Introduction to Urban Water

Distribution
Second Edition

Volume 2: Problems & Exercises

IHE Delft Lecture Note Series

ISSN: 1567-7052
Introduction to Urban Water
Distribution

Problems & Exercises

Second Edition

Nemanja Trifunović
Second edition published 2020
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In theory the sky is the limit, but in practice it is time.
Contents

Preface to the second edition xi

Introduction xiii

1 Workshop problems 1
1.1 Water demand 1
1.2 Single pipe calculation 5
1.3 Branched systems 8
1.4 Looped systems 15
1.5 Hydraulics of storage and pumps 17
1.6 Examination problems 31
1.7 Examination true-false tests 87

2 Network modelling workshop 109

2.1 Learning objectives and set-up 109
2.2 Case introduction 111
2.3 Preparing the models 114
2.3.1 Modifying and loading the backdrop map 114
2.3.2 Adjusting nodal elevations 114
2.3.3 Adjusting the seasonal variation factor and the
nodal demand of the factory 114
2.3.4 Saving the information 115
2.4 Questions part 1 – direct pumping 115
2.4.1 Pump selection 115
2.4.2 Pump operation 118
2.4.3 System extension 121
2.4.4 Future demand 122
2.4.5 System failure 123
2.5 Questions part 2 – balancing storage 124
2.5.1 Tank location 124
2.5.2 Pressure optimisation 127
2.5.3 Future demand 128
viii Contents

2.5.4 Water tower 129

2.5.5 Fire demand 131
2.6 Epanet raw case network model – cws.net (INP-format) 132
2.7 Answer sheets – solutions 1/150 135

3 Network design exercise 151

3.1 Learning objectives and set-up 151
3.2 Case introduction – the town of Safi 152
3.2.1 Topography 153
3.2.2 Supplying source 154
3.2.3 Population distribution and future growth 154
3.2.4 Distribution system 155
3.2.5 Water demand and leakage 156
3.2.6 Financial elements 157
3.3 Questions 158
3.3.1 Hydraulic design 158
3.3.2 System operation 159
3.4 Hydraulic design 161
3.4.1 Preliminary design concept 161
3.4.2 Nodal consumption 166
3.4.3 Network layout 167
3.4.4 Pumping heads and flows 187
3.4.5 Storage volume 193
3.4.6 Summary of the preliminary hydraulic design 196
3.5 System operation 197
3.5.1 Regular operation 197
3.5.2 Factory supply under irregular conditions 212
3.5.3 Reliability assessment 223
3.6 Final layouts 227
3.6.1 Alternative A – direct pumping 227
3.6.2 Alternative B – pumping and balancing storage 231
3.6.3 Phased development 235
3.6.4 Cost analyses 236
3.6.5 Summary and conclusions 240

4 Network rehabilitation exercise 241

4.1 Learning objectives and set-up 241
4.2 Case introduction – Nametown 243
4.2.1 Topography 244
4.2.2 Supply source and distribution system 245
4.2.3 Water demand and leakage 248
4.2.4 Financial considerations 253
 Contents ix

4.3 Design steps and corresponding questions 254

4.3.1 Current demand scenario 254
4.3.2 Future demand scenario 255
4.3.3 Pumping station design 256
4.3.4 Cost calculations 259
4.4 The layout of the design report 259
4.5 The tutorial 261
4.5.1 Base demand modelling (Question 3.1.1) 261
4.5.2 Modelling of hotel demand (Question 3.1.2) 264
4.5.3 The range of network demand in the current
scenario (Question 3.1.3) 265
4.5.4 The range of pressures and gradients in the current
scenario (Question 3.1.4) 267
4.5.5 Renovation plan in the current demand scenario
(Question 3.1.5) 271
4.5.6 The balancing volume of the source tank (Question 3.1.6) 277
4.5.7 Preliminary location of the pressure-reducing valve
(Question 3.1.7) 281
4.5.8 Future demand growth (Question 3.2.1) 288
4.5.9 Future demand modelling (Question 3.2.2) 292
4.5.10 Connection of the second source (Question 3.2.3) 296
4.5.11 Renovation plan in the future demand scenario
(Question 3.2.4) 298
4.5.12 Selection of the actual pump units (Question 3.3.1) 312
4.5.13 Pump motor selection (Question 3.3.2) 320
4.5.14 Transformer and diesel generator capacity
(Question 3.3.3) 324
4.5.15 Pumping station layout (Question 3.3.4) 325
4.5.16 Piping and head losses (Question 3.3.5) 326
4.5.17 NPSH calculation (Question 3.3.6) 329
4.5.18 Cost calculation of investments (Question 4.3.1) 330
4.5.19 Cost calculation of operation and maintenance
(Question 4.3.2) 333
4.5.20 Calculation of total costs (Question 4.3.3) 333

5 Minor loss factors 335

5.1 Bends and elbows 335
5.2 Enlargements and reducers 336
5.3 Branches 337
5.4 Inlets and outlets 338
5.5 Flow meters 339
5.6 Valves 339
x Contents

6 Hydraulic tables, D = 50–1600 mm, S = 0.0005–0.02 343

6.1 k = 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1 and 5 mm at T = 10º C 343
6.2 k = 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1 and 5 mm at T = 20º C 355

7 Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 367

7.1 Single pipe calculation 368
7.2 Pipes in parallel and series 375
7.3 Branched network layouts 381
7.4 Looped network layouts 383
7.5 Gravity supply 387
7.6 Pumped supply 393
7.7 Combined supply 400
7.8 Water demand 404

8 EPANET – Version 2 417

8.1 Installation 417
8.2 Using the programme 418
8.3 Input data 425
8.3.1 Data preparation 425
8.3.2 Selecting objects 425
8.3.3 Editing visual objects 426
8.3.4 Editing non-visual objects 431
8.3.5 Editing a group of objects 434
8.4 Viewing results 435
8.4.1 Viewing results on the map 435
8.4.2 Viewing results with a graph 435
8.4.3 Viewing results with a table 438
8.5 Copying to the Clipboard or to a File 441
8.6 Error and warning messages 442
8.7 Troubleshooting results 443

9 Unit conversion table 445

Preface to the second edition

In 2016, precisely ten years after the book ‘Introduction to Urban Water Distribu-
tion’ was first published by Taylor & Francis, I decided to start work on a sec-
ond edition. I was inspired by numerous positive reactions from my students and
peers, a few of whom started using my materials in their educational programmes.
However, some of the contents gradually became outdated and an update with
newer information became inevitable.
Despite a lot of enthusiasm for this ambition, it took me nearly three years to
complete the work. This was because I took the opportunity to strengthen some
sections in the book with better elaborated principles, further expand the contents
with missing developments in the field, and also add new exercises tested in the
classrooms during the last 10–15 years. The result is this material which grew
from approximately 500 to 800 pages, with over 700 figures comprising various
diagrams, drawings, and computer layouts, including some 200 photos largely
from my own collection made during student fieldtrips, project missions, confer-
ence exhibitions, or simply by observing interesting water distribution practices
while biking on a sunny day around my area. The practical part of the book cov-
ered in the appendices has been nearly doubled, by adding two more computer
exercises with detailed tutorials, and the selection of 15 solved examination prob-
lems and true-false tests, given to the students in Delft in the period 2004 to 2019.
Consequently, the electronic materials accompanying this book have also been
upgraded with additional spreadsheet and computer modelling applications dis-
cussed in the workshop problems and exercises.
Following significant expansion, this book has been published in two volumes:
Volume 1 covering the theory (referred to in the table of contents as chapters 1
to 6), and Volume 2 covering the workshop problems and computer modelling
exercises (referred to in the table of contents as appendices 1 to 9). Although each
of the volumes can be studied separately, in many places in the chapters there
are references to the appendices, as well as some clarifications in the appendices
that contain references to the chapters/sections. Moreover, all electronic materi-
als have been attached to Volume 2, some of which are also mentioned in Vol-
ume 1. Hence, studying both volumes in parallel is the obvious and most effective
approach.
This book is used in several water distribution-related specialist modules of
the Master of Science programme in Urban Water and Sanitation at IHE Delft
Institute for Water Education, in Delft, the Netherlands. In addition, it is the core
xii Preface to the second edition

material in the online version of the short course ‘Water Transport and Distribu-
tion’ and is also used in various training programmes in capacity development
projects of IHE Delft. Participants in all these programmes are professionals with
various backgrounds and experience, mostly engineers, working in the water sup-
ply sector from over forty, predominantly developing, countries from all parts of
the world.
This current version is the summary of 25 years of development of IHE educa-
tional materials now put at the disposal of both students and teachers in the field
of water transport and distribution. On that long road I learned continuously from
consultations with experts from the Dutch water sector acting as guest lecturers in
our institute and also helping us to organise field visits for our students. A few of
the most important water companies in that respect are WATERNET Amsterdam,
EVIDES Rotterdam, WMD Assen, and also KWR research institute in Nieuwe-
gein. Furthermore, in my IHE career I have had numerous opportunities to inter-
act with the participants of my training programmes conducted abroad, who have
brought to my attention many applications that differ from Dutch and European
practice. All these ingredients have helped me tremendously to arrive at the result
that will hopefully satisfy the target audience.
Nemanja Trifunović
Introduction

This book was written with the idea of elaborating general principles and practices
in water transport and distribution in a straightforward way. Most of its readers
are expected to be those who know little or nothing about the subject. However,
experts dealing with advanced problems can also use it as a refresher of their
knowledge, while the lecturers in this field may wish to use some of the content in
their educational programmes.
The general focus in the book is on understanding the hydraulics of distribution
networks, which has become increasingly relevant since the large-scale introduc-
tion of computers and the exponential growth of computer model applications,
also in developing countries. This core is handled in Chapter 3 which discusses
the basic hydraulics of pressurised flow, and Chapter 4 which talks about the
principles of hydraulic design and computer modelling applied in water transport
and distribution. Exercises and tutorials resulting from these chapters are given in
appendices 1 to 4.
The main purpose of the exercises is to develop a temporal and spatial per-
ception of the main hydraulic parameters in the system for a given layout and
demand scenarios. The workshop problems in Appendix 1 are a collection of
calculi tackling various supply schemes and network configurations in a vertical
cross-section. Manual calculation is advised here, whilst the spreadsheet lessons
illustrated in Appendix 7 can help in checking the results and generating new
problems. On the other hand, the tutorials in appendices 2 to 4 discuss, step by
step, a computer-aided network design and renovation looking at the network
layout in a plan i.e. from a horizontal perspective. Each of these exercises has
been formulated with individual data sets that allows attempts with many differ-
ent source/terrain configurations and demand scenarios. To facilitate the calcula-
tion process, the EPANET software of the US Environmental Protection Agency
has been used as a network modelling tool. This programme has become popular
amongst researchers and practitioners worldwide, owing to its excellent features,
simplicity and free distribution via the Internet.
Furthermore, the book contains a relatively detailed discussion on water
demand (Chapter 2), which is a fundamental element of any network analysis,
and chapters on network construction (Chapter 5) and operation and maintenance
(Chapter 6).
Complementary to these contents, more on the maintenance programmes
and management issues in water distribution is taught in the Water Governance
xiv Introduction

programmes at IHE Delft. Furthermore, the separate subjects on geographical

information systems, water quality and transient flows, all with appropriate lec-
ture notes, make an integral part of the six-week programme on water transport
and distribution, which explains the absence of these topics from the scope of this
book.
The book comes with a selection of electronic materials containing the spread-
sheet hydraulic lessons, a copy of the EPANET software (Version 2.12) and the
entire batch of computer model input files and spreadsheet applications mentioned
in appendices 1 to 4. Hence, studying with a PC will certainly help to master the
contents faster.
The author and IHE Delft are not responsible and assume no liability what-
soever for any results or any use made of the results obtained based on the con-
tents of this book, including the accompanying electronic materials. However,
any notification of possible errors or suggestion for improvement will be highly
appreciated. Furthermore, any equipment shown in photographs is for illustrative
purposes only and is not endorsed or recommended by IHE Delft.
Appendix 1

Workshop problems

1.1 Water demand

Problem 1.1.1
Determine the production capacity of a treatment installation for a city with a
population of 1,250,000. Assume a specific consumption per capita of 150 l/d,
non-domestic water use of 30,000,000 m3/y and 12% of water production as phys-
ical loss.

Answer:
Qavg = 111,861 million m3/y or 3.55 m3/s.

Problem 1.1.2
A water supply company delivers an annual quantity of 15,000,000 m3 to a dis-
tribution area of 150,000 consumers. At the same time, the collected revenue is
6,000,000 EUR, at an average water tariff of 0.5 EUR/m3. Determine:

a) the delivery on an average consumption day,

b) the percentage of non-revenue water (NRW),
c) the specific consumption per capita per day, assuming 60% of the total deliv-
ery is for domestic use.

Note:
b) Express the NRW as a percentage of the delivered water.

Answers:
a) Qavg = 41,096 m3/day, or 1712 m3/h, or 475.6 l/s
b) NRW = 20.0%
c) q = 164 l/c/d
2 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Problem 1.1.3
A family of four pays for annual water consumption of 185 m3. Determine:

a) the specific consumption per capita per day,

b) the instantaneous peak factor at a flow of 300 l/h.

Answers:
a) q = 127 l/c/d
b) pfins = 14

Problem 1.1.4
An apartment building of 76 occupants pays for an annual water consumption of
4770 m3. Determine:

a) the specific consumption per capita per day,

b) the instantaneous peak factor during the maximum consumption flow of
5.5 m3/h.

Answers:
a) q = 172 l/c/d
b) pfins = 10

Problem 1.1.5
A residential area of 1200 inhabitants is supplied with an annual water quantity
of 63,800 m3, which includes leakage estimated at 10 % of the total supply. Dur-
ing the same period, the maximum flow registered by the district flow meter is
25.4 m3/h. Determine:

a) the specific consumption per capita per day,

b) the maximum instantaneous peak factor.

Note:
a) Specific consumption should not include leakage.
b) Peak factors include leakage unless the flow is measured at the service
connection.

Answers:
a) q = 131 l/c/d
b) pfins = 3.5

Problem 1.1.6
A water supply company delivers an annual volume of 13,350,000 m3. The
maximum daily demand of 42,420 m3 was observed on 26 July. The minimum,
 Workshop problems 3

observed on 30 January, was 27,360 m3. The following delivery was registered
on 11 March:

Table 1.1 Hourly fows on March 11 – Problem 1.1.6

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
m3 433 562 644 835 1450 1644 1856 1922 1936 1887 1721 1712

Hour 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
m3 1634 1656 1789 1925 2087 2055 1944 1453 1218 813 676 602

Determine:

a) delivery on an average consumption day and the range of seasonal peak

factors,
b) the diurnal peak factor diagram,
c) the expected annual range of peak flows supplied to the area.

