AET 05101: Philosophy of Adult Education

Unit 1
Philosophical principles guiding the practice of adult learning
Introduction
Dear learner, welcome to the first unit of philosophy of Adult Education module. In this
unit, we are going to define various terms used in the philosophy of adult education,
differentiate between Andragogy and Pedagogy. The final part of this unit explains
philosophical principles of adult education.
Learning outcomes:
Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:
a) Define various philosophical concepts
b) Differentiate between Andragogy and Pedagogy
c) Explain philosophical principles of adult education

Philosophy is defined in a different way over time. Etymologically, philosophy signifies the
love of wisdom. It is originated from the ancient Greek philosophia. Essentially, the word
philosophia, represent two other words, phileó (love) and sophia (wisdom), which means
love of wisdom. It is a study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence.
It can also be viewed as an activity, which people undertake when they seek to understand the
origin of truth about themselves, where they live, establish their relationships the world and
to each other in their community.
Philosophy as an academic discipline enables the learners to engage themselves in asking,
and answering basic questions about the reality they are facing. It helps us to investigate
about the nature and establish its causes. It is a principle of reality, knowledge, or values
based on logical reasoning. Therefore, we can conclude that, philosophy is a discipline which
is concerned with questions on how we live (ethics); it establish various things, which exists
and establish their essential natures (metaphysics); it give us vital clue on how to establish
authentic knowledge (epistemology) and it reveals accurate principles of reasoning (logic).
Philosophy as a subject of study, will therefore, help us to think clearly and sharply. It
enables us to read critically, analyze and assess arguments, outline and differentiate hidden
assumptions, construct reasonable and firm arguments, be able to express ourselves clearly
and precisely in both speech and writing.
Adult: a discussion about who is an adult began with defining what it means to be an ‘adult’.
Basing on the policy guideline, in Tanzania, an “adult” is a person who is 18 years and above.
This is a legal definition of an adult in Tanzania, and yet we have to think about secondary
school dropouts who enter adult education programmes to complete their secondary
education. We can also think of adult as a person who has assumed the social roles and
responsibilities expected of an adult, yet he or she is below 18 years. It is important to note
hare that, adults have more experience, adult have different kinds of experience, and adult
experience are organised differently. Therefore, adult experiences are rich source for
learning. They are engaged in learning because they want to improve their situation in adult
life such as health, dealing with family issues, or social/ community related issues or learning
for joy or for fun.

Adult education: is activities intentionally designed for the purpose of bringing about
learning those whose age, social roles, or self-perception, define them as adults. It can cover
learning about new gadget, equipment, new professional course, or learning new language.
Therefore, the purpose of adult education can be vocational, social, recreational or self-
development. It helps to provide a second chance for those who failed to access for other
reasons in order to achieve social justice and equal access to education. it provides an
opportunity for adult learner to satisfy their personal needs and achieve their professional
goals.

Lifelong learning: is a form of self-motivated education, which is focused on personal

development. It is learning that occurs outside of a formal educational institution, such as
school, college or university. It is voluntary with the purpose of achieving personal
fulfilment. Essentially, lifelong learning is voluntary, self-motivated or self-initiated, does not
always require a cost, often informal, self-taught or instruction that is sought, motivational is
out of personal interest or personal development. Therefore, lifelong learning should not only
be lifelong, from cradle to grave. It should be ‘life wide’ – recognizing the interplay of
informal, non-formal learning and formal learning in different life domains and life deep. It
should incorporate the religious, moral, ethical and social dimensions that shape human
expression.

Continuing education is a program of study designed to accommodate adult students at the

college or University level. It can help adult student to update their knowledge and skills in
any professional field. Continuing education has a number of potential benefits including
possibility of increasing your chances for promotion, improving your salary and it provides a
chance for employee to increase their chances for career transition. It can also help
employees to improve their image and marketability as well as improve their lifestyle and
increase personal development. Therefore, continuing education is important for career
growth and development.

Differentiate between Andragogy and pedagogy

Andragogy is a theory, which deals with adult learning. It entails ways in which adult learns
differently, compared to children learning process. Basing on this theory, it is clear that adult
learns best when they are self directed, internally motivated and ready to learn. It is a
growing body of knowledge in regarding to adult learning. Andragogy has a significant
contribution to the field of adult education. It makes a number of assumptions about adult
learning. The fist assumption posits that, adult need to know why they need learn something.
The second assumption hypothesizes that, adult need to learn experientially. The third
assumption assumes that, adult approach learning as a problem solving, and fourth, adult
learns best when the topic is of immediate value. Each of this assumption has implications for
adult education program design and its instruction. It also suggests that, the facilitator have
the responsibility of setting conducive climate for learning that physically and
psychologically respect adult learners. It calls for the need to involve adult learners in the
planning, delivery, and evaluation of their learning process.

Pedagogy comes from the Greek word ‘paid’ meaning child (plus ‘agogus’ meaning leader
of). Pedagogy means the art and science of teaching children. It can also be viewed as the
method and practice of teaching, which encompasses teaching style and teaching theory. It is
an indication of the way the teacher delivers the content of the curriculum to a class. It can be
viewed as an academic discipline, which focuses on how knowledge and skills are imparted
in an educational context. It can also viewed as an act of teaching adopted by teachers, which
is shaped by their actions, judgments and other teaching strategies. It recognizes the teacher
as a knowledge holder (the facilitator) and the student the recipient of knowledge (an agent).

The distinctive difference between Andragogy and Pedagogy is based on learners, learner’s
experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learning and motivation (Table 1).

The main Differences between Andragogy and pedagogy

 Pedagogy Andragogy

learners  The learner is dependent on the  Learners is self-directed and

instructor. moves towards independence

 The teacher schedules all the activities;  Learners is responsible for the
determining how, when and where they learning
should take place.
 Self-evaluation is seen
 The teacher is the one who is responsible
for what is taught and how it is taught.

