Computer Numerical Control

(CNC)
CHAPTER 6
 1. INTRODUCTION TO CNC
• Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is one in which the
functions and motions of a machine tool are controlled by
means of a prepared program containing coded alphanumeric
data.
• CNC can control the motions of the workpiece or tool, the
input parameters such as feed, depth of cut, speed, and the
functions such as turning spindle on/off, turning coolant on/off
• Numerical control of machine tools may be defined as a
method of automation in which various functions of machine
tools are controlled by letters, numbers and symbols.
• Basically a NC machine runs on a program fed to it. The
program consists of precise instructions about the
methodology of manufacture as well as movements
• The simplest definition is as the name implies, “a process a
controlled by numbers “.
• Since the program is the controlling point for product
manufacture, the machine becomes versatile and can be
used for any part.
• All the functions of a NC machine tool are therefore
controlled electronically, hydraulically or pneumatically.
In NC machine tools, one or more of the following
functions may be automatic:
a. Starting and stopping of machine tool spindle.
b. Controlling the spindle speed.
c. Positioning the tool tip at desired locations and
guiding it along desired paths by automatic control of motion
of slides.
d. Controlling the rate of movement of tool tip ( feed
rate)
e. Changing of tools in the spindle
 Functions of a machine tool
• The purpose of a machine tool is to cut away surplus
material, usually metal from the material supplied to leave a
work piece of the required shape and size, produced to an
acceptable degree of accuracy and surface finish
• The machine tool should possess certain capabilities in
order to fulfill these requirements. It must be:
a. Able to hold the work piece and cutting tool securely.
b. Endowed the sufficient power to enable the tool to
cut the work piece material at economical rates.
c. Capable of displacing the tool and work piece
relative to one another to produce the required work piece
shape. The displacements must be controlled with a degree of
precision which will ensure the desired accuracy of surface
finish and size
 HISTORY