Answers:
a) Qavg = 36,575 m3/day; pfseasonal = 0.748 – 1.160
b) Qavg = 1435.6 m3/h (on 11 March)

Table 1.2 Diurnal peak factors – Problem 1.1.6

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
pfh 0.302 0.391 0.449 0.582 1.010 1.145 1.293 1.339 1.349 1.314 1.199 1.193

Hour 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
pfh 1.138 1.154 1.246 1.341 1.454 1.431 1.354 1.012 0.848 0.566 0.471 0.419

Note that 11 March is not an average consumption day. The average flow derived
from the annual quantity is Qavg = 1524 m3/h.

c) Qmax = 2563 m3/h; Qmin = 343 m3/h

Problem 1.1.7
Estimated leakage in the area from Problem 1.1.6 is 20% of the daily supply, on
average. The leakage level is assumed to be constant over 24 hours. Calculate the
hourly peak factors for the actual consumption on 11 March.

Note:
Leakage of 20% means a constant flow (loss) of 287.1 m3/h on 11 March.

Answer:
Qavg = 1148.5 m3/h (the consumption)
4 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 1.3 Diurnal peak factors – Problem 1.1.7

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
pfh 0.127 0.239 0.311 0.477 1.013 1.181 1.366 1.424 1.436 1.393 1.249 1.241

Hour 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
pfh 1.173 1.192 1.308 1.426 1.567 1.539 1.443 1.015 0.811 0.458 0.339 0.274

Problem 1.1.8
The consumption calculated in Problem 1.1.7 consists of three categories:
domestic, industrial and commercial. The industrial category contributes to the
overall consumption with a constant flow of 300 m3/h, between 8:00 and 20:00
hours. The commercial category requires a flow of 100 m3/h, between 8:00 and
16:00 hours.

a) Determine the hourly peak factors for the domestic consumption category.
b) Assuming the industrial and commercial consumption to be constant through-
out the whole year, calculate the average domestic consumption per capita if
there are 200,000 people in the area.

Answers:
a) Qavg = 965.2 m3/h (the domestic consumption)

Table 1.4 Diurnal peak factors – Problem 1.1.8

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
pfh 0.151 0.285 0.370 0.568 1.205 1.406 1.626 1.279 1.294 1.243 1.071 1.062

Hour 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
pfh 0.981 1.004 1.142 1.386 1.554 1.521 1.406 1.208 0.965 0.545 0.403 0.326

b) q = 124 l/c/d

Problem 1.1.9
The registered annual domestic consumption is presently 38.2 million m3. Determine:

a) the consumption after the first 10 years, assuming an annual population

growth of 3.8 %,
b) the consumption after the following 10 years (11 to 20) assuming an annual
population growth of 2.2 %.

Compare the results of the Linear and Exponential models discussed in Sec-
tion 2.5.

Answers:
a) In 10 years from now: Qlin = 52.7 million m3; Qexp = 55.5 million m3
b) In 20 years from now: Qlin = 64.3 million m3; Qexp = 69.0 million m3
 Workshop problems 5

Problem 1.1.10
The following annual consumptions were registered in the period 2010–2015
(in million m3):

Table 1.5 Consumption 2010 to 2015 – Problem 1.1.10

Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Q (10 m )
6 3 125.4 131.8 138.2 145.4 152.6 159.9

Make a forecast for the year 2025.

Answer:
Q2025 = 260.7 million m3 (exponential growth of 5 %)

1.2 Single pipe calculation

Problem 1.2.1
A pipe of length L = 500 m, diameter D = 300 mm and absolute roughness k = 0.02
mm transports a flow Q = 456 m3/h. Determine the hydraulic gradient by using
the Darcy-Weisbach formula. The water temperature can be assumed to be 10° C.
Check the result by using the hydraulic tables in Appendix 6.

Answer:
By using the Darcy-Weisbach formula, S = 0.0079.
From the tables for k = 0.01 mm, S = 0.007 if Q = 434.1 m 3/h. If S = 0.010,
Q = 526.9 m3/h. By linear interpolation: S = 0.0077, which is close to the calcu-
lated result.

Problem 1.2.2
A pipe of length L = 275 m, diameter D = 150 mm and absolute roughness k =
0.1 mm transports a flow Q = 80 m3/h. Determine the hydraulic gradient by using
the Darcy-Weisbach formula. The water temperature can be assumed to be 15° C.
Check the result by using the hydraulic tables in Appendix 6.

Answer:
S = 0.0108;
From the tables for k = 0.1 mm, S = 0.010 if Q = 76.7 m3/h.

Problem 1.2.3
A pipe of length L = 1000 m and diameter D = 800 mm transports a flow Q = 1.2
m3/s. Determine the hydraulic gradient:

a) by using the Darcy-Weisbach formula for k = 0.2 mm,

b) the Hazen-Williams formula for Chw = 130,
c) the Manning formula for N = 0.010 m-1/3s.
6 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

The water temperature can be assumed to be 10° C.

Answers:
a) S = 0.0055
b) S = 0.0054
c) S = 0.0049

Problem 1.2.4
Determine the maximum capacity of a pipe where D = 400 mm and k = 0.5 mm
at the maximum-allowed hydraulic gradient Smax= 0.0025.The water tempera-
ture equals 10° C. Check the result by using the hydraulic tables in Appendix 6.

Answer:
Qmax= 429.8 m3/h
From the tables for k = 0.5 mm, Q = 384.9 m3/h if S = 0.002 and 473.2 m3/h for
S = 0.003. By linear interpolation: Qmax= 429.1 m3/h.

Problem 1.2.5
Determine the maximum capacity of a pipe where D = 200 mm at the maximum-
allowed hydraulic gradient Smax = 0.005:

a) if k = 0.01 mm,
b) if k = 1 mm.

The water temperature equals 10° C.

Answers:
a) Qmax = 123.1 m3/h
b) Qmax = 89.8 m3/h

Problem 1.2.6
Determine the maximum capacity of a pipe where D = 1200 mm and k = 0.05 mm
at the maximum-allowed hydraulic gradient:

a) Smax = 0.001,
b) Smax = 0.005.

The water temperature equals 10° C.

Answers:
a) Qmax = 5669 m3/h
b) Qmax = 13,178 m3/h
 Workshop problems 7

Problem 1.2.7
Determine the maximum capacity of a pipe where D = 100 mm and k = 0.4 mm
at the maximum-allowed hydraulic gradient Smax = 0.01. Use the Moody diagram
shown in Figure 3.9. The water temperature equals 10° C.

Answer:
Qmax = 22.6 m3/h.

Problem 1.2.8
Determine the pipe diameter that can transport flow Q = 720 m3/h at the maxi-
mum-allowed hydraulic gradient Smax = 0.002. The pipe roughness k = 0.05 mm.
Assume the water temperature to be 12° C. Check the result by using the hydrau-
lic tables in Appendix 6.

Answer:
D = 477 mm; the first higher manufactured diameter D = 500 mm delivers
820.0 m3/h.
From the tables for k = 0.05 mm and S = 0.002, Q = 818.2 m3/h for D =
500 mm.

Problem 1.2.9
A pipe, L = 450 m, D = 300 mm and k = 0.3 mm, conveys flow Q = 100 l/s. An
increase in flow to 300 l/s is planned. Determine:

a) the diameter of the pipe laid in parallel to the existing pipe,

b) the pipe diameter if, instead of laying a second pipe, the existing pipe is
replaced by a larger one,
c) the pipe diameter if the existing pipe is replaced by two equal pipes.

For all new pipes, k = 0.01 mm. Assume the water temperature to be 10° C.

Note:
The present hydraulic gradient has to be maintained in all three options.

Answers:
For S = 0.007

a) Q2 = 200 l/s; D2 = 363 mm (adopted D = 400 mm)

b) Q = 300 l/s; D = 423 mm (adopted D = 500 mm)
c) Q1 = Q2 = 150 l/s; D1 = D2 = 326 mm (adopted D = 350 mm)
8 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Problem 1.2.10
Find the equivalent diameters of two pipes connected in parallel, where L = 850
m and k = 0.05 mm, in the following cases:

a) D1 = D2 = 200 mm; Q1 = Q2 = 20 l/s,

b) D1 = D2 = 400 mm; Q1 = Q2 = 100 l/s,
c) D1 = D2 = 800 mm; Q1 = Q2 = 800 l/s.

The water temperature equals 10° C.

Answer:
For Q = Q1 + Q2

a) S = 0.0020; D = 259 mm (adopted D = 300 mm)

b) S = 0.0013; D = 520 mm (adopted D = 600 mm)
c) S = 0.0021; D = 1042 mm (adopted D = 1100 mm)

Problem 1.2.11
Find the equivalent diameters of two pipes connected in series, where L1 = 460 m,
L2 = 240 m, in the following cases:

a) D1 = 400 mm, D2 = 200 mm; Q = 80 l/s,

b) D1 = 200 mm, D2 = 400 mm; Q = 80 l/s,
c) D1 = 600 mm, D2 = 300 mm; Q = 400 l/s.

Assume for all pipes that k = 0.01 mm and the water temperature is 10° C.

Answer:
For L = 700 m

a) S = 0.0087; D = 246 mm (adopted D = 250 mm)

b) S = 0.0159; D = 217 mm (adopted D = 250 mm)
c) S = 0.0239; D = 368 mm (adopted D = 400 mm)

1.3 Branched systems

Problem 1.3.1
For the branched system shown in Figure 1.1, calculate the pipe flows and nodal
pressures for a surface level (msl) in the reservoir that can maintain a minimum
network pressure of 20 mwc. Assume for all pipes that k = 1 mm and the water
temperature is 10° C.
 Workshop problems 9

Figure 1.1 Network layout – Problem 1.3.1

Table 1.6 Nodal elevations and demands – Problem 1.3.1

Node 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Z (msl) - 18.2 26.5 16.2 13.6 16.3 14.8 13.1 11.3 12.8
Q (l/s) -79.0 4.5 12.4 11.4 9.9 5.2 11.1 3.3 10.4 10.8

Answer:
The surface elevation of 52.2 msl at node 1 results in the pressures shown in Fig-
ure 1.2. The minimum pressure appears to be in node 3 (20.0 mwc).

Figure 1.2 Pipe fows and nodal pressures – Problem 1.3.1

10 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Problem 1.3.2
The minimum pressure criterion for the branched system shown in Figure 1.3 is
25 mwc. Determine the surface level of the reservoir in node 1 that can supply
a flow of 50 l/s. What will be the water level in the second tank in this scenario?
Calculate the pressures and flows in the system. Assume for all pipes that k = 0.5
mm and the water temperature is 10° C.

Figure 1.3 Network layout – Problem 1.3.2

Table 1.7 Nodal elevations and demands – Problem 1.3.2

Node 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Z (msl) - 18.2 26.5 16.2 - 16.3 14.8 13.1 11.3 12.8

Q (l/s) -50.0 7.6 16.4 9.2 -34.9 15.2 11.1 9.3 8.3 7.8

Answer:
See Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 Pipe fows and nodal pressures – Problem 1.3.2

 Workshop problems 11

Problem 1.3.3
For the same system as in Problem 1.3.2 and the same surface levels in the reser-
voirs as shown in Figure 1.4, determine the pressures and flows if the demand in
node 8 has increased for 10 l/s and in node 10 for 20 l/s.

Note:
Flows in the pipes on the route 1-2-3-5 depend on the water surface elevation
difference between the reservoirs, which reflects the total head loss along this
route. A trial-and-error process can be applied for the exact flow distribution. This
is done until the correct position of the hydraulic grade line connecting the res-
ervoirs has been obtained from the friction loss calculation for each of the three
pipes. The two branches emerging from nodes 2 and 3 have fixed flow distribution
based on the downstream nodal demands, and their friction losses can be calcu-
lated afterwards. The nodal pressures in these branches will be influenced by the
reservoir elevations through the heads in nodes 2 and 3.

Answer:
See Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Pipe fows and nodal pressures – Problem 1.3.3

Due to the increase in demand, the minimum pressure point has moved from
node 3 to node 10.

Problem 1.3.4
Determine the pipe diameters for the layout shown in Figure 1.6, if the maximum-
allowed hydraulic gradient Smax = 0.005. Determine the surface level of the res-
ervoir at the supply point, which can maintain a minimum pressure of 20 mwc.
Assume for all pipes that k = 0.05 mm and the water temperature is 10° C.
12 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 1.6 Network layout – Problem 1.3.4

Table 1.8 Nodal elevations and demands – Problem 1.3.4

Node 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Z (msl) 17.6 18.2 16.0 21.4 - 18.0 16.5 19.0 20.4 22.7
Q (l/s) 5.0 7.6 9.9 3.5 -58.1 3.8 4.4 10.5 9.2 4.2

Answer:
Calculation of the pipe diameters based on S = 0.005 in each pipe gives the results
as shown in Figure 1.7. All nodal pressures in the branch emerging from node 2
are below 20 mwc, thus insufficient.

Figure 1.7 Pipe diameters/fows and nodal pressures for S = 0.005 in each pipe – Problem
1.3.4
 Workshop problems 13

The effect of rounding the pipe diameters to the first higher value can be seen
in Figure 1.8. The improvement of the nodal pressures is visible but is still not
sufficient.

Figure 1.8 Rounded pipe diameters/fows and nodal pressures – Problem 1.3.4

Consequently, a few diameters need to be further enlarged to bring all the pres-
sures above 20 mwc, which is shown in the final solution in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9 Final pipe diameters/fows and nodal pressures – Problem 1.3.4
14 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Problem 1.3.5
For the same system as in Problem 1.3.4 and the same surface level in the reser-
voir as shown in Figure 1.7, determine the pressures and flows if the demand in
nodes 6 and 7 has increased for 10 l/s. Change the pipe diameters where necessary
in order to meet the design criteria (Smax and pmin/ρg).

Answer:
By increasing the demand in nodes 6 and 7 to 13.8 and 14.4 l/s respectively, the
pressures in the network will be as shown in Figure 1.10. Nodes 6 to 10 have pres-
sure below 20 mwc. To satisfy the design pressure and hydraulic gradient, pipes
3–2, 2–9, 9–10, 9–8, 8–6 and 8–7 have to be enlarged (see Figure 1.11).

Figure 1.10 Pipe diameters/fows and nodal pressures – Problem 1.3.5

Figure 1.11 Pipe diameters/fows and nodal pressures for increased D – Problem 1.3.5
 Workshop problems 15

1.4 Looped systems

Problem 1.4.1
For the same system as in Problem 1.3.3 and the same surface levels in the reser-
voirs as shown in Figure 1.5, determine the pressures and flows if nodes 3 and 9
are connected with a pipe, where L = 780 m, D = 200 mm and k = 0.05 mm.

Note:
Remove all the branches and add their demands to the nodes of the loop 2-3-9-6.
A ‘dummy’ loop, 1-2-3-5, should be formed to determine the flows from the tanks.
ΔH1–5 = 53.5–52.7 = 0.8 mwc is kept fixed while balancing the heads throughout
the iterative calculation.

Figure 1.12 Network layout and nodal demands – Problem 1.4.1

Answer:
See Figure 1.13. Adding an extra pipe to create the loop significantly improves the
pressures as can be seen in comparison with Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.13 Pipe fows and nodal pressures – Problem 1.4.1

16 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Problem 1.4.2
For the same system as in Problem 1.3.5 and keeping the layout as shown in
Figure 1.11, determine the pressures and flows if nodes 2 and 8, and 3 and 6 are
connected with pipes with respective lengths of 680 m and 470 m. For both pipes
D = 150 mm and k = 0.05 mm.

