
stroke (L), say five inches, giving eighty. Next multiply eighty by the R.P.M., and at say 1,000 R.P.M. this gives 80,000.
Now divide by 13,000 for a four-cycle engine or by 10,000 for a two cycle engine. In this case of the 4 x 5 at 1,000 R.P.M.
we get practically six horsepower or eight horsepower for a two cycle. For a four cylinder engine, say, just calculate the
one cylinder and multiply by four and it will come out pretty close.

For Rotating Objects

HP = T x N/5252 Where :
T = Torque (lbft)
N = Speed (rpm)
Example 2
Let’s find the horsepower for a motor with a speed of 5,600 RPM with 350 foot-pounds of torque.
horsepower = (5,600 × 350) ÷ 5,252
horsepower = 1,960,000 ÷ 5,252
horsepower = 373.19 HP

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 11. Indicated Horsepower (iHp) – is the power developed inside the combustion chambers during combustion. It is
determined by measuring the pressures in the engine cylinder.
12. Friction Horsepower – (fHp)- is the power required to overcome the friction of the internal moving parts. A
major cause of friction loss is the piston ring friction. It can account for 75% of all friction losses in the engine.
13. Brake Horsepower (bHp) – is the power available from the engine crankshaft to do work. Relationship between
iHp, fHp, and bHp is:
Bhp = iHp – fHp

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A certain engine volume of 694 cc at BDC and a clearance volume of 73 cc when the piston is at TDC. What is the
compression ratio of the engine?

2. How much Horsepower is produced by an engine at a speed of 3000 rpm and generates a torque of 300 ft-lbs. If
1.5 horsepower is lost due to friction, What is the available power delivered through the drive wheels?

3. A 4 cylinder engine have the following dimensions:

Bore – 3 inches
Stroke- 4 inches
Clearance or combustion chamber height – 1 inch

Determine the following:

a. Piston displacement in cubic centimeters
b. Engine displacement in liters
c. Compression ratio
d. Horsepower generated at 2500 rpm

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ENGINE OPERATION

1. FOUR STROKE CYCLE SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

INTAKE STROKE
This is when the piston is moving down. As the
piston moves down from Top Dead Center (TDC),
it produces a vacuum in the cylinder and as a result
there is rushing in of air-fuel charge through the intake
valve which opens the intake port. This allows air-fuel
mixture to enter the cylinder. As the piston reaches
the Bottom Dead Center (BDC) the intake valve closes
to end the intake stroke

COMPRESSION STROKE
At this event, the piston reaches BDC
at the end of Intake Stroke and starts
to move up with both valves closed to
compress the air-fuel mixture in
preparation for the power stroke.

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EXHAUST STROKE
As the piston reaches BDC on the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens and the
piston moves up again pushing the burned gases out through the exhaust valve.

2. FOUR STROKE CYCLE COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

The diesel engine uses a four-stroke combustion cycle just like a gasoline engine. The
Four Strokes are:

Intake stroke - The intake valve opens up, letting in air and moving the piston down.

Compression Stroke - the piston moves back up

and the compresses the air.

Power Stroke - as the piston reaches the top

(TDC), fuel is injected at just the right moment
and ignited, forcing the piston back down.

Exhaust Stroke - the piston moves back to the

top, pushing out the exhaust created from the
combustion out of the exhaust valve

GRAPHING A 4 STROKE CYCLE GASOLINE AND

DIESEL ENGINE

In graphing engine cycle operation, the first thing

to do is draw a graph depending upon the
number of cylinders. In a 4 stroke, 4 cylinder engine the cylinder is numbered from front to back.
The graph illustrates the operating cycle of a typical 4 stroke, 4 cylinder engine with Firing Order of 1-3-4-2. At the start
of the cycle or at the first 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation, piston no.1 is on the Power stroke. Since no. 1 and 4
pistons are running mate, no.4 piston is therefore Intake stroke. This is true because Intake and Power are both
downward strokes. By following the firing order, next to fire is no. 3 which is now in Compression and no. 2 therefore, is
in Exhaust because no. 3 and 2 are running mates both going upward.
At the second 180 degrees of crankshaft travel, no. 1 has already finished its Power stroke. It now moves on to Exhaust
with piston no. 4 as its running mate on the compression stroke. On the other hand no.2 piston is now on the Intake
stroke because both are going down . The same procedure is followed in the third and even in the last 180 degrees of
crankshaft travel until two complete revolutions of the crankshaft is finished. The cycle will be repeated on and on as
long as the engine is running.