• In 1775, John Wilkinson- cannon boring machine

(lathe).
• In 1881, Eli Whitney- milling machine.
• In 1947, Mr. John Parsons began experimenting for
• using 3-axis curvature data to control the machine tool
• motion for the production for aircraft components.
• In 1949, parsons- first NC machine.
• In 1951, MIT was involved in the project.
• In 1955, after refinements NC became available in
• industry
• Today, modern machinery are CNC milling machines
• and lathes.
 2. APPLICATIONS
The applications of CNC include both for machine tool
as well as non-machine tool areas.
- In the machine tool category, CNC is widely used for
lathe, drill press, milling machine, grinding unit, laser,
sheet-metal press working machine, tube bending
machine etc. Highly automated machine tools such as
turning center and machining center which change the
cutting tools automatically under CNC control have been
developed.
- In the non-machine tool category, CNC applications
include welding machines (arc and resistance),
coordinate measuring machine, electronic assembly,
tape laying and filament winding machines for
composites etc.
• Advantages : The benefits of CNC are:
- high accuracy and repeatability in manufacturing,
- short production time; Increased productivity
- greater manufacturing flexibility,
- simpler fixture; Facilitation of complex machining
operations
- Lower operator skill requirement, reduced human error
- Improved production planning and control
• Limitations:
- High maintenance requirement
- the requirement of skilled part programmer.
- High initial investment
- Not cost-effective for low production cost
 3. ELEMENTS OF A CNC
A CNC system consists of three basic components:
1 . Part program
2 . Machine Control Unit (MCU)
3 . Machine tool (lathe, drill press, milling machine etc)
Part Program: is a detailed set of commands to be
followed by the machine tool. Each command specifies a
position in the Cartesian coordinate system (x,y,z) or
motion (workpiece travel or cutting tool travel),
machining parameters and on/off function.
Part programmers should be well versed with machine
tools, machining processes, effects of process variables,
and limitations of CNC controls. The part program is
written manually or by using computer assisted language
• Machine Control Unit (MCU): is a microcomputer
that stores the program and executes the commands into
actions by the machine tool. The MCU consists of two
main units: the data processing unit (DPU) and the
control loops unit (CLU).
• The DPU software includes control system software,
calculation algorithms, translation software that
converts the part program into a usable format for the
MCU, interpolation algorithm to achieve smooth
motion of the cutter, editing of part program (in case of
errors and changes).
• The DPU processes the data from the part program and
provides it to the CLU which operates the drives
attached to the machine leadscrews and receives
feedback signals on the actual position and velocity of
each one of the axes. A driver (dc motor) and a
feedback device are attached to the leadscrew
• The CLU consists of the circuits for position
and velocity control loops, deceleration and
backlash take up, function controls such as
spindle on/off
• Machine Tool: The machine tool could be one
of the following: lathe, milling machine, laser,
plasma, coordinate measuring machine etc.
• A right-hand coordinate system is used to
describe the motions of a machine tool . There
are three linear axes (x,y,z), three rotational
axes (A, B, C), and other axes such as tilt are
possible.
A typical numerical control system for a milling machine
NC SYSTEM ELEMENTS
OPERATIONAL FEATURES of CNC
MACHINES
 4. FEATURES OF CNC
• CNC refers to a computer that is joined to the NC
machine to make the machine versatile.
• Information can be stored in a memory bank.
• The program is read from a storage medium such as the
punched tape and retrieved to the memory of the CNC
computer. Some CNC machines have a magnetic
medium (tape or disk) for storing programs.
• This gives more flexibility for editing or saving CNC
programs.
• These features, many of which are standard on most
CNC Machine Control units (MCU), include the
following:
• Storage of more than one part program
• Various forms of program input: CNC controllers
generally possess multiple data entry capabilities,
such as punched tape, magnetic tape, floppy diskettes,
RS-232 communications with external computers,
and manual data input
• Program editing at the machine tool
• Fixed cycles and programming subroutines: These
cycles often require that certain parameters be
defined, for example, a bolt hole circle, in which the
diameter of the bolt circle, the spacing of the bolt
holes, and other parameters must be specified
• Interpolation: Linear and circular interpolation are
sometimes hard-wired into the control unit, but helical,
parabolic, and cubic interpolations are usually executed
by a stored program algorithm.
• Positioning features for setup: Setting up the machine
tool for a given workpart involves installing and
aligning a fixture on the machine tool table.
• Cutter length and size compensation: the cutter is
mounted in the spindle and the sensor measures its
length. This measured value is then used to correct the
programmed tool path.
• Acceleration and deceleration calculations
• Communications interface
• Diagnostics
Right-hand coordinate system used in drill press and lathe
• The direction of each finger
represents the positive direction
of motion.
• The axis of the main spindle is
always Z, and the positive
direction is into the spindle.
• On a mill the longest travel slide
is designated the X axis and is
always perpendicular to the Z
axis.
• If you rotate your hand looking
into your middle finger, the
forefinger represents the Y axis.
• The base of your fingers is the
start point or (X0, Y0, Z0).
• The right-hand rule for
determining the correct axis on a
CNC machine may also be used to
determine the clockwise rotary
motion about X, Y, and Z.
• To determine the positive, or
clockwise, direction about an axis,
close your hand with the thumb
pointing out.
• The thumb may represent the
X, Y, or Z direction and the
curl of the fingers may
represent the clockwise, or
positive, rotation about each
axis.
• These are known as A, B, and
C and represent the rotary
motions about X, Y, and Z,
respectively
STANDARD LATHE COORDINATE
SYSTEM
STANDARD MILLING MACHINE
COORDINATE SYSTEM
 5. PRINCIPLES OF CNC

• Basic Length Unit (BLU): Each BLU unit

corresponds to the position resolution of the
axis of motion.
• For example, 1 BLU = 0.0001" means that the
axis will move 0.0001" for every one electrical
pulse received by the motor. The BLU is also
referred to as Bit (binary digit).
Pulse = BLU = Bit
• Point-to-Point Systems
Point-to-point systems are those that move the tool
or the workpiece from one point to another and then
the tool performs the required task. Upon
completion, the tool (or workpiece) moves to the
next position and the cycle is repeated