Answer:
See Figure 1.14. As the figure shows, the pressures in the network will improve by
creating loops, compared to those shown in Figure 1.11.

Figure 1.14 Pipe fows and nodal pressures – Problem 1.4.2

Problem 1.4.3
For the layout shown in Figure 1.14, analyse the pressure in the system:

a) after the failure of pipe 9–8, and

b) after the failure of pipe 2–3.

What is the deficit of pressure to be provided at the supply point, in both cases?

Figure 1.15 Pipe fows and nodal pressures – Problem 1.4.3a

 Workshop problems 17

Answers:

a) There is no pressure deficit in the system caused by the failure of pipe 9–8
(Figure 1.15).
b) In this case, Figure 1.16 shows a severe drop of pressure in the system. The
observed maximum deficit is 37.3 mwc in node 8 (for pmin/ρg = 20 mwc).

Figure 1.16 Pipe fows and nodal pressures – Problem 1.4.3b

1.5 Hydraulics of storage and pumps

Problem 1.5.1
For the gravity system shown in Figure 1.17, find the maximum capacity of the
transport pipe, when L =3000 m, D = 800 mm and k = 0.5 mm, which can be
delivered with a pressure of 35 mwc at the entrance of the city. Assume the water
temperature to be 10° C.

Answer:
Qmax = 3782 m3/h

Figure 1.17 Distribution scheme – Problem 1.5.1

18 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Problem 5.2
For the same system as in Problem 1.5.1, a pumping station is built next to the res-
ervoir, as shown in Figure 1.18. The pump characteristics valid during the opera-
tion of all the pumps are shown in Figure 1.19.

Determine:
a) the maximum flow of the transport system that can be delivered to the city
with the same pressure as in Problem 1.5.1, and
b) the pressure at the entrance of the city if the pumping station delivers the
same flow as in Problem 1.5.1.

Figure 1.18 Distribution scheme – Problem 1.5.2

Figure 1.19 Pumping station Q/H curve – Problem 1.5.2

 Workshop problems 19

Answers:
a) From the graph in Figure 1.20, the pump delivers a maximum capacity of
±5630 m3/h. The pumping head of ±18 mwc is used in this case to cover the
friction loss increase.

Figure 1.20 Pumping station operation – Problem 1.5.2a

b) From the graph in Figure 1.21, the pump delivers a head of ±29 mwc. As the
entire friction loss is covered by gravity, the pumping head will be utilized to
deliver the pressure at the entrance of the city. Thus, pentr/ρg = 35+29 = 64 mwc.

Figure 1.21 Pumping station operation – Problem 1.5.2b

20 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

The hydraulic grade lines for both modes of operation are shown in Figure 1.22.

Figure 1.22 Hydraulic grade lines – Problem 1.5.2

Problem 1.5.3
For the combined system shown in Figure 1.23, find the maximum capacity and
corresponding pressure at the entrance of the city. Avoid negative pressures along
the route. The pipes are:

A-B: L = 2000 m, D = 600 mm, k = 1.0 mm,

B-C: L = 1200 m, D = 700 mm, k = 0.1 mm.

The pumping station operates according to the curve in Figure 1.19. The water
temperature can be assumed to be 10° C.

Figure 1.23 Distribution scheme – Problem 1.5.3

 Workshop problems 21

Note:
The theoretical maximum flow, without negative pressures, is reached for ΔHA-B
= 50–25 = 25 mwc.

Answer:
Qmax = 2596 m3/h. The pumping head for this flow is ±34 mwc. Consequently, the
calculated ΔHB-C = 4.3 mwc leads to a pC/ρg of 19.7 mwc.

Problem 1.5.4
For the system shown in Figure 1.24, determine the pressure at the entrance of the
city for a flow of 800 m3/h. The pipes are as follows:

A-B: L = 1500 m, D = 500 mm, k = 0.5 mm,

B-C: L = 1200 m, D = 400 mm, k = 0.1 mm.

Both pumping stations in A and B operate according to the curve shown in Fig-
ure 1.25. The water temperature can be assumed to be 10° C.

Figure 1.24 Distribution scheme – Problem 1.5.4

Figure 1.25 Pumping station Q/H curve – Problem 1.5.4

22 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Answer:
For Q = 800 m3/h, the total pumping head Hp = 70.4 mwc. ΔHA-B + ΔHB-C = 4.0 +
7.6 = 11.6 mwc. Thus, pC/ρg = 18.8 mwc.

Problem 1.5.5
For the system shown in Figure 1.26, determine the maximum flow that can be
pumped from reservoir A to reservoir B. If the same capacity has to be transported
by gravity, find the pressure at the entrance of the city. The pipes are as follows:

A-B: L = 1350 m, D = 450 mm, k = 0.1 mm,

B-C: L = 1800 m, D = 500 mm, k = 0.1 mm.

The pumping station operates according to the curve shown in Figure 1.25. The
water temperature may be assumed to be 10° C.

Figure 1.26 Distribution scheme – Problem 1.5.5

Figure 1.27 Pump operation at section A-B – Problem 1.5.5

 Workshop problems 23

Answer:
The maximum pumping capacity Q = 805 m3/h (see Figure 1.27). This flow is
delivered by gravity when pressure pC/ρg = 21.2 mwc.

Problem 1.5.6
Pumping station B in Figure 1.28 supplies distribution area C from reservoir A
through a pipe, where L =1000 m, D = 600 mm, k = 1 mm. The pump character-
istics of one pump unit are shown in Figure 1.29. The water temperature can be
assumed to be 10° C.

Figure 1.28 Distribution scheme – Problem 1.5.6

The demand of the distribution area registered on the maximum consumption day
was 28,008 m3. The demand variation pattern during 24 hours is given in the fol-
lowing table:

Table 1.9 Diurnal peak factors – Problem 1.5.6

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
pfh 0.28 0.30 0.33 0.51 1.07 1.32 1.31 1.38 1.40 1.39 1.36 1.22

Hour 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
pfh 1.07 1.04 1.12 1.18 1.29 1.37 1.30 1.33 1.06 0.60 0.44 0.33

Figure 1.29 Pump characteristics – Problem 1.5.6

24 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Determine:
a) the balancing volume of the reservoir assuming a constant (average) inflow
over 24 hours,
b) the required number of pumps arranged in parallel, which can provide the
minimum-required pressure of pmin/ρg = 30 mwc at the pipe end, during the
maximum consumption hour,
c) the same as in b) but for the minimum consumption hour instead,
d) the excessive pumping energy during the maximum and minimum consump-
tion hours; the overall efficiency of the pumping station ηpst = 0.65.

Answers:
a) Qavg = 1167 m3/h, Vbal = 4.21Qavg = 4913 m3.
b) The maximum demand occurs at 9:00 hours, when Q9 = 1.40×1167 = 1634
m3/h. For this flow, ΔH9 = 4.97 ≈ 5 mwc. The head required by one pump,
Hp,9 = 12 + 5 + 30 = 47 mwc, is reached for a flow of ± 580 m3/h. Thus, three
pumps are necessary.
c) The minimum consumption occurs at 1:00 hours, when Q1 = 0.28×1167 =
327 m3/h. ΔH1 = 0.2 mwc, Hp,1 = 12 + 0.2 + 30 = 42.2 mwc, for Qp,1 = ± 680
m3/h. Hence, one pump is sufficient.
d) The actual pumping head during the maximum consumption hour is ±48.5
mwc (for the flow 1634 / 3 = 544.7 m3/h). The excessive head is 1.5 mwc and
the wasted energy Ew = 3.43 kWh per single unit. Hence, for three units Ew =
10.28 kWh. During the minimum supply conditions, a flow of 327 m3/h will
be pumped against a head of ±56 mwc. Thus, the excessive head is 13.8 mwc
and the wasted energy Ew = 18.92 kWh when there is one unit in operation.

Problem 1.5.7
Pumping station B in Figure 1.30 supplies the distribution area C from reservoir A
through a pipe L = 1100 m, D = 250 mm, k = 0.05 mm. The pump characteristics
of one pump unit are shown in Figure 1.31. The minimum-required pressure at the
entrance of the city is 25 mwc. The water temperature can be assumed to be 10° C.

Figure 1.30 Distribution scheme – Problem 1.5.7

 Workshop problems 25

Figure 1.31 Pump characteristics – Problem 1.5.7

Determine:
a) the maximum flow that can be supplied when one pump is in operation,
b) the maximum flow that can be supplied if two parallel pumps are in operation,
c) the maximum flow that can be supplied in cases a) and b), if another pipe with
D = 250 mm is laid in parallel.

Answers:
a) Qmax = 260 m3/h (see Figure 1.32)

Figure 1.32 Pump operation, one pump – Problem 1.5.7a

26 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

b) Qmax = 410 m3/h (see Figure 1.33).

Figure 1.33 Pump operation, two pumps and one pipe – Problem 1.5.7b

c) By laying the second pipe where D = 250 mm, each pipe will transport half
of the initial flow, which reduces the friction losses. The composite system
characteristics is shown in Figure 1.34. From the graph: Qmax,1 = 280 m3/h for
one pump in operation, and Qmax,2 = 520 m3/h, for two pumps.

Figure 1.34 Pump operation, two pumps and two parallel pipes – Problem 1.5.7c
 Workshop problems 27

Problem 1.5.8
The distribution area C in Figure 1.35 is supplied by gravity through a pipe where
L = 750 m, D = 500 mm, k = 0.5 mm. The volume of reservoir B is recovered by
pumping A from a well field. The water temperature T =10° C.

Figure 1.35 Distribution scheme – Problem 1.5.8

The demand of the distribution area that was registered on the maximum con-
sumption day was 30,480 m3. The demand variation pattern during 24 hours is
given in the following table:

Table 1.10 Diurnal peak factors – Problem 1.5.8

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
pfh 0.71 0.75 0.77 0.79 0.96 1.14 1.15 1.18 1.20 1.19 1.17 1.07

Hour 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
pfh 0.96 0.94 1.00 1.04 1.12 1.17 1.16 1.14 0.96 0.87 0.79 0.76

Determine:
a) the balancing volume of the reservoir, assuming constant (average) pumping
over 24 hours,
b) the 24-hour water level variation in the tank, assuming the tank has a cross-
section area of 1000 m2 and provision for all other purposes of 60 % of the
total volume,
c) the range of pressures that appear over 24 hours at the pipe end.

Answers:
a) Qavg = 1270 m3/h, Vbal = 1.64Qavg = 2085 m3
b) The total volume Vtot = 5215 m3. The available tank depth is 5.22 m.
28 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 1.11 Water depth variation in the tank – Problem 1.5.8

Hour pfout pfin pfin-pfout Sum Depth (m)

1 0.71 1 0.29 0.29 4.29

2 0.75 1 0.25 0.54 4.61
3 0.77 1 0.23 0.77 4.90
4 0.79 1 0.21 0.99 5.17
5 0.96 1 0.04 1.02 5.22
6 1.14 1 -0.14 0.88 5.04
7 1.15 1 -0.15 0.73 4.85
8 1.18 1 -0.18 0.55 4.62
9 1.20 1 -0.20 0.36 4.37
10 1.19 1 -0.19 0.17 4.13
11 1.17 1 -0.17 0.00 3.92
12 1.07 1 -0.07 -0.07 3.83
13 0.96 1 0.04 -0.04 3.87
14 0.94 1 0.06 0.02 3.94
15 1.00 1 0.00 0.02 3.94
16 1.04 1 -0.04 -0.02 3.89
17 1.12 1 -0.12 -0.14 3.74
18 1.17 1 -0.17 -0.32 3.52
19 1.16 1 -0.16 -0.48 3.31
20 1.14 1 -0.14 -0.62 3.13
21 0.96 1 0.04 -0.58 3.18
22 0.87 1 0.13 -0.46 3.34
23 0.79 1 0.21 -0.24 3.61
24 0.76 1 0.24 0.00 3.92

At midnight, V0 = 0.6Vtot + 0.62Qavg = 3917 m3 which corresponds to the depth of

3.92 m (see Figure 1.36).

Figure 1.36 Water depth variation vs. demand pattern – Problem 1.5.8
 Workshop problems 29

c) The maximum demand occurs at 9:00 hours, where Q9 = 1524 m3/h. For this
flow, ΔH9 = 7.14 mwc and the remaining pressure in C, pC,9/ρg = 76 + 4.37 –
7.14–28 ≈ 45 mwc. For the minimum at 1:00 hours, Q1 = 902 m3/h. ΔH1 =
2.54 mwc and pC,1/ρg ≈ 50 mwc.

Problem 1.5.9
For the same problem as in 1.5.8 determine the balancing volume of the reservoir
assuming constant pumping of twice the average flow during 12 hours:

a) night time: between 20:00 and 8:00 hours,

b) daytime: from 9:00 to 15:00 hours, and night time: from 23:00 until 5:00
hours.

Answers:
a) Vbal = 13.21Qavg = 16,780 m3
b) Vbal = 8.47Qavg =10,760 m3

Problem 1.5.10
A distribution area is supplied, as shown in Figure 1.37. The following is a typical
demand variation:

Table 1.12 Diurnal peak factors – Problem 1.5.10

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
pfh 0.79 0.82 0.83 0.83 0.94 1.06 1.09 1.08 1.11 1.12 1.11 1.05

Hour 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
pfh 1.02 1.00 1.04 1.07 1.08 1.08 1.09 1.09 1.01 0.96 0.89 0.83

On the maximum consumption day, the pumping station was working at constant
(average) capacity of 1800 m3/h against a head of 34 mwc.

Figure 1.37 Distribution scheme – Problem 1.5.10

30 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Determine:
a) the balancing volume of the tank located in point D,
b) the 24-hour water level variation in the tank, assuming the tank has a cross-
section area of 1650 m2 and there is provision for all other purposes of 70 %
of the total volume,
c) pipe diameters A-B and C-D, providing the minimum pressures at B and C of
35 mwc, during the maximum consumption hour,
d) pressures during the minimum consumption hour, required to refill the tank.

For both pipes k = 0.5 mm. Assume the water temperature to be 10° C.