 The teacher evaluates learning.

learner’s  There is little which could be gained  There large quantity of

experience from this kind of learning experience gained

 Method is didactic  Method used is problem

solving, discussion, service-
learning

Readiness  Standardized curriculum set which will  Curriculum is more application

to learn, be based on societal needs based and it revolves around life

orientation  Here, it is a process of acquiring subject  Here learning is for performing

to learning matter tasks and solving problems

Motivation  Motivation is by external pressure, and  It is driven by internal

there is lot of competition for grades motivation. Includes self-
actualization, self-confidence et
c.

The philosophical principles of adult education

The philosophy of adult education is the outcome of various thought system originates from
within particular social cultural context. The development of these thought is greatly
influenced by particular problems, issues, and challenges that existed in their culture. To
understand it, there is a need to look deep into the context in which it was originated and
developed. These are unique context, which made various philosophers to think differently
and come up with unique philosophical ideas on how best adult learn. Notable principles of
adult learning include self-directed learning, prior experience, readiness to learn, orientation
to learning, reason for learning and intrinsic motivation. These principles are echoed in
various philosophies, which offer descriptive line of focus on adult education, which
includes:
1. Liberal Adult Education has its beginnings in the philosophical theories of the
classical Greek philosophers, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.

 This liberal education tradition was adopted and adopted in the Christian school in
early, medieval, and modern times.

 It become the predominant educational theory in the western world and is still a
strong force in educational thought today.

 The emphasis in this traditions is upon liberal learning, organized knowledge, and
the development of the intellectual powers of mind.

2. Progressive adult education has its beginnings in the progressive movement in

politics, social change, and education.

 This approach to educational philosophy emphasizes such concept as the

relationship between education and society, experience-centred, vocational
and democratic education.

 Various educational practices are inspired by this philosophical orientation:

Americanization education, English as a second language, and community
movement.

 Leading progressive educators include William James, John Dewey, and

William Kilpatrick.

3. Behavioural Adult Education

 Has its roots in modern philosophic and scientific movements:

 Behaviourism in adult education emphasizes such concept as control,

behavioural modification, learning through reinforcement, and management
by objectives.

 Early behaviorists includes Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov, James Watson,

and B.F. Skinner.

 Various adult education practices have been inspired by this philosophic view:
programmed learning; behavioural objectives, and performance based
educational programs.

 Behaviourist principles are also predominant in industrial and corporate

training programs.

4. Humanistic adult education

 Is related in its development to sentential philosophy and human psychology.

  The key concepts that are emphasized in his approach in this approach are
freedom and autonomy, trust, active cooperation, and participation, and self-
directed learning.

 Among adult educators, Malcolm Knowles is prominent in exposing this

orientation in his needs-meeting and learner centred Andragogial approach to
adult learning.

5. Radical or Critical Adult Education

 It is derived from the various radical movements that have emerged in the past
three centuries.

 Anarchism, Marxism, Socialism, critical theory and radical feminism.

 The radicals in education propose education as a force for achieving radical

social change.

 Education in this view point is closely connected with social, political, and
economic, understanding of cultures, and with the development of methods to
bring people to the awareness of responsible social action.

 E.g. Paulo Freire – who has proposed radical concientization as a true function
of education.

 Education practice inspired by this practice include the freedom schools in the
south during the 1960s; free schools.

6 Analytic philosophy of adult education

 It has made a significant contribution to adding intellectual rigor (stubbornness) to

the philosophy of adult education.

 It originated in such a movements as logical positivism, scientific positivism, and

British analytical philosophy.

 This approach to philosophy emphasises the need for clarifying concepts,

arguments, and policy statements used in adult education.

 Scholars such as Thomas Green, Israel Schefler, R.S. Peters, Lawson and
Peterson. It attempts to establish a sound philosophic basis for field of adult
education.

7. Postmodern adult education

 It offers a trenchant (cutting edge) criticism of the entire enterprise of adult

education.

 It questions fundamental concepts such as truth, theory, reality, knowledge and

power.
  Scholars such as Tisdell and Taylor (2001)

What they have identified are not separate philosophy of adult education but merely
variations with the humanistic and radical or critical traditions

Unit summary
In this unit, we have discussed and defined various terms used in the philosophy of adult
education, differentiate between Andragogy and Pedagogy. The final part of this unit explains
philosophical principles of adult education and outlines seven perspectives on the philosophy
of adult education.
Unit 2
Demonstrate knowledge of branches of philosophy
Introduction
Dear learner, welcome to the second unit of philosophy of Adult Education module. In this
unit, we are going to demonstrate knowledge on the branches of philosophy. The process of
demonstrating knowledge of branches of philosophy requires each one to be able to identify
braches of philosophy, outline its basic features, and discuss the importance of studying
philosophy and its related branches.
The branches of philosophy
Why do we need to know the branches of philosophy? We need to know the braches of
philosophy in order to be able to understand the philosophy behind an action or idea. It helps
us to understand different thinking, evaluate its relevance and its applicability. It also helps us
to develop our own way of the thinking and analysing free from any kind of dependence on
somebody else’s principle and ideology. As such, the branches of philosophy include
metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and logic.
Metaphysics: Meta means after or beyond and physics stands for material reality.
Metaphysics is therefore interested in matters that are beyond or transcend material reality. It
is the systematic study of the ultimate nature of reality. At its core, the study of metaphysics
is the study of the nature of reality. In a broad context, it gives us a chance to question what
exists in the world, what it is like, and how it is ordered. As philosopher in the making, we
are wrestling with a number of questions concerning our existence and the existence of God.
This is a complex and challenging matter, which require deep understanding of the social
cultural context. When raising such questions, there is a need to make sure that our thinking
and discussion does not offend others.
The question about “truth” is another hot debate emanates from metaphysics. The notion of
‘what is truth’, give us a sharp edge, questioning the credibility of anything, which we come
across. Question such, as “is there any truth about the matter under scrutiny?” “Where can we
find the truth, does it exist, where does it come from? Who might benefit from it? This
question does not have direct and simple answers. It requires critical evaluation and careful
analysis of the fact presented before reaching any conclusion about the matter under scrutiny.
Other vital question, which does not have simple answer includes, what is a person? What
makes a person the same through the time? Do people have mind? If so, how is the mind
related to the body? Do people have free wills? Is the world strictly composed of matter?
What is it for one event to cause another? Hence, application of metaphysics enables us to:
  Identify real situation/needs of learners or student or community in order to prepare
development programmes, which meet the real needs of the students or community
people.
 Establish the causes/ reasons leading to the existing problem before taking any action.
 Establish sound training program that can enhance the community social wellbeing.