Cutter path between holes in a point-to-point system

• Angle and arc segments must be programmed as a series of
straight line cuts
• Continuous Path Systems (Straight cut and
Contouring systems)
These systems provide continuous path such that the
tool can perform while the axes are moving, enabling
the system to generate angular surfaces, two-
dimensional curves, or three-dimensional contours

(a) Continuous path cutting and (b) Position error caused by the
velocity error
• Has the ability to move the drive motors at varying rates of speed while
positioning the machine.
• The cutting of arc segments and any angle can be easily accomplished
Schematic illustration of drilling, boring, and
milling with various paths
• Interpolator
The input speed of l in/sec in example 2 is
converted into the velocity components by an
interpolator called the linear interpolator whose
function is to provide the velocity signals to x and y
directions. Similarly we have circular and parabolic
interpolators

• Types of interpolation (a) linear, (b) continuous path approximated

by incremental straight lines, and (c) circular
 Incremental and Absolute systems
- Incremental coordinates use the present position as the reference
point for the next movement. This means that any point in the
Cartesian graph can be plotted accurately by measuring the
distance between points, generally starting at the origin.
- In incremental mode, the distance is measured from one point to
the next. For example, if you want to drill five holes at different
locations, the x-position commands are x + 500, + 200, + 600, -
300, -700, -300. An absolute system is one in which all the
moving commands are referred from a reference point (zero point
or origin) .
Both systems are incorporated in most CNC systems. For
an inexperienced operator, it is wise to use incremental mode
• (a) Absolute versus incremental; In absolute positioning, the
move is specified by x = 6, y = 8 ; in incremental, the move is
specified by x=4, y=5 for the tool to be moved from (2,3) to
(6,8)
• (b) Drilling 5-holes at different locations
• Absolute coordinates use the origin as the reference point. This
means that any point on the Cartesian graph can be plotted
accurately by measuring the distance from the origin to the
point, first in the X direction, then in the Y direction, and then,
if applicable, in the Z direction.
EXERCISE : Incremental Coordinates
Fill in the X and Y blanks with the
appropriate incremental coordinates for
points A through H.
A: X_____, Y_____ B: X_____, Y_____
C: X_____, Y_____ D: X_____, Y_____
E: X_____, Y_____ F: X_____, Y_____
G: X_____, Y_____ H: X_____, Y_____
 6. TYPES Of CNC CONTROL SYSTEMS