Figure 1.38 Water depth variation in tank D vs. demand pattern – Problem 1.5.10

Answers:
a) Vbal = 1.1Qavg = 1980 m3
b) The total volume Vtot = 6600 m3. The available tank depth is 4.0 m. At midnight,
V0 = 0.7Vtot + 0.32Qavg = 5196 m3 when the depth is 3.15 m (see Figure 1.38).
c) The maximum demand occurs at 10:00 hours, Q10 = 2016 m3/h, while the mini-
mum appears at 1:00 hours, Q1 = 1422 m3/h. In both cases the pumping station
supplies 1800 m3/h and the difference comes from, or goes into, the tank. Hence,
QA-B = 1800 m3/h, HA-B = (28+34) – (18+35) = 9 mwc. The optimum diameter
for these conditions is DA-B = 574 mm (manufactured diameter = 600 mm). At
10:00 hours, the tank supplies the system with 216 m3/h from the elevation 50
+ 3.50 = 53.50 msl. ΔHD-C = 53.5 – (18+35) = 0.5 mwc. The optimum diameter
for such conditions is DD-C = 369 mm (manufactured at 400 mm).
d) During the minimum demand hour, the tank receives 378 m3/h to the eleva-
tion of 50 + 3.38 = 53.38 msl. ΔHC-D ≈ 1.0 mwc for D = 400 mm. Thus, the
required pressure in C, pC/ρg = 53.4 + 1–18 = 36.4 mwc. For DA-B = 600
mm, ΔHA-B = 7.2 mwc and pB/ρg = 36.8 mwc > pC/ρg. Hence, neglecting the
resistance in the distribution area itself would allow water to reach the tank.
However, as this is not reasonable to assume, either a higher pumping head
in A or an additional booster station is needed.
 Workshop problems 31

1.6 Examination problems

The following selection of 15 problems was given as a part of the examinations
set at IHE Delft in the period 2004–2019. It is an open book exam and students
are encouraged to use the spreadsheet applications elaborated in Appendix 7 for
the calculations. Each problem is worth 50 out of the total of 100 points, and the
available time to solve it is planned at approximately 90 minutes (the total exam
duration is three hours).
For simplification purposes, in all the problems (unless specified differently):

1. The water temperature is assumed to be T =10° C.

2. The specified water surface elevations in the reservoirs/sources are fixed.
3. All minor losses can be neglected.
4. All the pump curves are drawn based on the indicated duty head/flow (Hd/Qd).
The equation used is H = c – aQ2, where c = 4Hd/3 and a = Hd/(3Qd2).
5. Minor inaccuracies in plotting the pump curve diagrams to reflect the above
equation are acceptable if the reading of the heads and flows is done directly
from the graph. The values presented in the solutions are calculated by the
formula.
6. The warning #VALUE! indicated in some spreadsheet results refers to the
pump power which is not considered in the problems.

Problem 1.6.1
Area C shown in Figure 1.39 is to receive water supplied by the pumping station
from tank A. The pumping station consists of two equal pump units connected in
parallel, each of them operating according to the curve shown in Figure 1.41 (Hd
= 40 mwc, Qd = 100 l/s). The information about the connecting route is as follows:

Section L (m) k (mm)

A–B 1400 0.1

B–C 1200 0.1

Figure 1.39 Problem 1.6.1 – questions a) and b)

32 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

The diurnal pattern of area C on the maximum consumption day is given in

Table 1.13. The minimum pressure to be maintained is pC/ρg = 20 mwc.

Table 1.13 Design diurnal demand of area C – Problem 1.6.1

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Q (m3 /h) 250 260 325 445 540 680 720 670 580 550 430 390

Hour 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Q (m3 /h) 350 370 330 360 440 600 660 550 405 330 295 270

Questions:
a) Calculate the pipe diameter DBC that can maintain the minimum pressure in
area C while the minimum pressure in cross section B is pB/ρg = 5 mwc.
b) What will the pipe diameter DAB be that can supply the most critical flow
while maintaining the minimum pressure in area B, as above?
c) In the alternative layout, shown in Figure 1.40, a reservoir is put in posi-
tion B at the water level of 105 msl in order to simulate the same hydraulic
conditions. What is the maximum reduction of the diameter DAB that can be
achieved with this action if the pumping station operates with two units?
d) Can the reservoir in B be supplied with only one pump and if so, what would
be the diameter DAB?
e) Calculate the balancing volume of the reservoir in B for optimal supply con-
ditions. How is this volume affected by the operation of one or two pumps?

NOTE: All pipe diameters should be calculated with exact values (without
rounding!)

Marking matrix:
Question a b c d e
Max. points 10 10 10 10 10

Figure 1.40 Problem 1.6.1 – questions c) to e)

 Workshop problems 33

Figure 1.41 Problem 1.6.1 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 40 mwc, Qd = 100 l/s)

Answers:

a) At the pressure pC/ρg = 20 mwc, the head HC = 90 msl. At the pressure pB/ρg
= 5 mwc, the head HB = 105 msl. Hence, the available friction loss along B-C
= 15 mwc and the hydraulic gradient SBC = 15/1200 = 0.0125. The maximum
flow in the system appears at 7:00 hours, which is Q7 = 720 m3/h = 200 l/s
Consequently, DBC = 336 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5).

b) With two pumps in parallel, each pump supplies the flow of Qp,7 = 100 l/s
at the head of Hp,7 = 40 mwc. The available friction loss along A-B = 75 +
40–105 = 10 mwc and the gradient SAB = 10/1400 = 0.007. Consequently, DAB
= 375 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5).
34 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

c) The maximum reduction of the diameter can be achieved if QAB = 125 l/s being
the average flow for the day (450 m3/h). With two pumps, each pump delivers
62.5 l/s at the head of 48.13 mwc. The available friction loss along A-B is then
= 75 + 48.13–105 = 18.13 mwc and the hydraulic gradient SAB = 18.13/1400 =
0.013. Consequently, DAB = 279 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5).

d) If one pump delivers the entire average flow of 125 l/s, the pumping head is
then 32.50 mwc. The available friction loss along A-B is consequently = 75
+ 32.50–105 = 2.5 mwc and the hydraulic gradient SAB= 2.5/1400 = 0.0018.
Consequently, DAB = 414 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5).

e) The balancing volume of the reservoir is 1040 m3 (from Spreadsheet Lesson

8–10), which is not affected by the operation of one or two pumps. In both
cases, the average flow is pumped into the reservoir.
 Workshop problems 35

Problem 1.6.2
Area C shown in Figure 1.42 receives water by gravity from the reservoir in B,
which is supplied by the pumping station at reservoir A. The information about
the connecting route is as follows:

Section L (m) k (mm)

A–B 800 0.1

B–C 750 0.1

Figure 1.42 Problem 1.6.2

The diurnal pattern of area C on the maximum consumption day is given in

Table 1.14.

Table 1.14 Design diurnal demand of area C – Problem 1.6.2

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Q (m3 /h) 260 250 320 450 540 680 750 640 580 550 430 370

Hour 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Q (m3 /h) 350 370 330 360 440 600 660 500 400 330 290 270

Questions:
a) For the diurnal demand in Table 1.14, calculate the balancing volume of the
tank in B.
b) A pump unit with the system curve as shown in Figure 1.43 (Hd = 40 mwc,
Qd = 40 l/s) is used to pump the average flow from reservoir A to reservoir B.
Calculate the diameter of pipe A-B if three pumps are operated in parallel.
c) Calculate the diameter of pipe B-C that can provide the minimum pressure in
area C of pC/ρg = 10 mwc. For the selected diameter, calculate the maximum
pressure in area C.
36 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Marking matrix:
Question a b c
Max. points 10 20 20

Figure 1.43 Problem 1.6.2 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 40 mwc, Qd = 40 l/s)

Answers:
a) The balancing volume of the reservoir is 1063.31 m3 (from Spreadsheet Les-
son 8–10).
 Workshop problems 37

b) The pumping station feeds the reservoir in B with the average flow of QAB
= 446.67 m3/h = 124.08 l/s. Three equal pump units in parallel arrange-
ment then each deliver the flow of Qp,avg = 41.36 l/s at the head of Hp,avg =
39.08 mwc. The static head between the two reservoirs is HB – HA = 95–75
= 20 mwc. Hence, the available friction loss along A-B is 39.08–20 =
19.08 mwc, leading to the hydraulic gradient SAB = 19.08/800 = 0.02385.
Consequently, DAB = 247 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5), rounded off
to 250 mm.

c) At the pressure pC/ρg = 10 mwc, the head HC = 90 msl. Hence, the available
friction loss along B-C = 95–90 = 5 mwc and the hydraulic gradient SBC =
5/750 = 0.006667. The maximum flow in the system appears at 7:00 hours,
which is Q7 = 750 m3/h = 208.33 l/s. Consequently, DBC = 386 mm (from
Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5), rounded off to 400 mm.

With DBC = 400 mm, the maximum pressure in area C will appear during
the peak minimum hour, at 2:00 hours, when the demand Q2 = 250 m3/h =
69.44 l/s. Consequently, the friction loss hBC = 0.52 mwc (from Spread-
sheet Lesson 1–2), and the maximum pressure pC/ρg = 95–0.52–80 =
14.48 mwc.
38 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Problem 1.6.3
Area C shown in Figure 1.44 receives water by gravity from the reservoir in B,
which is supplied by the pumping station at reservoir A. The pumping station
comprises two equal pump units connected in parallel, each of them operating
according to the curve shown in Figure 1.46 (Hd = 20 mwc, Qd = 100 l/s).The
information about the connecting route is as follows:

Section L (m) D (mm) k (mm)

A–B 500 300 0.6

B–C 400 250 1.0

Figure 1.44 Problem 1.6.3 – questions a) and b)

Questions:
a) Calculate the pumping flow for the water levels in the tanks A and B, and,
assuming that the equal flows, QAB = QBC, determine the pressure in area C if
one pump unit is in operation.
b) Calculate the pumping flow for the water levels in the tanks A and B, and
assuming that the equal flows, QAB = QBC, determine the pressure in area C if
both pump units are in operation.
c) In the alternative layout, shown in Figure 1.45, area C is directly connected
to the pumping station in A, bypassing the hill with the reservoir. The pipe
section between A and C has the following characteristics: LAC = 1600 m and
kAC = 0.2 mm. What will the required diameter of pipe section AC be if the
same flow and the pressure at C, as calculated in question b), are to be main-
tained; the pipe route ABC is closed in this case and the reservoir at B will be
disconnected for maintenance purposes.

Marking matrix:
Question a b c
Max. points 15 15 20
 Workshop problems 39

Figure 1.45 Problem 1.6.3 – question c)

Figure 1.46 Problem 1.6.3 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 20 mwc, Qd = 100 l/s)

Answers:
a) The static head between the two reservoirs is HB – HA = 95 – 75 = 20 mwc. In
addition, the pump needs to overcome the friction loss, which is dependent
on the flow rate. The solution can be obtained by trying with a few values
of (pump) flows to calculate the pipe friction loss that needs to match the
pumping head corresponding to the pumping flow. Because of the static head
value, the pumping flow for the given pump curve will be less than 100 l/s,
as a starting point. The following table can be produced by using Spreadsheet
Lesson 1–2 for the friction loss calculation.

Qp,1 (l/s) Hp,1 (mwc) 20 + hf (mwc) ΔH (mwc)

95 20.65 23.71 –3.06

90 21.27 23.33 – 2.06
85 21.85 22.98 – 1.13
80 22.40 22.64 – 0.24
75 22.92 22.33 0.59
40 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

The difference between the pumping head and the sum of the static head and
the friction loss needs to be zero. The table shows that this is going to happen
for the pumping flow between 75 and 80 l/s. A more accurate value can be
obtained further refining the flows by repeating the same process.

Qp,1 (l/s) Hp,1 (mwc) 20 + hf (mwc) ΔH (mwc)

79 22.51 22.58 -0.07

78 22.61 22.51 0.10

78.8 22.53 22.56 -0.03

78.6 22.55 22.55 0
78.4 22.57 22.54 0.03

Alternatively, the system characteristics can be drawn for pipe A-B, which
will show the correct pump flow in the intersection with the pump curve; the
spreadsheet lessons 6–2 or 6–3 can be used to facilitate this calculation, with
minor adaptations. Afterwards, the pressure in area C can be calculated as
explained in the problem 1.6.2-c. Finally, and most easily, using Spreadsheet
Lesson 7–2 offers straightforward results, which are Qp,1 = QAB = 78.6 l/s and
pC/ρg = 18.96 mwc, for QAB = QBC. Parameter Hw in the spreadsheet corre-
sponds to ΔH in the above tables.

b) With two pumps in parallel, the combined operation of both pumps can be
described by the pump curve with the same duty head and doubled duty flow
(Hd = 20 mwc, Qd = 200 l/s). The results in this case will be Qp,2 = QAB = 107.6
l/s and pC/ρg = 13.72 mwc, for QAB = QBC (from Spreadsheet Lesson 7–2).
 Workshop problems 41

c) Two equal pumps in parallel should supply the flow QAC = 107.6 l/s at the
pressure pC/ρg = 13.72 mwc. Hence, each pump delivers 53.8 l/s at the head
of 24.74 mwc. The available friction loss along A-C is then = 75 + 24.74–13.72–
70 = 16.02 mwc and the hydraulic gradient SAC = 16.02/1600 = 0.010013.
Consequently, DAC = 284 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5), rounded off to
300 mm.

Problem 1.6.4
Area C and the reservoir in B shown in Figure 1.47 receive water supplied by the
pumping station from reservoir A. The water is also supplied by gravity from B to
C, at the same time. The pumping station consists of two equal pump units con-
nected in parallel, each of them operating according to the curve shown in Figure
1.48 (Hd = 40 mwc, Qd = 100 l/s).The information about the connecting routes is
as follows:

Section L (m) D (mm) k (mm)

A–B 2000 300 0.5

B–C 2200 250 1.5
A–C 2800 300 2.0

Figure 1.47 Problem 1.6.4

42 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 1.48 Problem 1.6.4 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 40 mwc, Qd = 100 l/s)

Questions:
a) The flow registered in the pumping station at a particular moment in time is Qp =
200 l/s (both pump units are in operation). Calculate the demand and the pressure
in area C at that moment. How much of the flow is supplied to the reservoir in B?
b) In the event of maintenance of reservoir B (the route A-B-C is closed), can the
entire demand of area C calculated in question a) be supplied through the route
A-C and by one pump only? What will the pressure in area C be in such a situation?
c) If the backflow is to be hydraulically prevented from reservoir B to reservoir
A, what must be the maximum pumping flow if the pumping station operates
with one pump unit? Calculate the diameter of new pipe A-C (at k = 0.1 mm)
that can supply this flow with the pressure in area C of pC/ρg = 10 mwc. What
is the demand of area C at that point in time?

Marking matrix:
Question a b c
Max. points 20 10 20

Answers:
a) At the pumping flow Qp = 200 l/s, each of the two pumps delivers 100 l/s
at the head of 40 mwc. The available friction loss along A-B is then = 80 +
40–100 = 20 mwc and the hydraulic gradient SAB = 20/2000 = 0.01. Conse-
quently, QAB = 113.03 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).
 Workshop problems 43

QAC = Qp – QAB = 200–113.03 = 86.97 l/s. Based on this flow, the friction loss
along A-C is 24.19 mwc (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2).

The pressure in C is then pC/ρg = 80 + 40–24.19–70 = 25.81 mwc. For this pres-
sure, the available friction loss for supply from reservoir B is 100–70–25.81 =
4.19 mwc. Consequently, SBC = 4.19/2200 = 0.001905 and QBC = 26.05 l/s (from
Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).

Therefore, the total supply of area B is QAC + QBC = 86.97 + 26.05 = 113.02 l/s
(incidentally, very similar to QAB).

b) For QAC = 113.02 l/s, the friction loss along A-C is 40.74 mwc (from Spread-
sheet Lesson 1–2).