Epistemology: Epistemology is a Greek word, which means Episteme – stands for

knowledge or truth Logos – stands for the study or theory of knowledge. Epistemology
studies the nature, source and validity of knowledge. It is primarily concerned with what we
can know about the world and establishes mechanism that can help us to know it better. It
gives opportunity to question and understand the nature of reality. This branch seeks to
answer questions as

a) What is knowledge?
b) Do we know anything at all?
c) How do we know what we know?
d) Can we be justified in claiming to know certain thing?
e) What does it mean to know?
f) What are the sources of knowledge?
g) What is truth?
h) How do we come to know?
We can consider the application Epistemology in adult education:
 Selection process of learning knowledge /content, which is relevant to adult learners;
 Determination of appropriate methods/ facilitation strategies and techniques to be
used in the facilitation of adult leaning session.
The major sources of knowledge
i. Empirical knowledge is derived from the five major sources, which are hearing,
feeling, smelling, testing and seeing.
ii. Revealed knowledge is prime importance in the field of religion Revelation is God
communication regarding the divine will. The truth got or gained through this method
is said to be absolute and uncontaminated
iii. Authoritative knowledge is that kind of information that originates from the experts or
has been made authoritative over time by tradition. The importance of authoritative
knowledge is that it brings knowledge to all without each of us going out to search for
 that same information and to verify the knowledge claimed. Example light travels at
the fastest known speed, which is 299,793 kilometres per seconds. It saves time.
iv. Rational knowledge comes from reasoning thought or logic. The rationalist
emphasizing man’s power of thought and what mind contributes to knowledge.
v. Intuitive knowledge is derived from instances of intuition. Intuition involves an
instance of coming to know without having gone through the formal process of
reasoning or of an intermediate stage of thinking or sensory perception. Intuition
occurs beyond consciousness.
Epistemological assumptions enable us to select appropriate methods of teaching. It
gives us a sharp edge on understanding the role of both the teacher and adult learner
and their modes of interaction in an educational context. they set high standards for
achieving high standard in the teaching and learning.

Axiology: Is a branch of philosophy, which deals with values dynamisms relatively,

flexibility, norms, standards, validity.

Axiology gives us a room to as a number of questions concerning values. Such question

includes, what is of value? Are values within the object or are they made in the mind? What
are the criteria by which we select and rank values?

As human being, we are always involved in comparing and judging between two or among
several objects, individuals or options.
Axiology help adult education expert to achieve the following (Application /implications):
i. To review educational policies and programmes to suit the needs at hand.
ii. To avoid rigidity on performing management activities
iii. To set clear circulars, policies, standards, regulations in order to guide the
implementations.
iv. To set clear objectives to be achieved Human beings cannot live without their
values.
It is impossible to avoid the appearance or discussion of value issues in the classroom. Ethics
is a sub branch of axiology becomes essentially of concern if we are to live in moral and
morally responsible world. Some of the problem brought about by the bad use of science and
technology can be avoided if individuals are /were adequately enlightened or moral matters.
Teaching of aesthetics as well can’t be avoided in a school particularly in areas related to art,
music and literature in regard to school compound design, classroom features and encourage
effective learning; school uniform design, the physical environment and its attractiveness to
outsiders. The study of ethics in essential in the current world faced by the like hood of self –
destruction. While science claims to be neutral in its quest for knowledge, the use to which
the findings of science are put, calls for ethical considerations. Think of issues like abortion,
nuclear armament etc. The study of axiology is of special reference to educators who live in
this modern time. Which have experienced upheavals in value structures where values are in
state of flux.

Ethics
Ethics is a sub branch of axiology becomes essentially of concern if we are to live in moral
and morally responsible world. Some of the problem brought about by the bad use of science
and technology can be avoided if individuals are /were adequately enlightened or moral
matters.
Teaching of aesthetics as well can’t be avoided in a school particularly in areas related to art,
music and literature in regard to school compound design, classroom features and encourage
effective learning; school uniform design, the physical environment and its attractiveness to
outsiders. The study of ethics in essential in the current world faced by the like hood of self –
destruction. While science claims to be neutral in its quest for knowledge, the use to which
the findings of science are put, calls for ethical considerations. Think of issues like abortion,
nuclear armament etc.
The study of axiology is of special reference to educators who live in this modern time.
Which have experienced upheavals in value structures where values are in state of flux.
Logic
Logic is a branch of philosophy involves critical analysis evaluation/assessment, proper
choice of language /words. It is the study of good reasoning, by valid inference and
demonstration.
Logic is being defined as the science of reasoning, proof, thinking or inference. According to
Nyirenda and Ishumi (2002) logic as the study of principles and methods of correct reasoning
or valid inference. The interest is in examining the correctness of the product of reasoning
and the ground on which they rest.
The basic aim of logic as subject is to teach us to reasons
a) To present our thought and statements correctly Reasoning means the process of
collecting evidence, weighting it and drawing conclusions on the basis of those set of
activities.
b) Logic concerns itself with justification of ideas and statements.
c) Logic aims at helping people to improve the thought patterns
d) Logic is also interested a matters of validity and truth.
Logic and education
The goals of logic analysis is to improve our understanding of issues by putting them clear of
their ambiguities.
a) By examining educational principles and policies logic as a discipline helps us
to a clarification of language, concepts assumptions and evidence so as to
appraise the task of educating effectively.
b) Conducting evaluation and assessment of educational programmes and student
performance.
c) The use of proper language in delivering speeches conducting advocacy and
publicity of programmes for awareness creation.
d) Proper ways of preparing progress report of learners
e) Making rational decisions or plans
f) Setting performance indicators for weighing out worker’s performance in an
organization.
Aristotle was a father of logic and no one was allowed to question his say so. He was
mainly interested in deductive reasoning. One argues from general established case or
facts to a particular case or to another general case.