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 LEGEND:
Cylinder No. 1 2 3 4 Degree(power interval) I – Intake
Strokes P E C I 180 DEGREES C – Compression
E I P C 180 DEGREES P- Power
I C E P 180 DEGREES E- Exhaust
C P I E 180 DEGREES Running mates: 1 and 4, 2 and 3
Firing order 1-3-4-2

3. TWO STROKE CYCLE SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

Unlike the four stroke one, a two stroke

engine has three strokes combined into one
action, meaning the intake and exhaust are
both integrated into the compression
movement of the piston, therefore
eliminating the need for valves. This is thanks
to an inlet and exhaust port integrated into
the wall of the combustion chamber.

As the piston goes down from combustion,

spent gasses are allowed to exit the chamber
through the exhaust port. The air–fuel
mixture is drawn through an inlet located
lower in the chamber. As the piston rises
again, it blocks off the inlet and exhaust ports,
compressing the gasses at the top of the chamber. The spark plug fires and the process starts over. The engine fires on
every revolution.

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 4. TWO STROKE CYCLE COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
1. When the piston is at the top of its travel, the cylinder
contains a charge of highly compressed air. Diesel fuel is
sprayed into the cylinder by the injector and immediately
ignites because of the heat and pressure inside the
cylinder.
2. The pressure created by the combustion of the fuel drives
the piston downward. This is the power stroke.
3. As the piston nears the bottom of its stroke, all of the
exhaust valves open. Exhaust gases rush out of the
cylinder, relieving the pressure.
4. As the piston bottoms out, it uncovers the air intake ports.
Pressurized air fills the cylinder, forcing out the remainder
of the exhaust gases.
5. The exhaust valves close and the piston starts traveling
back upward, re-covering the intake ports and
compressing the fresh charge of air. This is the
compression stroke.
6. As the piston nears the top of the cylinder, the cycle
repeats with step 1.

COMPARISON BETWEEN 4 STROKE AND 2 STROKE CYCLE ENGINE

A two stroke engine can produce twice the amount of power (and makes twice as much noise) than a four stroke engine
of the same size. This is because it fires once every revolution, giving it twice the power of a four stroke, which only fires
once every other revolution. Significantly, it also has a higher weight-to-power ratio because it is much lighter.

Two stroke engines are simpler and cheaper to manufacture compared to four stroke engines because of their simpler
design. Four stroke engines are longer lasting than two stroke engines that don't have a dedicated lubricating system.
However, the spark plugs in a two stroke engine last longer than those in a four stroke engine.

Four stroke engines are more fuel efficient and environmentally friendly when compared to two stroke engines that also
create an unpleasant smell. Two stroke engines are responsible for much more pollution due to the combustion of oil.

Two stroke units may also exceed legal noise limits in some areas. That is why you should consider checking to see if any
restrictions apply in your area before purchasing one

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5. ROTARY ENGINE

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Automotive Valve train
The valve train refers to the assembly of components
designed to open and close the intake and exhaust valves.
Most new engines have overhead cam assemblies like the one
shown. Other designs locate the camshaft lower in the engine
and use push rods to move valve assemblies. The camshaft is
rotated by a timing belt, timing chain or direct gear.
A combustion engine must be supplied with fuel and air, while
the exhaust gas resulting from combustion has to be expelled.
This process is known as charge change. During this charge
change, the intake and exhaust channels of the cylinders are
periodically opened and closed by the intake and exhaust
valves.
The intake and exhaust valves fulfill the following tasks in the
process
: • Open up as large an opening cross section as possible
• Execute the opening and closing processes quickly
• Have a flow-optimized shape to keep any pressure loss low
• Achieve a good seal when closed
• Exhibit good stability under load

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 Requirements
The valve train is subject to high accelerations and decelerations. The associated inertial forces increase as the engine
speed increases and stress the structure to a high extent. In addition, the exhaust valves must withstand the high
temperatures of the exhaust gases. To be able to work correctly under these conditions, the components of the valve
train must:
• Remain stable over the entire service life
• Run with a low level of friction in their guides
• Guarantee sufficient heat conduction away from the valves (in particular, away from the exhaust valves)

TERMINOLOGIES
1. Cam Lobe:
Cam lobes are precisely machined into shapes which determine
when the valve opens in relation to piston position, how far the
valve is displaced, and the length of time the valve remains
open. The distance between the end point of the base radius
and the nose controls valve displacement. The geometry of the
sides (flank) and nose determine how long the valve remains
open
2. Camshaft Lift:
Camshaft lift is the distance between the end point of the
lobe's base radius and the nose. The lift determines how far the
valve will be displaced. Increasing the lift increases valve
displacement.