For the same pumping flow delivered by one pump only, the pumping head
is Hp = 36.30 mwc, and the pressure in area C will be pC/ρg = 80 + 36.30 –
40.74 – 70 = 5.56 mwc. Hence, the supply of the entire demand by one pump
is possible but at rather low pressure.
44 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

c) The pumping station supplies the reservoir in B as long the pumping head is
bigger than the surface level difference of A and B (the static head), which
is HB – HA = 100–80 = 20 mwc. The flow direction along A-B will reverse at
the moment the pumping head drops below this value. Hence, for the criti-
cal pumping head Hp = 20 mwc, one pump in operation delivers Qp = QAC =
158.11 l/s (QAB = 0). For the pressure in C of pC/ρg = 10 mwc, the available
friction loss alongside pipe A-C is HA – HC = 80 + 20–10–70 = 20 mwc. Con-
sequently, SBC = 20/2800 = 0.007143 and DAC = 343 mm (from Spreadsheet
Lesson 1–5).

At the same time, HB – HC = 100–10–70 = 20 mwc. Consequently, SBC =

20/2200 = 0.009091 and QBC = 57.38 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).

Finally, the total demand in area C is 158.11 + 57.38 = 215.49 l/s.

Problem 1.6.5
Area C shown in Figure 1.49 receives water by gravity from the reservoir in
B, which is supplied by the pumping from reservoir A. The pump unit operates
according to the curve shown in Figure 1.50 (Hd = 30 mwc, Qd = 15 l/s).The infor-
mation about the connecting route is as follows:

Section L (m) D (mm) k (mm)

A–B 800 ? 1.5

B–C 750 200 0.2

Questions:
a) On the day of maximum consumption, the registered demand in C was 675
m3; the maximum hourly peak demand factor is 2.0. What was the pressure
in area C during the maximum consumption hour on the maximum consump-
tion day?
 Workshop problems 45

b) At the same time, the pump unit is supplying the average flow on the maxi-
mum consumption day from reservoir A to reservoir B. Determine the pipe
diameter DAB needed to satisfy these conditions.
c) A new residential area in D is to be connected to the system. The planned
average specific demand of 3000 inhabitants is 100 l/c/d (including leak-
age) and the peak seasonal variation factor is 1.5; the maximum hourly peak
demand factor is the same as in the case of area C. What is going to be the
pressure in area D if connected with area C by the pipe of LCD = 500 m, DCD
= 150 mm and kCD = 0.1 mm?
d) Alternatively, what is going to be the pressure in area D if connected directly to
the reservoir in B by the pipe of LBD = 600 m, DBD = 100 mm and kBD = 0.1 mm?
e) Can the pump cope with the increase of the demand after the residential area
in D has been connected? Explain your answer.

Marking matrix:
Question a b c d e
Max. points 10 10 10 10 10

Figure 1.49 Problem 1.6.5

Figure 1.50 Problem 1.6.5 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 30 mwc, Qd = 15 l/s)
46 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Answers:
a) The daily demand of 675 m3 converts into an average flow of 675/24/3.6 =
7.8125 l/s. With the peak demand factor of 2.0, the demand in area C during
the maximum consumption hour on the maximum consumption day is 15.63
l/s. For this demand, the friction loss along B-C is 1.09 mwc (from Spread-
sheet Lesson 1–2), leading to the pressure pC/ρg = 95–1.09–80 = 13.91 mwc.

b) The average pumping flow Qp = 7.8125 l/s is delivered at the pumping head
Hp = 37.29 mwc. The available friction loss along A-B is then = 75 + 37.29–
95 = 17.29 mwc and the hydraulic gradient SAB = 17.29/800 = 0.021613.
Consequently, DAB = 101 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5).

c) 3000 new inhabitants using on average 100 l/c/d convert into an average flow
of 3000×100/24/3600 = 3.472 l/s. Applying both the peak seasonal factor and
the hourly peak demand factor, the demand in area D during the maximum
consumption hour on the maximum consumption day equals 3.472×1.5×2.0
= 10.42 l/s. Connecting this area with the specified pipe to the area in C
results in the friction loss along C-D of 1.31 mwc (from Spreadsheet Lesson
1–2), leading to the pressure pD/ρg = 80 + 13.91–1.31–70 = 22.60 mwc.
 Workshop problems 47

d) Connecting area D with the specified pipe directly to the reservoir in B results
in the friction loss along B-D of 12.01 mwc (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2),
leading to the pressure pD/ρg = 95–12.01–70 = 12.99 mwc. This is the worse
alternative purely because of the reduced pipe diameter generating much
higher friction loss than the one calculated in question c).

e) To maintain appropriate demand balancing by the reservoir in B, after con-

necting area D, the average pumping from A to B on the maximum consump-
tion day needs to increase. The increased flow Qp = 7.81 + 10.42/2.0 = 13.02
l/s is delivered at the pumping head Hp = 32.47 mwc, which is 4.82 mwc
below the original pumping head of 37.29 mwc. There are two options to
mitigate this problem: (1) to add an additional pump unit in parallel; with the
same size, two pumps will deliver the head of Hp = 38.12 > 37.29 mwc for
the flow Qp = 13.02 l/s; (2) to keep the single pump but further increase the
pipe diameter DAB; in this scenario, the available friction loss along A-B is
= 75 + 32.47–95 = 12.47 mwc and the hydraulic gradient SAB = 12.47/800 =
0.015588. Consequently, DAB = 129 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5). The
first option will result in lower investment, but higher operational costs.

Problem 1.6.6
Area B shown in Figure 1.51 receives water by gravity from the sources in A and
C. The information about the connecting route is as follows:

Section L (m) D (mm) k (mm)

A–B 1000 250 0.5

B–C 500 ? 0.045
48 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 1.51 Problem 1.6.6 – questions a) to c)

Questions:
a) At a particular point in time during the day, the pressure in area B is measured
at pB/ρg = 20 mwc. Determine the supply from source A for this situation.
b) For the same scenario as in question a), determine the pipe diameter DBC
needed to provide the equal supply flow from source C.
c) At a certain moment, during the night time, the pressure in area B is measured
at pB/ρg = 26 mwc. Determine the demand in area B for this situation. The
pipe diameter DBC is the same as calculated in question b).
d) Options are considered to improve the supply by installing a pump in source
A as shown in Figure 1.52. This pump operates according to the curve shown
in Figure 1.53 (Hd = 40 mwc, Qd = 150 l/s). What is the demand increase in
area B resulting from this intervention if the same pressure of pB/ρg = 20 mwc
is maintained during the daytime?
e) What is the demand increase in area B resulting from the pump installation if
the same pressure of pB/ρg = 26 mwc is maintained during the night time?

Marking matrix:
Question a b c d e
Max. points 5 5 10 15 15

Figure 1.52 Problem 1.6.6 – questions d) and e)

 Workshop problems 49

Figure 1.53 Problem 1.6.6 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 40 mwc, Qd = 150 l/s)

Answers:
a) For the pressure pB/ρg = 20 mwc, the head HB = 30 msl. The available friction
loss for the supply from reservoir A is then 45–30 = 15 mwc. Consequently,
SAB = 15/1000 = 0.015 and QAB = 85.77 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).

b) The flow QBC = QAB = 85.77 l/s. The available friction loss along B-C is then =
35–30 = 5 mwc and the hydraulic gradient SBC = 5/500 = 0.01. Consequently,
DBC = 250 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5).
50 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

c) For the pressure pB/ρg = 26 mwc, the head HB = 36 msl. The available friction
loss for the supply from reservoir A is then 45–36 = 9 mwc. Consequently, SAB
= 9/1000 = 0.009 and QAB = 66.20 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).

At the same time, the available friction loss for the supply from reservoir
C is then 35–36 = -1 mwc, meaning that reservoir A also supplies reservoir
C during the night time (HB > HC). Consequently, SBC = 1/500 = 0.002 and
QBC = 36.37 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).

Finally, the demand in area B is QB = 66.20–36.37 = 29.83 l/s.

d) The pump should deliver the water from the head HA = 45 msl to the head
HB = 30 msl. Thus, the static head is negative (ΔH = -15 mwc) because
the supply is still partly facilitated by the gravity (a smaller pump needed
for that purpose). The further considerations are similar to those in prob-
lem 1.6.3-a. The trial-and-error process will include the flows higher than
the one delivered by gravity, as calculated in question a). The following
table can be produced by using Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2 for the friction loss
calculation.

Qp (l/s) Hp (mwc) -15 + hf (mwc) ΔH (mwc)

90 48.53 1.50 47.03

110 46.16 9.53 36.63
130 43.32 19.16 24.16
150 40.00 30.37 9.63
170 36.21 43.16 – 6.95

The difference between the pumping head and the sum of the static head
and the friction loss along A-B needs to be zero. The table shows that this
is going to happen for the pumping flow between 150 and 170 l/s. A more
 Workshop problems 51

accurate value can be obtained by further refining the flows by repeating the
same process. Alternatively, Spreadsheet Lesson 6–2 gives the final result,
of QAB = 161.91 l/s. The supply from the reservoir in C is unchanged and the
total demand in area B will be QB = 161.91 + 85.77 = 247.68 l/s, which is an
increase of nearly 45 %.

e) For the night time conditions and the pressure pB/ρg = 26 mwc, the static
head will be ΔH= -9 mwc and the flow delivered by the pump is consequently
going to be QAB = 154.60 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 6–2). The supply to
the reservoir in C remains as calculated in question c), and finally the demand
in area B is QB = 154.60–36.37 = 118.23 l/s, which is a significant increase
compared to the supply by gravity alone (nearly four times higher).

Problem 1.6.7
A water supply system is to be designed for the supply of area C shown in Fig-
ure 1.54. The diurnal demand pattern is expected to be as given in Table 1.15

Table 1.15 Design diurnal demand of area C – Problem 1.6.7

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Q (m3 /h) 260 250 330 450 540 680 780 640 580 550 430 370

Hour 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Q (m3 /h) 350 370 330 360 440 600 660 540 400 330 290 270
52 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

The information about the connecting route is as follows:

Section L (m) k (mm)

A–B 800 0.5

B–C 550 0.5

Figure 1.54 Problem 1.6.7

Figure 1.55 Problem 1.6.7 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 30 mwc, Qd = 100 l/s)

Questions:
a) The reservoir in A receives water from the source and supplies the reservoir
in B by gravity for 18 hours per day, between the hours 4 and 21. During
the night time, between hours 22 and 3, the volume of reservoir A has to be
recharged to have enough water for the next supply cycle of B. For such a
 Workshop problems 53

regime and the demand in Table 1.15, calculate the balancing volumes of the
tanks in A and B.
b) Calculate the diameter of pipe A-B that can provide the demand balancing
from the reservoir in B. Assume the first higher manufactured value from
the following list (in mm): 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 500, 600, 800
and 1000. Can the duration of supply from the reservoir A be shorter than 18
hours based on the selection of the manufactured diameter? Adapt the bal-
ancing volume of the reservoir in B calculated in question a), if necessary.
c) A pump unit with the curve as shown in Figure 1.55 is used to pump the
demand in Table 1.15 from the reservoir in B. Calculate the diameter of pipe
B-C that can provide the minimum pressure in area C of pC/ρg = 10 mwc, if
three pumps are operated in parallel. For the diameter chosen from the same
list as in question b), calculate the maximum pressure in area C using the
minimum required number of pumps.

Marking matrix:
Question a b c

Max. points 15 20 15

Answers:
a) The balancing volume of the reservoir in B is 1820 m3 (from Spreadsheet
Lesson 8–10).

This volume is larger when supply of the reservoir is shorter than 24 hours.
The reservoir in A is recharged only when the feeding of B is stopped, there-
fore the balancing volume needs to be sufficient to receive the entire daily
demand, which is 600 × 18 = 10,800 m3.
54 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

b) The flow QAB = 600 m3/h = 166.67 l/s. The available friction loss along A-B is
HA – HB = 95–75 = 20 mwc and the hydraulic gradient SAB = 20/800 = 0.025.
Consequently, DAB = 291 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5).

When this diameter is rounded off to the higher value of 300 mm, the pipe
can also supply more flow. QAB = 179.63 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).

The total daily demand can therefore be supplied from A to B in a shorter

period of time, which is 10,800/(179.63×3.6) = 16.7 hours. Applying a
17-hour supply with an average flow of 10,800/17 = 635.29 m3/h results in
the balancing volume of 2278.77 m3 if the supply from A to B starts one hour
later in the morning i.e. at 5:00 instead of 4:00 hours, or 2193.93 m3 if the
supply from A to B stops one hour earlier in the evening i.e. at 20:00 instead
of 21:00 hours (from Spreadsheet Lesson 5–8).

c) The minimum pressure pC/ρg = 10 mwc is to be maintained at the maximum

demand, which occurs at 7:00 hours (Q7 = 780 m3/h = 216.67 l/s). Three equal
pumps of the size shown in Figure 1.55 will pump one third of this demand (Qp =
72.22 l/s) each at the head of Hp = 34.78 mwc. The available friction loss for the
supply from reservoir B is then 75 + 34.78–10–83 = 16.78 mwc. Consequently,
SBC = 16.78/550 = 0.030509 and DBC = 310 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5).
 Workshop problems 55

When this diameter is rounded off to 350 mm, the minimum demand, which
occurs at 2:00 hours (Q2 = 250 m3/h = 69.44 l/s) can be supplied with one
pump unit delivering the pressure to area C of pC/ρg = 26.23 mwc. The
straightforward answer can be obtained from Spreadsheet Lesson 6–1.

Problem 1.6.8
Area C shown in Figure 1.56 receives water combined from the reservoir in A (by
pumping) and the one in C (by gravity), while area B is supplied by direct pump-
ing. The pump unit operates according to the curve shown in Figure 1.57 (Hd =
20 mwc, Qd = 100 l/s).The information about the connecting route is as follows:

Section L (m) D (mm) k (mm)

A–B 400 250 0.25

A–C 300 200 0.4
C–D 625 150 0.9

Questions:
a) At a particular moment in time, the pressure gauges in the pumping station
registered the pumping head Hp = 18 mwc, whilst the average pressure mea-
sured in area C was pC/ρg = 20 mwc. What is the demand of both areas and
the pressure in area B, at the same moment in time?
b) In the alternative layout shown in Figure 1.58, section A-B is disconnected
and the entire supply of area B is provided from reservoir D. The pipe section
B-D has the following characteristics: LBD = 550 m, DBD = 200 mm and kBD =
0.2 mm. Calculate the demand of area B if the same pressure as determined
in question a) needs to be maintained.
56 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

c) What will be the flow that can be delivered from reservoir A to reservoir D if
the minimum night flow of QC = 108 m3/h is to be maintained in area C? What
is the pressure in area C at that moment?

Marking matrix:
Question a b c
Max. points 25 10 15

Figure 1.56 Problem 1.6.8 – question a)

Figure 1.57 Problem 1.6.8 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 20 mwc, Qd = 100 l/s)
 Workshop problems 57

Figure 1.58 Problem 1.6.8 – questions b) and c)

Answers:

a) For a given duty head and flow, the pump delivers Qp = 114 l/s at Hp = 18
mwc. For the pressure pC/ρg = 20 mwc, the available friction loss along A-C
is 75 + 18–20–70 = 3 mwc and the hydraulic gradient SAC = 3/300 = 0.01.
Consequently, QAC = 39.75 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).