The contribution of philosophy

Philosophy has made tremendous contribution to the field of adult education training process
and program design significant. As such, philosophy helps:
i. To think clearly and present arguments with clarity;
ii. To be able to distinguish between sound arguments and faulty arguments;
iii. To understand that there are different ways of perceiving truth and reality and that
these can have implications for adult education;
iv. It assists in distinguishing that which is real from that which is not real;
 v. To identify knowledge that is appropriate and relevant to adult learners and their
method of knowing;
vi. It assists in differentiating between what is right and wrong, good and bad;
vii. It assists in clarifying moral issues in adult education programmes;
viii. It influences decision-making process especially on establishing teaching and learning
objectives, selection of instructional contents, selecting and/or developing
instructional materials, choosing teaching and learning methods and evaluating
educational outcomes.
Conclusion
Dear learner, in this unit we have discussed various branches of philosophy. I hope you are
now in a position to define and explain the meaning and features of each branch of
philosophy discussed. In addition, in this unit we have discussed the contribution of
philosophy in adult education. I hope you have enjoyed it and get ready for the next unit,
which focuses on the philosophers and their philosophical ideas in adult education.
UNIT 3
The philosophical ideas in adult education programmes

Introduction
Dear learner, welcome to the third unit of philosophy of Adult Education module. In this
unit, we are going to demonstrate knowledge on the philosophical ideas in adult education
programmes. The process of demonstrating knowledge of the philosophical ideas in adult
education programmes requires each one to be able to identify great philosophers and their
ideas in adult education, describe contribution of great philosophers in adult education, and
discuss relevance of philosophical ideas in planning and implementing adult education
programmes in Tanzania.

The great philosophers and their ideas in adult education

Ancient Great Thinkers

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe ancient philosophers and their contribution to the fields especially of

education.

1. Socrates, 470-399 BC

a) The greatest and most important philosopher yet he left no writings.

b) Most of what we know come from the writings of his disciples, Xenophpne and
Plato.

c) He lived during the period of transition in the Greek empire and later on he was
tried, convicted, and executed for corrupting the youth.

d) The methods used by Socrates to pursue clarity of thought is dialogue/question

and answer. e.g. ‘What is piety? (Goodness)

e) Asking questions to get the best out of his students and colleague.
 f) The most important thing in life is the moral character of their soul; search for
moral ideas; like justice and recognised one good, that is knowledge and one is
evil, that is ignorance.

g) To lead men to the truth; he is the world’s first Marty of truth.

h) Socrates wrote nothing but was engaged in a dialogue (the Socratic method) with
his colleague.

i) His motto was that, “ the unexamined life is not worth living”

j) His ultimate goal was to engage people to devote their lives to consider how to
live morally.

k) He collided with political leadership; he was accused of corrupting the youth and
was condemned to death.

l) He was the first philosopher to make a clear distinction between body and soul
and to place higher value on soul.

m) His examination of moral ideas such as piety and courage represent an important
first attempt to arrive at universal definition of terms.

n) He believed that a person must have knowledge of moral ideas to act morally.

2. Plato (427 – 347 BC)

Plato a philosopher and founder of the academy of Sicily were influenced by Socrates. He
was concerned with building ideals, strong and just society, hence a Republic. Plato and the
concept of the state. Plato admits that his account of the ideal state is only artistic
construction. He states that the republic is nowhere found on earth, but its pattern is found in
heaven.

There are three 3 classes of citizens the state corresponding to three parts in the individual.

i. The reasons - represent wise men that form the rules or guardian of the state. The
rules are sometimes called the philosopher kings. They are bright and intelligent.
ii. The high spirit – soldiers (helpers).
iii. The appetites - money-makers, artisans and traders.
The three classes are at first perhaps determined by the legislators and later on they breed
according to their nature in the future, Application of Philosophical Ideas in Adult Learning
Facilitation 21

The classes are not hereditary. Some children born of the educated rules fall short of the
requirements of wise men, and in the same way some children of the warriors and traders
may rise up to the talents of the rulers.

The selections made on the basis of education and constant test each class has to be educated
to perform task assigned to it according to its nature.

Each man must perform his social service in the state for which his nature was best adapted.

If one does one’s business, then justice in the state results. Hence justice in the state is the
outcome of working according to one’s capacity.

Education

Plato’s contributions to philosophy were in the areas of metaphysics, epistemology and

political thought.

a) The aim of education is that the child may be educated on the right lines concerning
pleasure, pain and dislike so that a correct habit may be formed with regard to what he
will learn about
b) Education has to be determined by judges and has to be conducted by experts.
c) Education has to be made compulsory for every child is on the womb. It relies on a
lifelong process.
d) Plato recommends the same education be provided to both male and female children.
Women should be involved and participated in all affairs even in the war.
e) The principle of education is “sound mind in a sound body” so early education begins
with the “exercises of body and the discipline of mind.”
f) Plato also recommends education through gymnastics for the body and music for the
soul.
g) Early education to children has to be given through play
h) At every level of education, a tests for higher education has been recommended by
Plato.
 i) Plato maintained that learning is really relearning or recollection property no individual
ownership of anything.