3. Camshaft Duration:
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Camshaft duration is the length of time the valve remains open. The geometry of the lobe's nose and flank determines
the duration. A steeply angled flank results in a sharper nose. This produces a shorter duration.

COMPONENTS OF A VALVE TRAIN

1. Camshaft:
The camshaft is manufactured with precisely machined lobes which control
valve opening. The number of lobes on a shaft is determined by the number of
valves the shaft controls. Some engines use one shaft to control both intake
and exhaust valves. Others have dedicated camshafts for each valve type.
Engines designed with four valves per cylinder are normally equipped with dual
camshafts for each row of cylinders.

2. Push Rod ( OHV):

Engines designed with the camshaft located in the engine block use push rods acting on rocker arms to open valves.
Push rods are seated on valve lifters or tappets which ride on the camshaft lobes.

3. Cam Follower or Valve Lifter or Tappet (OHV)

Three types of lifters are used: hydraulic valve lifter, mechanical lifter, and roller lifter. Some push rods are hollow,
providing a means to feed oil from the lifters to the rocker arms. This reduces wear on the push rod tip and rocker arm.
On OHC, the cam follower is seated on top of the valve stem
and spring and is the surface upon which the cam lobe
pushes to open the valve. The follower slides up and down
within a bore machined in the cylinder head.

TYPES OF LIFTERS

A. Hydraulic Lifters:
Hydraulic lifters are used most often since they can reduce valve train noise by maintaining zero valve clearance (no
spacing between valve train components.) The oil filled lifters adjust automatically for changes brought on by
temperature variations and wear of parts. Engine motor oil fills the inside of the lifter, pushing the lifter plunger up until
all the play in the valve train is removed

B. Mechanical Lifters:
Mechanical lifters, also called solid lifters, simply transfer cam lobe action to the push rod. They do not contain oil and
are not self adjusting. As a result, they require periodic adjusting. Valve trains using
mechanical lifters are prone to a clicking or clattering noise as the valves open and close.
This is why hydraulic lifters are more common.

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 C. Roller Lifters:
Roller lifters are either mechanical or hydraulic. Designed into the lifter is a roller that
rides the cam lobe, reducing friction between the camshaft and lifter. Friction between
these two components is one of the highest friction points in an engine.

4. Valves:
Each cylinder has at least one intake valve (1) and one exhaust valve (2). Some engines are
designed with two sets of valves per cylinder as shown in the photo. The intake valve has
a larger diameter than the exhaust valve, which maximizes air flow to the cylinder. The
exhaust valve must withstand higher temperatures than the intake valve since the air flowing past the intake valve keeps
the intake valve at a lower temperature. However, both intake and exhaust valves must transfer their heat to the
cylinder head otherwise they will burn.

5. Valve Springs:
Valve springs (4) provide a resisting force that returns displaced valves
to their closed position. The spring may be a one-coil design or a two-
coil design which has inner and outer coils. The second coil increases
the amount of force holding the valve closed.

6. Spring Retainer:
The spring retainer is designed to hold in place the valve stem tip. This
allows the rocker arm to act directly on the valve.

7. Timing Chain/ Belt:

Timing chains are becoming the standard for turning both the intake
and exhaust camshafts. The chains are located on the engine's front
end, and are pulled by a drive sprocket (1), which is turned by the
engine's crankshaft. Timing chains are required for both the intake
cam sprocket (2) and the exhaust cam sprocket (3). A chain guide (4)
is also provided. Some engines still use belts instead of chains. In
either case, excess slack or play will degrade engine performance.

Timing Belt:
A timing belt instead of a timing chain may be used to turn the camshafts. The inner side of the belt is designed with
square (cogged) teeth which prevent the belt from slipping. The belt should be checked periodically for wear and proper
tension.

8. Belt/ Chain Tensioner:

The belt tensioner is a spring-loaded wheel which keeps the
timing belt in tension and aligned with the cam sprocket. The
smooth side of the timing belt rides over the tensioner. The
tensioner applies a force on the backside of the belt. This
keeps the belt in tension. Whenever the belt needs to be
removed, the tensioner can be pulled away, freeing the belt.

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VALVE TIMING
a) SOHC b) DOHC

c) gear sprockets

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