Consequently, QAB = Qp – QAC = 114–39.75 = 74.25 l/s. For this flow, the
friction loss along A-B is hf,AB = 3.88 mwc (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2),
leading to the pressure in area B of pB/ρg = 75 + 18–3.88–80 = 9.12 mwc.
58 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Finally, the area in C also receives water from the reservoir in D. The avail-
able friction loss along D-C is 95–20–70 = 5 mwc and the hydraulic gradient
SDC = 5/625 = 0.008. Consequently, QDC = 14.88 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson
1–4), leading to the total demand of area C of QC = 39.75 + 14.88 = 54.63 l/s.

b) In the alternative layout, the available friction loss along D-B is HD – HB =

95–9.12–80 = 5.88 mwc and the hydraulic gradient SBD = 5.88/550 =
0.010691. Consequently, the supply from the reservoir in D is QDB = 44.30 l/s
(from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).

c) During the night time, Qp = QAC = QC + QCD. Thus, the pump needs to pump
the flow higher than 108 m3/h = 30 l/s, meaning that the pumping head will be
lower than 26.07 mwc. In this situation, the continuity of the hydraulic grade
line along the route A-C-D needs to be maintained i.e. HA + Hp – hf,AC = HD +
hf,CD = HC. The following table can be produced by using Spreadsheet Lesson
1–2 for the friction loss calculation.

QAC (l/s) Hp (mwc) hf,AC (mwc) HC,left (msl) QCD (l/s) hf,CD (mwc) HC,right (msl) ΔHC (msl)

35 25.85 2.34 98.51 5 0.59 95.59 2.92

40 25.60 3.04 97.56 10 2.29 97.29 0.27
45 25.32 3.83 96.49 15 5.08 100.08 – 3.59

The difference ΔHC between HC,left = HA + Hp – hf,AC and HC,right = HD + hf,CD needs
to be zero. The table shows that this is going to happen for the pumping flow
between 40 and 45 l/s; actually, very close to 40 l/s. A more accurate value can be
obtained by further refining the flows by repeating the same process. Finally,
QCD = 40.42 l/s and HC = 97.48 msl leading to the pressure pC/ρg = 27.48 mwc.
 Workshop problems 59

QAC (l/s) Hp (mwc) hf,AC (mwc) HC,left (msl) QCD (l/s) hf,CD (mwc) HC,right (msl) ΔHC (msl)

40.2 25.59 3.07 97.52 10.2 2.38 97.38 0.14

40.4 25.58 3.10 97.48 10.4 2.47 97.47 0.01
40.42 25.58 3.10 97.48 10.42 2.48 97.48 0

Problem 1.6.9
Area B shown in Figure 1.59 receives water by pumping from the sources in
A and C. Both pumps operate according to the curve shown in Figure 1.60
(Hd = 60 mwc, Qd = 120 l/s).The information about the connecting route is as
follows:

Section L (m) D (mm) k (mm)

A–B 500 300 0.3

B–C 400 200 0.4

Figure 1.59 Problem 1.6.9 – questions a) and b)

Questions:
a) Calculate the demand of area B at the pressure pB/ρg = 30 mwc, if both pumps
A and C are switched on.
b) Can the same demand, as calculated in question a), be satisfied if the section
B-C is temporarily closed due to the maintenance of the pump in C? What
will be the pressure at B at that moment if an additional pump of the same
size is connected in parallel to the one in A?
c) Area D is planned to be connected to the system and will be supplied by a
booster station installed at B, as shown in Figure 1.61 (the same pump curve
can be used as for the pumps in A and C). The pipe section B-D has the fol-
lowing characteristics: LBD = 300 m, DBD = 100 mm and kBD = 0.1 mm. To
supply area D, the same demand as for area B, as calculated in question a),
is to be maintained but at the lower minimum pressure pB/ρg = 20 mwc, with
both pumps A (one unit!) and C in operation. What will be the demand and
pressure at D for such a scenario?
60 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Marking matrix:
Question a b c
Max. points 15 15 20

Figure 1.60 Problem 1.6.9 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 60 mwc, Qd = 120 l/s)

Figure 1.61 Problem 1.6.9 – question c)

Answers:
a) For the given pressure pB/ρg = 30 mwc, HB = 120 msl. The available friction
loss along A-B is 120–75 = 45 mwc, which is the static head to be met by
pump A. The available friction loss along C-B is 120–80 = 40 mwc, which
is the static head to be met by pump C. Consequently, the flows QAB and QCB
are equal to 141.99 l/s and 101.84 l/s, respectively (from Spreadsheet Lesson
6–2), leading to the total demand of area B of QB = 243.83 l/s.
 Workshop problems 61

b) Adding an additional unit of the same size in parallel to the existing pump
will result in the composite pump curve of Hd = 60 mwc, and Qd = 240 l/s.
The residual pressure for the demand QB = 243.83 l/s, will be pB/ρg = 24.02
mwc (from Spreadsheet Lesson 6–1).
62 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

c) For the reduced pressure pB/ρg = 20 mwc, HB = 110 msl. The available friction
loss along A-B is 35 mwc, while the one along C-B is 30 mwc. Consequently,
both pumps A and C can deliver more water. Applying the same calculations
as in question a), the flows QAB and QCB are equal to 161.07 l/s and 113.93 l/s,
respectively (from Spreadsheet Lesson 6–2). The demand pumped to the area
in D is then QBD = 161.07 + 113.93–243.83 = 31.17 l/s. The booster pump
in B will deliver this flow at the head Hp = 78.65 mwc, and the friction loss
will be hf,BD = 49.94 (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2), resulting in the residual
pressure pD/ρg = 110 + 78.65–49.94–95 = 43.71 mwc.

Problem 1.6.10
Areas D and E shown in Figure 1.62 receive water combined by pumping from
the reservoir in A, and by gravity from the reservoir in C. The pump operates
according to the curve shown in Figure 1.63 (Hd = 30 mwc, Qd = 150 l/s). The
information about the connecting routes is as follows:
 Workshop problems 63

Section L (m) D (mm) k (mm)

A–B 400 300 0.5

B–D 600 250 1.0
C–B 500 200 0.5
B–E 500 300 0.5

Figure 1.62 Problem 1.6.10

Figure 1.63 Problem 1.6.10 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 30 mwc, Qd = 150 l/s)

Questions:
a) During the night time, the minimum observed flow of the pump was Qp = 150
l/s while the observed pressure in area D was pD/ρg = 17 mwc. What was the
demand of areas D and E, and the pressure in area E at that moment in time?
b) During the daytime, the maximum observed flow of the pump was QA = 190
l/s while the observed pressure in area D was pD/ρg = 7 mwc. What was the
demand of areas D and E, and the pressure in area E at that moment in time?
64 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

c) A renovation of the section C-B is planned. What should be the enlarged

diameter DCB that can enable the reservoir in C to supply, with the pump out
of operation, the entire demands and pressures calculated for the supply in
question b)?

Marking matrix:
Question a b c
Max. points 20 15 15

Answers:
a) For the given duty head and flow, the pump delivers Qp = 150 l/s at Hp = 30
mwc. Furthermore, the friction loss along A-B is hf,AB = 7 mwc (from Spread-
sheet Lesson 1–2), leading to the head in the cross section in B of HB = 80 +
30–7 = 103 msl.

Hence, the available friction loss along B-C is 103–100 = 3 mwc and the
hydraulic gradient SBC = 3/500 = 0.006. Consequently, QBC = 29.83 l/s
(Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4). Hence, the reservoir in C receives water.

For pD/ρg = 17 mwc, the available friction loss along B-D is 103–17–80 =
6 mwc and the hydraulic gradient SBD = 6/600 = 0.01. Consequently, QBD =
63.84 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).
 Workshop problems 65

Finally, the demand of area E = 150 l/s – 29.83 l/s (in C) – 63.84 l/s (in D)
= 56.33 l/s. For this flow, the friction loss along B-E is hf,BE = 1.27 mwc
(from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2), leading to the pressure in area E of pB/ρg =
103–1.27–70 = 31.73 msl.

b) During the daytime, the pump delivers Qp = 190 l/s at Hp = 23.96 mwc. The
friction loss along A-B is hf,AB = 11.18 mwc (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2),
leading to the head HB = 80 + 23.96–11.18 = 92.78 msl.

Hence, the available friction loss along C-B is 100–92.78 = 7.22 mwc and
the hydraulic gradient SCB = 7.22/500 = 0.01444. Consequently, QCB = 46.64
l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4). Hence, the reservoir in C supplies water.

For pD/ρg = 7 mwc, the available friction loss hf,BD = 92.78–7–80 = 5.78 mwc
and the hydraulic gradient SBD = 5.78/600 = 0.009633. Based on this, QBD =
62.65 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).
66 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Finally, the demand of area E = 190 l/s + 46.64 l/s (in C) – 62.65 l/s (in D)
= 173.99 l/s. For this flow, the friction loss along B-E is hf,BE = 11.73 mwc
(from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2), leading to the pressure in area E of pB/ρg =
92.78–11.73–70 = 11.05 mwc.

c) During the renovation period, the reservoir in C should deliver QC = QD + QE =

62.65 + 173.99 = 236.64 l/s. To meet the same pressures in D and E as in
question b), the head HB = 92.78 msl needs to be maintained and the available
friction loss along C-B is then still hf,CB = 7.22 mwc as well as the hydraulic
gradient SCB = 0.01444, leading to the diameter DCB = 370 mm (from Spread-
sheet Lesson 1–5), rounded off to 400 mm.

Problem 1.6.11
Area E shown in Figure 1.64 receives water combined by pumping from the res-
ervoir in A, and by gravity from the reservoirs in C and D. The pump operates
according to the curve shown in Figure 1.65 (Hd = 40 mwc, Qd = 150 l/s). The
information about the connecting routes is as follows:

Section L (m) D (mm) k (mm)

A–B 400 300 0.5

B–D 1000 250 1.0
C–B 500 150 0.5
B–E 500 350 0.5
 Workshop problems 67

Figure 1.64 Problem 1.6.11

Questions:
a) During the night time, the observed pressure in the intersection at B was pB/ρg =
40 mwc. What was the demand and pressure in area E at that moment in time?
b) During the daytime, the observed pressure in the intersection at B dropped to
pB/ρg = 15 mwc. What was the demand and pressure in area E at that moment
in time?
c) At which flow will the pump supply the reservoir in C if QBD = 0 but pipe B-D is not
closed? What will be the demand and pressure in area E at that moment in time?
Marking matrix:
Question a b c
Max. points 20 15 15

Figure 1.65 Problem 1.6.11 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 40 mwc, Qd = 150 l/s)
68 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Answers:
a) Due to HA = ZB = 80 msl, the pressure pB/ρg = 40 mwc is at the same time the
static head along A-B. Consequently, the flow QAB = 121.38 l/s (from Spread-
sheet Lesson 6–2).

For HB = 120 msl, the available friction loss along B-C is 120–100 = 20 mwc, and
along B-D is 120–110 = 10 mwc. The hydraulic gradients are then SBC = 20/500 =
0.04, and SBD = 10/1000 = 0.01, leading to QBC = 36.47 l/s and QBD = 63.84 l/s
(both from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4). Hence, these reservoirs receive water.

Finally, the demand of area E = 121.38 l/s – 36.47 l/s (in C) – 63.84 l/s (in D)
= 21.07 l/s. For this flow, the friction loss along B-E is hf,BE = 0.09 mwc (from
 Workshop problems 69

Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2), leading to the pressure in area E of pE/ρg = 120–0.09–

70 = 49.91 mwc.

b) During the daytime, the static head along A-B equals the pressure pB/ρg = 15
mwc. In this scenario, QAB = 206.19 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 6–2).

For HB = 95 msl, the available friction loss along C-B is 100–95 = 5 mwc, and
along D-B is 110–95 = 15 mwc. The hydraulic gradients are then SCB = 5/500
= 0.01, and SDB = 15/1000 = 0.015, leading to QCB = 18.04 l/s and QDB = 78.32
l/s (both from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4). Hence, the reservoirs supply water.
70 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Finally, the demand of area E = 206.19 l/s + 18.04 l/s (in C) + 78.32 l/s (in
D) = 302.55 l/s. For this flow, the friction loss along B-E is hf,BE = 15.71 mwc
(from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2), leading to the pressure in area E of pE/ρg =
95–15.71–70 = 9.29 mwc.

c) For the condition QBD = 0, HB = HD = 110 mwc, and therefore pB/ρg = 30 mwc.
As a consequence, QAB = 160.73 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 6–2).

For HB = 110 msl, the available friction loss along B-C is 110–100 = 10 mwc.
The hydraulic gradient is then SBC = 10/500 = 0.02, leading to QBC = 25.67
l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4). Hence, the reservoir in C receives water.
 Workshop problems 71

Finally, the demand of area E = 160.73–25.67 = 135.06 l/s. For this flow, the
friction loss along B-E is hf,BE = 3.19 mwc (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2),
leading to the pressure in area E of pE/ρg = 110–3.19–70 = 36.81 mwc.

Problem 1.6.12
Areas B and C shown in Figure 1.66 receive water: B by gravity from reservoir
A, and C combined by pumping from the same reservoir and by gravity from the
reservoir in D. The equal pump units in the pumping station operate according
to the curve shown in Figure 1.67 (Hd = 30 mwc, Qd = 100 l/s). The information
about the connecting routes is as follows:

Section L (m) D (mm) k (mm)

A–B 500 400 0.5

B–C 350 250 1.5
C–D 800 350 0.5

Figure 1.66 Problem 1.6.12

72 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Questions:
a) At a certain moment in time, the pressures in area B, at the suction side of the
pumping station, as well as in area C, are measured both at pB/ρg = pC/ρg = 20
mwc. Determine the demands in areas A and B if one pump is in operation.
b) During the night time, the reservoir in D will need to be replenished with the
minimum flow of 160 l/s pumped from the reservoir in A, while the required
demand in each of the two areas, B and C, should be at least 50 l/s. For this
purpose the diameter of section B-C will be increased to 350 mm at a new
absolute roughness of 0.5 mm. Find out the least number of pumps in parallel
arrangement that are needed to provide this operation.
c) The reservoir in D is temporarily disconnected for maintenance purposes.
Can the number of pumps that is determined in question b) supply the entire
demand of areas B and C calculated in question a), if the diameter of pipe DAB
has also been increased to maintain the same pressure of 20 mwc in area B
(as in question a)? Find out the diameter DAB at the same absolute roughness
of 0.5 mm and the pressure in area C in this situation.

Marking matrix:
Question a b c
Max. points 20 15 15

Figure 1.67 Problem 1.6.12 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 30 mwc, Qd = 100 l/s)

Answers:
a) For pB/ρg = pC/ρg = 20 mwc, the heads HB = 60 msl and HC = 70 msl creating
the static head along B-C of 10 mwc. At the same time, the available friction
loss along A-B is hf,AB = 65–60 = 5 mwc, while the one along D-C is hf,DC =
80–70 = 10 mwc. Consequently, the corresponding hydraulic gradients are
then SAB = 5/500 = 0.01, and SDC = 10/800 = 0.0125, leading to QAB = 241.25 l/s
 Workshop problems 73

and QDC = 189.99 l/s (both from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4). Hence, the reser-
voirs supply water.