Plato and principle of egalitarianism; this means that men and women have the same
education and same tests for all types of responsibilities.

For him soul is immortal and morality is universal knowledge of Good.

 Aristotle believed that sense experience was the only source of knowledge and that
the essence of things could be discovered only through reasoning.
 The considered repetition to be a key tool to develop good habits. The teacher is to
lead the learners systematically Aristotle placed great emphasis on balancing the
theoretical and practical aspects of subject taught. He held the view and prescribed
that the upbringing and training of the young in the society should involve both moral
and political education.

Children and citizen in general should be taught the virtues and examples of both being
“good” (Moral behavior) and doing good (practicing good deeds). One of education’s
primary missions for Aristotle was to produce good and virtuous citizens for the society.
The important subjects mentioned by Aristotle included reading, writing, mathematics,
music, physical education literature, history, and a wide range of science.

The most important class is of the counsellors

The counsellors have to set their vision on their souls and fix their gaze on the good
which sheds light on all things. The counsellors or philosopher kings had to toil hard in
the service of the state and to educate others to become like themselves.

Women in the Republic

The women as rulers too had the same task and vision.
Their chief task will be the promotion of justice in the state. Women have to remain
servants and ministers of the law. They have to acquire the knowledge of the Good.

Plato and Curriculum

Adult Education from 20 – 30 years, Learners should concentrate on mathematics,

Science, Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy and Harmonics.
 Harmonics means /music/higher note produced when a note is played that has a fixed
relation to it.

This was a mixture of study and internship in public affairs.

From 30- 35 years: Those selected (the wise) were earmarked as future statesmen and
took five years’ study of dialectic (philosophy) the “science of Good”

From 35 – 50 years: Entailed internship in public affairs. These graduated as veritable

elites (guardians of state) at fifty.

This sound political system and sound educational system based on individual abilities
was Plato’s ideas of a just and strong society.

3. Aristotle (384 – 322 BC)

Aristotle was born in 384 BC in Stageira. At the age of 17 years was enrolled in Plato’s
Academy. He made different visits lecturing to nearby cities and towns.

In 335 BC Aristotle returned to Athens and opened his own school the Lyceum where he
taught Alexander the Great.

- Aristotle was a scientist, logician and an austere thinker. He was known as

encyclopedic genius.
- Aristotle viewed education as a branch of politics.
- Education must be monopolized by the state.
- Education must reflect the nature of the society.
- Aristotle was credited as the father of logic and biology.
- To him, form and things go together. Concepts do delineate the nature of reality.

Aristotle regarded that both dedication and induction are necessary in acquiring
knowledge.

Education

 Aristotle believed that sense experience was the only source of knowledge and that the
essence of things could be discovered only through reasoning.

 The considered repetition to be a key tool to develop good habits. The teacher is to lead
the learners systematically Aristotle placed great emphasis on balancing the theoretical
 and practical aspects of subject taught. He held the view and prescribed that the
upbringing and training of the young in the society should involve both moral and
political education.

Children and citizen in general should be taught the various and examples of both being
“good” (Moral behavior) and doing good (practicing good deeds).

One of education’s primary missions for Aristotle was to produce good and virtue citizens
for the society. The important subjects mentioned by Aristotle included reading, writing,
mathematics, music, physical education literature and history and a wide range of science.
Logic is the study of the principles and methods of correct reasoning or valid inference. In
logic interest in examining the correctness of the products of reasoning and the grounds or
premises on which they rest.

The basic aim of logic as a subject is to teach us to reason (to present our thoughts and
statements – correctly.)

The three kinds of government discussed by Aristotle

i. Monarchy is the rule by one wise man, superior to all his compeers in virtue and
wisdom.
ii. Aristocracy the rule by a few wise rulers.
iii. Oligarchy, the rule of the few rich and powerful men who do not consider the
good of the poor.

Aristotle along with Plato regarded the sun and moon and stars as divine with superior
intelligences. They were supposed to be created by God and were regarded as eternal.

Being perfect they moved in the sky with perfect circular motion. The earth was the
centre of this universe. They were also supposed to influence the life and conduct of men.

- Science is considered to be the highest knowledge because it is the purest knowledge of

causes, for its own sake, without any ulterior end.

Metaphysics knowledge is much more than scientific knowledge it is called wisdom; it is

concerned with the first and most universal cause, it wants to know the final cause of all
things. A final cause is the end and purpose for which a thing is.
Renaissance philosophers

It prevailed in the West from 1450 – 1850. The aim of this educational theory as it was found
in the writings of Thomas Moore, Martin Luther, and Ignatius of Loyola was:

i. To produce gentleman scholar; Cultured gentlemen; fit for the demands of citizenship
in the world of commerce and the worldly court.

ii. It was offered to a small number of women from the upper class.

iii. It included training for the services in the church.

iv. It focuses on developing autonomous and responsible individuals.

They emphasise on the use of education as a means of promoting the wellbeing of human and
individuals.
It prevailed in the West from 1450 – 1850. The aim of this educational theory as it was found
in the writings of Thomas Moore, Martin Luther, and Ignatius of Loyola was:

i. To produce gentleman scholar; Cultured gentlemen; fit for the demands of citizenship
in the world of commerce and the worldly court.

ii. It was offered to a small number of women from the upper class.

iii. It included training for the services in the church.

iv. It focuses on developing autonomous and responsible individuals.

They emphasise on the use of education as a means of promoting the wellbeing of human and
individuals.
CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHERS (PAULO FREIRE, NYERERE).