6.1 Open-loop control: The open-loop control means

that there is no feedback and uses stepping motors for
driving the leadscrew . A stepping motor is a device
whose output shaft rotates through a fixed angle in
response to an input pulse. The accuracy of the system
depends on the motor's ability to step through the exact
number
• In open-loop control system step motors are used
• Step motors are driven by electric pulses
• Every pulse rotates the motor spindle through a certain
amount
• By counting the pulses, the amount of motion can be
controlled
• No feedback signal for error correction
• Lower positioning accuracy
• If the system performance is affected by load,
temperature, humidity, or lubrication then the actual
output could deviate from the desired output. For these
reasons the open -loop system is generally used in
point-to-point systems where the accuracy requirements
are not critical.
• Very few continuous-path systems utilize open-loop
control.
 STEPPING MOTORS
• A stepping motor provides open-loop, digital control of the
position of a workpiece in a numerical control machine. The
drive unit receives a direction input (cw or ccw) and pulse
inputs. For each pulse it receives, the drive unit manipulates
the motor voltage and current, causing the motor shaft to rotate
bya fixed angle (one step). The lead screw converts the rotary
motion of the motor shaft into linear motion of the workpiece
• The stepping motor is driven by a series of electrical
pulses generated by the MCU. Each pulse causes the
motor to rotate a fraction of one revolution. The fraction
is expressed in terms of the step angle, anpha, given by
• anpha = 360/N, degrees where N = number of pulses
required for one revolution
• If the motor receives "n" number of pulses then the total
angle,
• A = n (360/N), degrees
• In terms of the number of revolutions, it would be (n/N)
• If there is a 1 :1 gear ratio between the motor and the
leadscrew, then the leadscrew has (n/N) revolutions . If
the pitch of leadscrew is p (in/rev), then the distance
traveled axially, say x, x = p(n/N)
• can be used to achieve a specified x-increment in a
point-to-point system
• The pulse frequency, f, in pulses/sec determines the
travel speed of the tool or the workpiece .
• 60 f = N (RPM) where N = number of pulses per
revolution,
• RPM = RPM of the lead screw
• The travel speed, V, is then given by V = p (RPM)
where p pitch in in/rev
 6.2 Closed-loop Control Systems
• Closed -loop NC systems are appropriate when there
is a force resisting the movement of the
tool/workpiece . Milling and turning are typical
examples
• In these systems the DC servomotors and feedback
devices are used to ensure that the desired position is
achieved. The feedback sensor used is an optical
encoder shown in Figure . The encoder consists of a
light source, a photo detector, and a disk containing a
series of slots. The encoder is connected to the lead-
screw
• Both the input to the control loop and the feedback
signals are a sequence of pulses, each pulse
representing a BLU unit. The two sequences are
correlated by a comparator and gives a signal, by
means of a digital-to-analog converter, (a signal
representing the position error), to operate the drive
motor (DC servomotor)
• In closed-loop control systems DC or AC motors are
used
• Position transducers are used to generate position
feedback signals for error correction
• Better accuracy can be achieved
• More expensive
• Suitable for large size machine tools
• Optical Encoder (a) Device (b) Series of pulses emitted
• Open loop control system and Closed loop control system
 RECIRCULATING BALL SCREWS

• Transform rotational motion of the motor into

translational motion of the nut attached to the machine
table
Accuracy of CNC
machines depends
on their rigid
construction, care
in manufacturing,
and the use of ball
screws to almost
eliminate slop in
the screws used to
move portions of
the machine
 7. PART PROGRAM
• A part program is a series of coded instructions
required to produce a part. It controls the movement of
the machine tool and the on/off control of auxiliary
functions such as spindle rotation and coolant. The
coded instructions are composed of letters, numbers
and symbols and are arranged in a format of functional
blocks as in the following example
N10 G01 X5.0 Y2.5 F15.0
| | | | |
| | | | Feed rate (15 in/min)
| | | Y-coordinate (2.5")
| | X-coordinate (5.0")
| Linear interpolation mode
Sequence number

• The transfer of an engineering blueprint of a product to

a part program can be performed manually using a
calculator or with the assistance of a computer language
• A part programmer must have an extensive knowledge of
the machining processes and the capabilities of the
machine tools
• First, the machining parameters are determined . Second,
the optimal sequence of operations is evaluated . Third,
the tool path is calculated . Fourth, a program is written.
• Each line of the program, referred to as a block, contains
the required data for transfer from one point to the next.
• A typical line for a program is given below.
• N100 G91 X -5.0 Y7 .0 F100 S200 T01 M03 (EOB)
• Sequence Number, N: Consisting of typically three
digits, its purpose is to identify the specific machining
operation through the block number particularly when
testing a part program
• Preparatory Function, G: It prepares the MCU circuits
to perform a specific operation . The G-codes (some) are
shown in Table 1
• Dimension Words: Distance dimension words, X,Y,Z;
Circular dimension words, I,J,K for distances to the arc
center; Angular dimensions, A,B.C
• Feedrate, F: It is expressed in in/min or mm/min and, is
used in contouring or point-to-point or straight-cut
systems
• Spindle speed, S : Programmed in rev/min, it is
expressed as RPM or by a three-digit code
number that is related to the RPM.
• Tool-word, T: Consisting of a maximum of five
digits, each cutting tool has a different code
number. The tool is automatically selected by the
automatic tool changer when the code number is
programmed in a block.
• Miscellaneous Function, M: Consisting of two
digits, this word relates to the movement of the
machine in terms of spindle on/off, coolant on/off
etc shown in Table 2.
• EOB: The EOB character is used at the end of
each block to complete a line.