Furthermore, with one pump in operation QBC = 123.76 l/s (from Spreadsheet
Lesson 6–2).

Finally, the demands in the supplied areas are QB = QAB – QBC = 241.25–
123.76 = 117.49 l/s, and QC = QBC + QDC = 123.76 + 189.99 = 313.75 l/s.
74 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

b) During the night time, the minimum demands are QB = QC = 50 l/s while the
minimum recharge of the reservoir in D is QCD = 160 l/s. Thus, the pumping
station has to provide the minimum flow of 50 + 160 = 210 l/s, while QAB =
260 l/s. Consequently, the friction losses will be hf,AB = 5.80 mwc and hf,CD =
7.12 mwc (both from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2), leading to the heads in area B
of HB = 65–5.80 = 59.20 msl, and in area C of HC = 80 + 7.12 = 87.12 msl.

Hence, the static head along B-C is 87.12–59.20 = 27.92 mwc. At the same
time the flow QBC = 210 l/s with the enlarged pipe generates the friction loss
of hf,BC = 5.33 mwc (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2).

This leads to the conclusion that the pumping station needs to pump the min-
imum flow of Qp = 210 l/s at the minimum pumping head of Hp = 27.92 +
5.33 = 33.25 mwc. For the given pump curve, two pumps in parallel deliver the
required flow at the head of Hp = 28.98 mwc, while three pumps in parallel will
deliver the head Hp = 35.10 mwc > 33.25 mwc. Hence, three units are necessary.
c) From question a): QB = 117.49 l/s, and QC = 313.75 l/s. Thus, QAB = 431.24
l/s and QBC = Qp = 313.75 l/s. For pB/ρg = 20 mwc, the available friction loss
 Workshop problems 75

along A-B is still hf,AB = 5 mwc leading to the SAB = 0.01 and the diameter DAB =
498 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5), rounded off to 500 mm.

Three pumps will pump Qp = 313.75 l/s at the head Hp = 29.06 mwc. At the
same time, the friction loss hf,BC = 11.82 mwc (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2),
leading to the pressure in C of pC/ρg = 60 + 29.06–11.82–50 = 27.24 mwc.

Problem 1.6.13
Areas D and E shown in Figure 1.68 receive water: D by gravity from reservoir C,
and E by serial pumping from the reservoir in A. The equal pump units in A and B
operate according to the curve shown in Figure 1.69 (Hd = 50 mwc, Qd = 200 l/s).
The information about the connecting routes is as follows:

Section L (m) D (mm) k (mm)

A–B 400 300 0.5

B–C 450 250 1.0
C–D 600 150 0.5
B–E 350 200 1.5

Questions:
a) For the supply of area E, QE = 50 l/s, calculate the flow and head of pump A,
and supply of reservoir C from the pump in B. What is the pressure at the suc-
tion side of pump B, and what will be the pressure in area E at that moment
in time? Furthermore, if the observed pressure in area D is pD/ρg = 14 mwc,
what is the demand of this area?
b) How much water would area E receive, at the pressure pE/ρg = 30 mwc, if
it is supplied by gravity from the reservoir in C (the pumps at A and B are
switched off)? Calculate the equivalent diameter for the section C-B-E in this
76 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

case, for the total length equal to LCBE = LBC + LBE = 800 m. The roughness
factor for the new pipe can be assumed at kCBE = 0.1 mm.
Marking matrix:
Question a b
Max. points 30 20

Figure 1.68 Problem 1.6.13

Figure 1.69 Problem 1.6.13 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 50 mwc, Qd = 200 l/s)

Answers:
a) For the demand in area E of QE = 50 l/s, QAB = QBC + 50 l/s. Both pumps are
of the same size and connected in series; hence, they pump the same flow
Qp = QAB with the same pumping head Hp. Based on this, the integrity of the
hydraulic grade line along A-B-C is maintained by HA = 50 + Hp – hf,AB + Hp –
hf,BC = 110 = HC. Thus, Hp = 30 + (hf,AB + hf,BC)/2. A selected range of pumping
 Workshop problems 77

flows, leading to the pumping heads above 30 mwc, is used to calculate the
friction losses along A-B-C (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2), until the equa-
tion has been satisfied. The results are shown in the following table.

Qp (l/s) Hp,curve (mwc) QAB (l/s) hf,AB (mwc) QBC (l/s) hf,BC (mwc) Hp,calc (msl) ΔHp (msl)

260 38.50 260 20.83 210 48.03 64.43 25.93

240 42.67 240 17.77 190 39.35 58.56 15.89
220 46.50 220 14.95 170 31.53 53.24 6.74
200 50.00 200 12.37 150 24.57 48.47 –1.53

The difference ΔHp between the calculated value and the value taken from the
pumping curve needs to be zero. The table shows that this is going to happen for the
pumping flow between 200 and 220 l/s; actually, close to 200 l/s. A more accurate
value can be obtained by further refining the flows by repeating the same process.
Finally, with minor interpolation Qp = 203.85 l/s and Hp = 49.35 msl leading to the
pressure at the suction side of pump B of pB/ρg = 50 + 49.35–12.85–70 = 16.50 mwc.

Qp (l/s) Hp,curve (mwc) QAB (l/s) hf,AB (mwc) QBC (l/s) hf,BC (mwc) Hp,calc (msl) ΔHp (msl)

202 49.67 202 12.62 152 25.23 48.93 –0.74

204 49.33 204 12.87 154 25.89 49.38 0.05
203.9 49.34 203.9 12.86 153.9 25.86 49.36 0.02
203.8 49.36 203.8 12.84 153.8 25.83 49.34 –0.02

At the same time, the friction loss along B-E will be hf,BE = 7.88 mwc (from
Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2), leading to the pressure in area E of pE/ρg = 70 + 16.50
+ 49.35–7.88–60 = 67.97 mwc.

Finally, for pD/ρg = 14 mwc, the head HD = 104 msl, creating the available fric-
tion loss along C-D of 6 mwc. The corresponding hydraulic gradient is then SDC =
6/600 = 0.01, to QDC = 18.04 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).
78 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

b) For pE/ρg = 30 mwc, HE = 90 msl and the available friction loss along the route
C-B-E is hf,CBE = 110–90 = 20 mwc, cumulated from two pipes connected in
series. This friction loss will be reached for the flow of QCBE = 68.63 l/s. The
straightforward result can be obtained from Spreadsheet Lesson 2–4. The
equivalent diameter for this route, DCBE = 195 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson
2–5), rounded off to 200 mm.
 Workshop problems 79

Problem 1.6.14
Areas B, C and D shown in Figure 1.70 receive water by pumping from the res-
ervoirs in A and E. Both of the pumps operate according to the curve shown in
Figure 1.71 (Hd = 40 mwc, Qd = 150 l/s). The information about the connecting
routes is as follows:

Section L (m) D (mm) k (mm)

A–B 400 300 0.5

B–C 600 200 1.5
C–D 500 150 1.0
D–E 700 350 0.5

Figure 1.70 Problem 1.6.14

Questions:
a) At a certain moment in time, the pump in A operates at 150 l/s, while the one
in E operates at 110 l/s. For these flow conditions, the observed pressure in
area C is pC/ρg = 15 mwc. Determine the demand in all three areas, and the
pressure in areas B and D, at the same moment in time.
b) During the maintenance of pump A, the reservoir in E will have to supply
the total demand of 260 l/s alone (the section A-B is closed). Two additional
pumps of the same type as in Figure 1.71 will be added in parallel to the
existing one in E (total three pumps available), and in addition the pipe route
along E-D-C-B is to be enlarged for this purpose. What will be the new pipe
diameters DED, DDC and DCB that can provide the same demands in areas B,
C and D as under question a), if the pressure of 15 mwc is to be maintained
in areas B and D, while the pressure in area C should be 27 mwc? For the
diameters of new pipes, use the k value of 0.2 mm, and exactly calculated
diameter values, without rounding off the results.
c) For the newly renovated network in question b), calculate the total maxi-
mum flow that both reservoirs can supply if the pressure in areas B and D
is still to be maintained at 15 mwc (pumping station in A operates with one
pump unit, while the one in E operates with all three pumps). What will be
the demand of each of the three areas if the pressure in area C is measured
at 25 mwc?
80 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Marking matrix:
Question a b c
Max. points 15 15 20

Figure 1.71 Problem 1.6.14 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 40 mwc, Qd = 150 l/s)

Answers:
a) For pC/ρg = 15 mwc, the head HC = 65 msl. For the pumping flows Qp,A = 150
l/s and Qp,E = 110 l/s, the corresponding pumping heads are Hp,A = 40 msl and
Hp,E = 46.16 msl. Moreover, the friction losses along A-B and E-D are hf,AB =
7.00 mwc, and hf,ED = 2.98 mwc (both Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2).

Consequently, the head HB = 45 + 40–7 = 78 msl, and pressure pB/ρg = 18 mwc.

Equally, HD = 35 + 46.16–2.98 = 78.18 msl, and pressure pD/ρg = 13.18 mwc.
 Workshop problems 81

Based on these heads, the available friction loss along B-C is hf,BC = 78–65
= 13 mwc, and the corresponding hydraulic gradient is then SBC = 13/600
= 0.02167. At the same time, the available friction loss along D-C is hf,DC =
78.18–65 = 13.18 mwc, leading to SDC = 13.18/500 = 0.02636. In the next
step, QBC = 49.04 l/s and QDC = 26.77 l/s (both from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).

Finally, the demands in the supplied areas are QB = QAB – QBC = 150–49.04
= 100.96 l/s, QD = QED – QDC = 110–26.77 = 83.23 l/s and QC = QBC + QDC =
49.04 + 26.77 = 75.81 l/s.

b) With three equal pumps in parallel in source E, each one is supplying Qp = 260/3
= 86.67 l/s at the head Hp = 48.88 mwc. From the pressure requirements in the
demand areas, the heads, HB = 60 + 15 = 75 msl, HC = 50 + 27 = 78 msl, and HD
= 65 + 15 = 80 msl. Based on these heads, the available friction loss along E-D
is hf,ED = 35 + 48.88–80 = 3.88 mwc, and the corresponding hydraulic gradient
is then SED = 3.88/700 = 0.005543. Furthermore, the available friction loss along
D-C is hf,DC = 80–77 = 3 mwc, leading to SDC = 3/500 = 0.006. Finally, hf,CB = 77–70
= 2 mwc, leading to SCB = 2/600 = 0.003333. From the answers in question a),
the flows QED = 260 l/s, QDC = 260–83.23 = 176.77 l/s, and QCB = 176.77–75.81
= 100.96 l/s. Finally, the diameters DED = 445 mm, DDC = 379 mm, and DCB =
343 mm (all calculated from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–5).
82 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

c) For HB = 60 + 15 = 75 msl, and DB = 343 mm, the pump flow Qp,A = 180.05
l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 6–2).

Because of the same pressure in D, the three pumps in E will still pump the
flow Qp,E = 260 l/s; hence, the total pumping from the two reservoirs will be
440.05 l/s. Based on the heads in B, C and D, the available friction loss along
B-C is hf,BC = 75–75 = 0 mwc. Hence, QBC = 0 l/s meaning that the area in B
is entirely supplied from the reservoir in A. At the same time, the available
 Workshop problems 83

friction loss along D-C is hf,DC = 80–75 = 5 mwc, leading to SDC = 5/500 =
0.01. In the next step, QDC = 16.41 l/s (both from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).

Finally, the demands in the supplied areas are QB = QAB = 180.05 l/s, QD =
QED – QDC = 260–16.41 = 243.59 l/s and QC = 16.41 l/s.

Problem 1.6.15
Area C shown in Figure 1.72 receives water combined by gravity from the reser-
voir in B, and by the pumping station from the reservoir in A. The pumping station
is also supplying reservoir B and comprises two equal pump units connected in
series, each of them operating according to the curve shown in Figure 1.73 (Hd =
20 mwc, Qd = 100 l/s).The information about the connecting routes is as follows:

Section L (m) D (mm) k (mm)

A–B 500 300 0.6

B–C 400 100 1.0
A–C 900 200 0.3

Figure 1.72 Problem 1.6.15

Questions:
a) At a certain point in time, the observed flow in area C is QC = 25 l/s supplied
at the pressure pC/ρg = 24 mwc. Calculate the flows in all three pipes, A-B,
B-C and A-C, for this scenario if one pump unit is in the operation.
84 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

b) At another point in time, the observed flow in area C grows to QC = 40 l/s sup-
plied at the pressure pC/ρg = 23 mwc. Calculate the flows in all three pipes,
A-B, B-C and A-C, for this scenario if two pump units are in operation.
c) In the event of the closure of section A-C, what would need to be the diameter
of section B-C to enable the supply of the same demand QC and the pressure
pC/ρg as in question b), entirely from the reservoir in B? How much flow
would the pumping station then supply to this reservoir with two pumps in
operation? The absolute roughness of the new pipe can be assumed at kBC =
0.2 mm.

Marking matrix:
Question a b c
Max. points 20 15 15

Figure 1.73 Problem 1.6.15 – pump curve for single unit (Hd = 20 mwc, Qd = 100 l/s)

Answers:
a) For pC/ρg = 24 mwc, the available friction loss hf,BC = 95 – (70 + 24) = 1
mwc, leading to SBC = 1/400 = 0.0025. In the next step, QBC = 2.73 l/s (from
Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).
 Workshop problems 85

Furthermore, QC = QAC + QBC and Qp = QAB + QAC. The pump is pumping both
of these flows with the same head Hp. The integrity of the hydraulic grade
line along A-B-C is therefore to be ensured by Hp = HB – HA + hf,AB = HC +
hf,AC – HA, while respecting the flow continuity and the relation between the
pumping flow and pumping head. In this scenario, QAC = 25–2.73 = 22.27 l/s
and the corresponding friction loss hf,AC = 2.74 mwc (from Spreadsheet Les-
son 1–2), leading to Hp = 70 + 24 + 2.74–75 = 21.74 mwc.

At this head, the pump delivers Qp = 86 l/s, leading to QAB = 86–22.27 = 63.73
l/s. As a check, for this flow the friction loss hf,AB = 1.69 mwc (from Spread-
sheet Lesson 1–2), leading to Hp = 95–75 + 1.69 = 21.69 mwc ≈ 21.74 mwc.

b) The same process applies as in question a), except that two pumps operate in
series with the composite pump curve described using Hd = 40 mwc, and Qd =
100 l/s. For pC/ρg = 23 mwc, the available friction loss hf,BC = 2 mwc, leading
to SBC = 0.005, leading to QBC = 3.90 l/s (Spreadsheet Lesson 1–4).
86 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Furthermore, QAC = 40–3.90 = 36.10 l/s and the corresponding friction loss
hf,AC = 7 mwc (from Spreadsheet Lesson 1–2), leading to Hp = 25 mwc.