1 PAULO FREIRE

• The most prominent philosopher of adult education in the radical tradition is the
Brazilian educator, Paulo Freire.

• His philosophy of education provides the example of an educator who advocates a

revolutionary pedagogy for both developing and industrialized countries.

• Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970b) marks the turning point in his thought.
• He assimilated phenomenology, an examination of consciousness and its various
states, and Marxist thought.

His writing after this time become more radical, analytical and dialectical.

• Freire’s general and educational philosophy are found in these words: a vision of
humans and their world, dialogue praxis, a teacher learner relationship, social
analysis, human liberation, and the Marxist concepts of denouncing and announcing
world views and consciousness.

• To be human is to be an actor in the world and seek to guide ones own destiny.

• To be free, to be an actor in the world, means knowing one’s identity and realizing
how one has been shaped in ones social world and environment.

• The condition of oppression is what Freire calls the culture of silence. The culture of
silence can come from either ignorance or education.

FREIRE’S EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES

• For Freire, traditional education equals banking education in which students receive,
file, store deposits. Knowledge in this view is seen as a gift bestowed on students by
the teacher.

• It offends the freedom and autonomy of students and domesticates them since it
emphasizes the transfer of existing knowledge to passive objects who must memorize
and repeat this knowledge.

• This type of education is a form of violence for in imposing curricular, ideas, and
values.

• It submerge the conscious of the student and produces an alienated consciousness.

• He gives a ready-made view of the social reality.

• Participants must be free to create a curriculum along with a teacher.

• Freire’s problem posing education is thus based upon respect, communication, and
solidarity.
 • Freire’s educational philosophy is not only political but it is also a revolutionary
pedagogy.

• He considered his main contribution to a theory of revolution especially on his

emphasis on the dialogical nature of revolutionary action, according to which leaders
should be in constant dialogue with the people at all points of revolution.

• Freire’s philosophy and methodology has relevance for any group that is concerned
with such issues as oppression, liberation, consciousness raising, and community
political and social action.

• Freire’s philosophy and methodology lies in its questioning of two basic educational
assumptions.

• The first of these is the presumed neutrality of education.

• Second, the relative status of teacher and student and the psychological effects that
existing methods have on students.

• It was Freire’s contention that education can be for liberation only if equality were
established between teachers and students.

The lives, experiences, insights, questions and problem of students must form the centre
of the educational process.

Julius Nyerere (1922 – 1999)

Lifelong learning and education

One of Africa’s most respected figures, Julius Nyerere (1922 – 1999) was a politician of principle
and intelligence. Known as Mwalimu or teacher he had a vision of education and social action that
was rich with possibility.

The objective of socialism in the United Republic of Tanzania is to build a society in which
all members have equal rights and equal opportunities; in which all can live in peace with
their neighbours without suffering or imposing injustice, being exploited, or exploiting; and
in which all have a gradually increasing basic level of material welfare before any individual
lives in luxury. (Nyerere 1968: 340).
Nyerere’s educational philosophy can be approached under two main headings:

i. Education for self-reliance;

ii. Adult education, lifelong learning and education for liberation.

His interest in self-reliance shares a great deal with Gandhi’s approach. There was a strong
concern to counteract the colonialist assumptions and practices of the dominant, formal
means of education. He saw it as enslaving and oriented to ‘western’ interests and norms. His
critique of the Tanzanian (and other former colonies) education system as follows:

i. Formal education is basically elitist in nature, catering to the needs and interests of the
very small proportion of those who manage to enter the hierarchical pyramid of
formal schooling:
ii. The education system divorces its participants from the society for which they are
supposed to be trained.
iii. The system breeds the notion that education is synonymous with formal schooling,
and people are judged and employed on the basis of their ability to pass examinations
and acquire paper qualifications
iv. The system does not involve its students in productive work. Such a situation deprives
society of their much-needed contribution to the increase in national economic output
and also breeds among the students a contempt for manual work.

Nyerere set out his vision in ‘Education for Self Reliance’. Education had to work for the
common good, foster co-operation and promote equality. Further, it had to address the
realities of life in Tanzania. The following changes were proposed:

i. It should be oriented to rural life.

ii. Teachers and students should engage together in productive activities and students
should participate in the planning and decision-making process of organizing these
activities.

iii. Productive work should become an integral part of the school curriculum and provide
meaningful learning experience through the integration of theory and practice.

iv. The importance of examinations should be downgraded.

 v. Children should begin school at age 7 so that they would be old enough and
sufficiently mature to engage in self-reliant and productive work when they leave
school.

vi. Primary education should be complete in itself rather than merely serving as a means
to higher education.

vii. Students should become self-confident and co-operative, and develop critical and
inquiring minds.

Adult education, lifelong learning and learning for liberation

Julius Nyerere made a ringing call for adult education to be directed at helping people to help
themselves and for it to approached as part of life: ‘integrated with life and inseparable from
it’. For him adult education had two functions. To:

i. Inspire both a desire for change, and an understanding that change is possible.
ii. Help people to make their own decisions, and to implement those decisions for
themselves.

Its purpose is the liberation of Man from the restraints and limitations of ignorance and
dependency. Education has to increase men’s physical and mental freedom to increase their
control over themselves, their own lives, the environment in which they live.

This means that adult education has to be directed at helping men to develop themselves. It
has to contribute to an enlargement of Man’s ability in every way. In particular, it has to help
men to decide for themselves —in co-operation—what development is. It must help men to
think clearly; it must enable them to examine the possible alternative courses of action; to
make a choice between those alternatives in keeping with their own purposes; and it must
equip them with the ability to translate their decisions into reality.

Relevance of philosophical ideas in planning and implementing adult education

programmes in Tanzania
i. Adult education in pre-colonial Africa
ii. Adult education during colonial Africa
iii. Adult education during post colonial Africa
Adult education in pre-colonial Africa
During ancient times, education was part of the natural learning process in response for
struggle for survival. Older generations of matured adults trained the younger members of
their community or group about the knowledge and skills, which they needed and were
deemed fit to be passed on.
In pre-literate societies (before invention of the written, standardised and codified script)
much of the knowledge and skills were transmitted by oral means through imitation. Later on,
written scripts were developed and preservations and transmission of knowledge become
highly structured. This process of transmission of knowledge and skills gave rise to making
of society, culture, and institutions. Schooling as a formal and organized institutions of
knowledge transmission come into existence during 3000 to 500 BC in Egypt and India.
Modern schooling and education, which is more dominant today, is largely of European
origin and can be dated back to 1770. Adult education is all around us as long as we try to
make a living, whether individually or collectively. Whether we are engaged with each other
in doing one thing or another, one can see many example of the way learning takes place.
Learning is an act or process of gaining experience, knowledge and skills. In contrast,
memory consist of an individual capacity to store, retrieve, and act further on the knowledge.
We become novices to experts based on our capacity to learn and gain new skills and
knowledge. Our brain makes new pathway and connections based on reliability and
predictability of our experiences. The history of Adult education in Africa goes back to many
thousands of years, where its origins are to be found embedded in the life of various African
culture. This history is linked to the history of African societies at large, documenting success
and failures. It tells us about how society has dealt with challenges from the environment and
often with adult education addressed inequalities and injustice that have been a very real part
of the African experience. The narrative is laden simultaneously with excitement, joy, pain,
victory, defeat, glory, struggle and triumph. It reveals to us where we stand, compared to the
rest of the world.
Africa was the first continent to know literacy and to institute a school system thousands of
years before the Greek letters “Alpha” and “Beta” the root of the world alphabet were
invented and before the use of Latin word scholar, from which the word school derives.
The tribes of ancient Egypt – wrote, read, administered, philosophical contemplated the
beyond and caressed the infinite using the first aid to writing papyrus.
Adult education in Africa is very old, and that Africans should be proud of their great past. A
survey of the historical records of Adult education in Africa reveals that in some countries,
pre-colonial adult education is not given great prominence, whereas in others, adult education
appears to have experienced rapid growth during the colonial period and after independence.
Chronologies that place the west at the centre of knowledge production do Africa a huge
injustice for failing to recognise and acknowledge her contributions. No study of education in
Africa is complete or meaningful without adequate knowledge of the traditional or
indigenous education prevalent in Africa prior to the introduction of Islam and Christianity.
Education in Africa was generally for an immediate induction into society and preparation for
adulthood; and emphasised social responsibility; job orientation; political participation; and
spiritual and moral values. eg. Apprenticeship training programmes provided an opportunity
for the preparation of herbalist, hunters, soldiers, traders, security officials, rulers, solders and
traders. The aim of traditional African education is multilateral and the end objective is to
produce an individual who is honest, respectable, skilled, cooperative, and conforms to the
societal order of the day.
The knowledge of these sciences is contained in written forms in Ethiopia, and the Nile
Valley and in oral forms and narrative in rest of the continent. Example of these geniuses of
creative ingenuity are the pyramids of Egypt, Mummies and their mummification;
i. the great palatial buildings of Meroe and Aksum from Ethiopia.
ii. Great Zimbabwe.
Throughout antiquity (Egypt) would remain the classic land where the Mediterranean people
went pilgrimage to drink at the fountain of scientific, religious, moral and social knowledge,
the most ancient such knowledge that mankind had acquired. Gao and Timbukt, Egypt and
Ethiopia centre of learning. Many practices in African societies were linked to adult learning
as an integral part of life. Forms of adult learning were already in place in ancient Africa, and
any chronological order. Overviews of adult education in Africa would be incomplete,
without reference to these ancient sites of knowledge production.
2 Adult education during colonial Africa
Many African countries had diverse traditional forms of adult education, which merged with
the modern forms adult education introduced to Africa by Missionary (Christian & Muslim).
Colonialism brought adult education programmes especially those which prepared the under
reached (sick), out of school population, for a leaving through in-service; evening classes,
and correspondent courses.
This training focuses on:
i. Acquisition of skills;
ii. Knowledge;
 iii. Technique required for effective job performance.
Nigeria was home to one of the highest concentrations of pre-colonial in Africa. It had
elaborate structures that included adult education where the art of crafting, storytelling and
preservation of information relating to the family lineage, was passed on. E.g. The Hausa
and the Fulani in Northern Nigeria received Islamic and Arabic influence in education much
earlier on, and established Islamic centres that become off-shoots of civilisation in the regions
under pre-colonial state such as Kanem-Borno and Kanuri.
In Tanzania, according to Mushi and Bwatwa, 1860 is the starting point of adult education in
Tanzania. In 1860s Christian Missions established literacy classes to enable their convents to
read religious literature. Colonia penetration in Tanganyika (Tanzania today) marked the
beginning of formal adult education in Tanzania. They do not acknowledge that Tanzania had
a sophisticated adult education system before the advent of European missionaries.
In Zanzibar and Pemba and the coastal towns, where due to Islamic influence and culture
adult education did take place even though it was for religious instruction only. The writings
of Shabaan Robert and Mwana Heri produced in Arabic are examples of the early literacy
and adult education culture in Tanzania.
In Zimbabwe, 1898 activities of the Hope Fountain Mission in Matabeleland when it opened
the training school for adults with the aim of producing elementary school and industrial
teachers.
Note that: Some forms of adult education did exist before then.
3.ADULT EDUCATION IN POST COLONIAL PERIOD
There has been several development of adult education during post-colonial period. These
developments were made by initiating different policies/Plans such as;
i. The 1969 Adult Education Year/Policy
ii. Was the first Official Policy on Adult Education launched in 1969 and implemented in
1970.The National Executive Committee (NEC) declared 1970 as an adult education
year
OBJECTIVES
i. Train Basic Literacy(3rs) to country’s citizens
ii. Foster nation-wide understanding of the policy of socialism and self- reliance
iii. To instill Tanzanians with realization that change was possible in order to improve
living conditions
 iv. "Learning about everything at all that helps us to understand the environment we
live in and the manner which we can use and change this environment in order to
improve ourselves." (Nyerere, 1973, p 138).
The First Five Years Development Plan
Was among the policy derived from national development plans. In this policy plan,
education to adult population was considered a priority since their impact on development
was immediate. The government then thought for a better mechanism to reach the objectives
and contents of the plan.
Thus Mass Campaign were essential tool to reach this end; they include;
• To plan is to choose
• The First Five- Year Development Plan 1964/65 - 1968/69 stated that "The purpose of
government expenditure on education must be to equip Tanzanians with the skills and
knowledge which are needed if the development of this country is to be achieved"
(United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, 1964, p xi).
• It is thus clear that training efforts should be directed to areas which may produce
results in the present, not at later times. As a consequence of this policy, Tanzania's
participation in the world experimental literacy programme was later included in the
plan.
The Prime Ministers Directives
a) This was a directive/statement which emphasized on workers’ education for the
purpose of raising workers intellectual and professional capacities so as to raise
national income and liberating them. Thus provision of workers’ education at all
work places was insisted for both literates and illiterate workers.
b) Workers educational officers were responsible for workers’ education
c) 10% of the budget was set aside for worker education at work places
d) The Second Five Years Development Plan
e) Was a policy statement (1969-1974) which emphasized the promotion of rural-
development.
f) This plan went simultaneously with the promotion of Adult Education where by
practical skills and political education were considered as important tools for
development.
g) Likewise, simple training on agricultural techniques, craftsman, health education,
simple economics, accounting, and citizen responsibility were insisted.
 h) Institutions like Primary Schools were involved and were charged with the
responsibility of promoting adult education.
i) They were used as centres for adult education.
j) Primary school teachers were facilitators of literacy classes and were paid
honoraria.
k) The Musoma Resolution
The Third Five Year
• The Plan was for Economic and Social Development (1976/77 - 1980/81).
• The emphasis was related the educational services to the villagisation programme.
a) In connection with adult education the plan sets forth the objectives and targets as
to implement with more accuracy the policy of education as part of work, and to
enable every Tanzanian to read and write so as to help them use this knowledge in
their daily activities.
b) All institutions should set aside funds for carrying out the programmes;
c) Workers' education should be carried out during normal working hours for at least
one hour per day;
d) All workers must attend classes organized by their respective institutions as part of
their obligation to work;
e) Labor officers in the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare will have the right to
inspect and supervise the implementation of workers' education programmes in all
institutions and
f) every institution must form a workers' education committee whose main function
would be to review the programmes and advise the Workers' Education Officer on the
workers' education programmes at the work place (Kassam, 1978, p 83 - 84). S I D A
5.1.4 5.1.5 ££9.
Already before 1973 a Workers' Education Section was functioning within the National
Institute for Productivity. However, because of the PM'S directive a Division of Workers'
Education was created in the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare in 1974.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF EDUCATION

i. INDIGENOUS AFRICAN EDUCATION

• It was education/ system of education before the coming of the colonialist and their
formal education system.
 • It was informal system of education characterised by lack of written curriculum.
• It emphasised on the well being of the community.
• It prepared individuals to become active participants in the social, political and
economic activities for the well being of the community.
• It was offered through apprenticeship model.
• It was transmitted by using oral methods – story telling and copying from the expert.
• The best example is jando na unyago; blacksmith etc.
• It was passed from one generation to another orally.
ii. INFORMAL EDUCATION

• It refers to a process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes and values from day
today experience as individual interacts and with the environment.
• It takes place naturally and unconsciously.
• It is not planned;
• It is not structured;
• It is unsystematic;
• It is uncoordinated;
• It does not occupy any predetermined way.
• It can be obtained from members of the family or the community.
• It helps member of the community to learn from each other and live peacefully in
their community.
iii. Lifelong learning

• It is a learning process which denote that learning is a process of acquiring

knowledge, skills, and values that derives from a wide range of experience.
• It covers life time of the person.
• It does not have age limit.
• It is a continuous process of learning throughout the life span of a person.
• The learning process can cover both formal and informal learning process.
• It can be planned or unplanned.
The necessary of Lifelong learning:
i. There are certain things which we need to know but were not taught in school.
ii. Some of the information we acquired in schools has been forgotten.
iii. New developments have occurred in knowledge, skills and in values.
iv. Some of the things which we learnt have been declared obsolete/outdated by new
scientific and technological discoveries.
v. The circumstance under which we live and work are constantly changing.
vi. National development priorities change from time to time.
iv. Formal Education
• It is officially organised and controlled education;
• It is planned;
• It is logical and orderly;
• It is systematic;
• Its record is properly stored;
• It is provided in a formal manner and the classroom are well established.
• The material used are published and stored.
v. Adult Education
• Adult education is any organised education process, regardless of the content, level,
and methods formal or informal or otherwise.
• Adult learners are – self directed; task centred; problem centred; They come to the
class by their own volition/wish; They aim to acquire knowledge.
• The purpose of adult education is to facilitate personal growth through critical
thinking and reflection.
• To provide learners with opportunity to scrutinize and question their current ways of
thinking and acting .
• Adults participate in their education for many reasons:
 They want to make sense of their world, find meaning and be competent on matters
they believe to be important.
 They are culturally diverse and bring multiple and multifaceted perspectives to the
learning environment.
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