At this head, the pumps deliver Qp = 145.78 l/s, leading to QAB = 109.68 l/s.
As a control, for this flow the friction loss hf,AB = 4.92 mwc (from Spreadsheet
Lesson 1–2), leading to Hp = 24.92 mwc ≈ 25 mwc.

c) In case the same flow and the pressure as in question b) need to be delivered
from the reservoir in B, while the section A-C is closed, the pipe diameter
along B-C has to be enlarged to DBC = 223 mm (from Spreadsheet Lesson
1–5), rounded off to 250 mm.
 Workshop problems 87

At the same time, the supply of the reservoir in B with two pumps in series
will be QAB = 138.39 l/s (from Spreadsheet Lesson 6–2).

1.7 Examination true-false tests

The following selection of 15 True-False tests was given, slightly modified, as an
introductory part of the open book examinations run at IHE Delft in the period
2004–2016. The attached drawings show the particular position of the hydraulic
grade line over a pipe section, each with ten statements that are to be judged as
True or False. Each correct judgement earns two points (total 20 points). The
available time to complete this part of the exam is approximately 30 minutes. The
correct answers are given at the end of this paragraph.
In all the problems (unless specified differently):

1. The position of the hydraulic grade line is described by the elevations of the
piezometric head.
2. Any change of the flow conditions and/or the pipe properties influences this
position as described correctly (or incorrectly) by the given statement.
3. Fixed (i.e. unchanged) values suggested in the statements are those shown in
the drawing.
4. The conditions changed in one statement do not automatically apply to the
following statements.
88 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Test 1.7.1

1 The pressures in cross sections A and B are equal. True False

2 The fow rate in the pipe equals 0 l/s. True False
3 The head in cross section A is lower than the head in cross True False
section B.
4 The pressure in cross section B, pb /ρg = 10 mwc. True False
5 The friction loss along pipe section A-B is 3 mwc. True False
6 For fxed Ha = 45 msl, the velocity along pipe section A-B will True False
reduce if Hb drops to 37 msl.
7 For fxed Ha = 45 msl, the pressure along pipe section A-B True False
becomes partly negative if Hb drops to 22 msl.
8 If the elevations Z a > Z b, the fow direction will reverse. True False
9 If the inner pipe diameters Da < Db, the fow velocity va < vb. True False
10 If the pipe diameters Da = Db and the heads H a > Hb, the pipe True False
fow rates Qa > Qb.
 Workshop problems 89

Test 1.7.2

1 The fow direction in the pipe is from B to A. True False

2 The fow velocity in the pipe equals 0 m/s. True False
3 The head in cross section A is higher than the one in cross True False
section B.
4 The fow rate in the pipe is constant alongside its length. True False
5 The pressure in cross section A equals pa /ρg = 35 mwc. True False
6 For fxed Ha and the pipe length, the drop of the head in cross True False
section B will reduce the hydraulic gradient.
7 The uniform increase of the pipe diameter will increase the True False
fow velocity.
8 The increase of water temperature will reduce the friction True False
loss.
9 For fxed Ha and the pipe length, the increase of fow velocity True False
will increase the hydraulic gradient.
10 If the inner pipe diameters Da = Db, the kinetic energies in True False
cross sections A and B are equal.
90 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Test 1.7.3

1 The water fows from cross section A to cross section B. True False
2 The pressure drop along the pipe is 10 mwc. True False
3 The pressure in cross section A equals the pressure in cross True False
section B.
4 The total head loss along the pipe equals 14 mwc. True False
5 The potential energies in cross sections A and B are equal. True False
6 If the inner pipe diameters Da = Db, the velocity in cross True False
section A equals the velocity in cross section B
7 If the inner pipe diameters Da = Db, the increase of velocity vb True False
will cause the increase of velocity va.
8 For the constant fow rate, the uniform increase of pipe True False
diameter will reduce the kinetic energy.
9 The increase of head Hb will always cause the increase of True False
head Ha.
10 For fxed pipe diameter and length, if the fow rate doubles, True False
the value of the hydraulic gradient will then also double.
 Workshop problems 91

Test 1.7.4

1 The fow direction in the pipe is from A to B. True False

2 The fow rate in the pipe is constant alongside its length. True False
3 The fow velocity in the pipe equals 0 m/s. True False
4 The kinetic energies in cross sections A and B are equal. True False
5 The piezometric head in cross section A is lower than the True False
one in cross section B.
6 For Z b = 10 msl, the pressure in cross section B equals pb /ρg True False
= 35 mwc.
7 For fxed values of Ha = Hb, a smaller pipe diameter would True False
increase the fow velocity.
8 If Ha – Hb = Z a – Z b, the pressure alongside the section A-B is True False
constant.
9 If Z b becomes bigger than Z a, the fow direction in the pipe True False
will reverse.
10 If Ha and Hb grow to 55 msl, the kinetic energy increases for True False
10 mwc.
92 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Test 1.7.5

1 The water along pipe section A-B fows from B to A. True False
2 The potential energy in cross section B equals 0 msl. True False
3 The pipe is partly flled with water. True False
4 The pressure in cross section B equals pb /ρg = 32 mwc. True False
5 For constant inner pipe diameter, the velocity along pipe True False
section A-B is constant.
6 The pressure in cross section A is greater than the pressure True False
in cross section B.
7 For fxed fow rate, the diameter increase of pipe section A-B True False
will reduce the friction loss.
8 If Ha drops to 32 msl, for fxed Hb, the fow along rate A-B True False
becomes 0 l/s.
9 If Ha drops to 22 msl, for fxed Hb, the fow velocity along True False
A-B becomes 0 m/s.
10 In case Z a = 54 msl, the pressure along A-B will be negative. True False
 Workshop problems 93

Test 1.7.6

1 The water along pipe section A-B fows from B to A. True False
2 The potential energy in cross section B equals 42 msl. True False
3 The pipe is partly flled with water. True False
4 The pressure in cross section B equals pb /ρg = 32 mwc. True False
5 For constant inner pipe diameter, the Reynolds number along True False
pipe section A-B is constant.
6 The pressure in cross section A is lower than the pressure in True False
cross section B.
7 For constant inner diameter, the kinetic energy in cross True False
section A is lower than the one in cross section B.
8 If Ha grows to 42 msl, for fxed Hb, the fow rate along A-B True False
becomes 0 l/s.
9 If Ha drops below 22 msl, for fxed Hb, the pressure along A-B True False
becomes partly negative.
10 If Z b drops below 22 msl, the fow direction will reverse. True False
94 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Test 1.7.7

For the two pipes above, connected in parallel:

1 The fow direction in both pipes is from B to A. True False

2 If both pipes have the same inner diameter and the same True False
length, their fow rate is equal.
3 The friction loss along pipe section A-B is hf = 4 mwc in each True False
pipe (total 8 mwc).
4 The friction loss along section A-B is always equal in both True False
pipes.
5 The hydraulic gradient along section A-B is always equal in True False
both pipes.
6 The pressure in cross section A, pa /ρg = 38 mwc. True False
7 The head in the middle of the section A-B equals 100 msl in True False
both pipes.
8 If Ha drops below 96 msl, for fxed Hb, the fow along pipe True False
section A-B will reverse.
9 If the two pipes are replaced with one of equivalent diameter, True False
this diameter will equal the sum of the two pipe diameters.
10 The equivalent diameter pipe will generate less friction loss if True False
it is shorter than any of the two pipes in parallel.
 Workshop problems 95

Test 1.7.8

1 The component in cross section B is receiving water. True False

2 If Z a = Z b = Z c, the fow rate along pipe section A-B-C equals True False
0 l/s.
3 If Z b = 33 msl, the pressure in cross section B equals pb /ρg = True False
10 mwc.
4 The water in pipe sections A-B and B-C fows in opposite True False
directions.
5 The friction loss along pipe section B-C equals hf = 9 mwc. True False
6 For uniform pipe roughness, if the pipe lengths L AB = L BC , the True False
diameters DAB and DBC must be equal.
7 If the inner pipe diameter Da > Dc, the kinetic energy in cross True False
section A is higher than the one in cross section C.
8 For fxed values Ha = H c, if the discharge in cross section B True False
becomes equal to 0, Hb = 52 msl.
9 For increased values Ha = H c = 72 msl, the discharge in cross True False
section B increases if Hb = 52 msl.
10 If Z b = 33 msl and Z a = Z c = 22 msl, the water will fow from True False
cross section B in the direction of the cross sections A and C.
96 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Test 1.7.9

1 The component in cross section B is supplying water. True False

2 The water in pipe sections A-B-C fows from A to C. True False
3 For uniform pipe roughness, if the pipe lengths 3L AB = 2L BC , True False
and diameters DAB = DBC , the fows QAB and QBC are equal.
4 If Z b = 46 msl, Z a = 42 msl and Z c = 40 msl, the pressure along True False
pipe section A-B-C is constant.
5 If Z b = 44 msl, and Z a = Z c = 48 msl, the water will fow True False
towards cross section B.
6 For fxed Hb, if the fow rate along pipe section B-C becomes True False
equal to 0 l/s, H c = 56 msl.
7 For fxed Hb, if the fow on pipe section B-C becomes equal True False
to 0, Ha = 56 msl, too.
8 For fxed Ha and H c, if head Hb drops below 50 msl, the True False
fow direction in both pipe sections, A-B and B-C, will be
reversed.
9 The increase of fow in pipe section A-B increases the value True False
of Hb.
10 For fxed Hb, if both fows QAB = QBC = 0 l/s, the potential True False
energy along pipe section A-B-C equals 0 (zero).
 Workshop problems 97

Test 1.7.10

1 The component in cross section B is a pressure-reducing True False

valve.
2 The water in pipe sections A-B and B-C fows in opposite True False
directions.
3 If Z a = Z b = Z c, the water pressure along the pipe section True False
A-B-C is constant.
4 If Z a > Z b > Z c, the water will fow towards cross section C. True False
5 For uniform pipe roughness, if the pipe lengths L AB = L BC , and True False
the inner diameters DAB = DBC , the velocities vAB = vBC .
6 If the fow QAB = QBC = 0 l/s, the heads H a = Hb = H c . True False
7 Flows QAB and QBC along the section A-B-C are always equal. True False
8 If the hydraulic gradients S AB = S BC , the pipe lengths L ab = L bc . True False
9 For fxed Ha and H c, if Hb grows to 53 msl, both fows QAB and True False
QBC will reverse their directions.
10 For fxed Ha and H c, if Hb grows to 51 msl, the hydraulic True False
gradients S AB = S BC .
98 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Test 1.7.11

1 The component in cross section B is a valve. True False

2 The water fows from cross section C to cross section A by True False
gravity.
3 The pressure drop in cross section B is 20 mwc. True False
4 The friction losses along the pipe sections A-B and B-C are True False
equal.
5 The fow rates along the pipe sections A-B and B-C are equal. True False
6 For the same pipe roughness, if the pipe lengths L AB = L BC , the True False
diameters DAB and DAC must be equal.
7 If the inner pipe diameters DAB = DBC , the kinetic energies in True False
cross sections A and C will be equal.
8 If the elevations Z a = Z c, the pressure difference between the True False
cross sections A and C is 14 mwc.
9 For fxed Ha, the fow rate increase along the section A-B will True False
increase the head Hb2.
10 For fxed Ha, the fow rate increase along the section B-C will True False
reduce the head Hb1.
 Workshop problems 99

Test 1.7.12

1 The component in cross section B is a pump. True False

2 The water in pipe sections A-B-C fows from A to C. True False
3 If Z a = Z b = Z c = 38 msl, the fow QAB = QBC = 0. True False
4 For uniform roughness along the pipe section A-B-C, if the True False
pipe length L AB = L BC , also the diameter DAB = DBC .
5 The pressure in cross section B, pb /ρg = 26 mwc. True False
6 For fxed Ha, the increase of fow rate along pipe section B-C True False
decreases the value of Hb2.
7 If the fow rate along pipe section B-C becomes equal to 0, H c True False
= 66 msl.
8 If the pump is switched-off, the head Hb1 = Ha. True False
9 If the pump is switched-off, the head Hb1 = Hb2. True False
10 The head H c can never be greater than the head Hb2. True False
100 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Test 1.7.13

1 The component in cross section B is a pump. True False

2 The water fows from cross section A to cross section C. True False
3 The pressure drop in cross section B is 6 mwc. True False
4 The total head loss along the route A-B-C equals 12 mwc. True False
5 If the pipe lengths 2L AB = L BC , the values of hydraulic gradients True False
S AB and S BC are equal.
6 The value of head Ha can never grow above 42 msl. True False
7 For the same pipe roughness, if the pipe diameters Da = Dc, True False
the kinetic energies in cross sections A and C are equal.
8 If the fow rate along the route A-B-C doubles, the value of True False
hydraulic gradients S AB and S BC will also double.
9 For fxed Ha and H c, the increase of head Hb1 will cause the True False
increase of head Hb2.
10 For Hb2 > Hb1, if the values Ha = Hb1, then the values Hb2 = H c. True False
 Workshop problems 101

Test 1.7.14

For the pressure reducing valve (PRV) above:

1 The PRV is fully opened. True False

2 If Z a = Z b = Z c = 30 mwc, the PRV setting is 22 mwc. True False
3 The fow rates QAB = QBC . True False
4 The energy drop in cross section B is 3 msl. True False
5 The pressure in cross section A, pa /ρg = 27 mwc. True False
6 If the pipe lengths 2L AB = L BC , the values of hydraulic gradients True False
S AB and S BC are equal.
7 The head Ha can drop below 51 msl. True False
8 If Hc > 52 msl, the fow direction will reverse. True False
9 If Ha < 55 msl, the fow direction will reverse. True False
10 If Ha < 52 msl, the PRV will be closed. True False
102 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Test 1.7.15

For the butterfly valve above:

1 The valve is partly closed. True False

2 The water along the pipe route A-B-C fows from A to C. True False
3 If Z c = 39 msl, and Z a = Z b = 36 mwc, the water fow will True False
reverse.
4 For uniform pipe roughness, if the pipe lengths L AB = L BC , the True False
diameters DAB = DBC .
5 The pressure drop in cross section B is 42 mwc. True False
6 For the same valve opening, if H c grows to 43 msl, the fow True False
along the pipe section B-C becomes equal to 0 l/s.
7 For the same valve opening, if Ha grows to 54 msl, the head True False
Hb will also grow to 44 msl.
8 For the same valve opening, if Ha drops to 42 msl, the True False
pressure drop in cross section B is then 0 mwc.
9 For the same valve opening, if head Hb1 drops to 40 msl, Hb = True False
46 msl remains unchanged.
10 If both fows QAB = QBC = 0, the pressure drop in cross section True False
B must be 0 mwc.
 Workshop problems 103

Answers

Test 1.7.1
1 False pa /ρg = 23 mwc; pb /ρg = 10 mwc.
2 False The hydraulic grade line is not horizontal.
3 False Ha > Hb.
4 True Hb – Z b = 10 mwc.
5 True Ha – Hb = 3 mwc.
6 False The hydraulic gradient will increase and so will the velocity, too.
7 True Hb – Z b < 0 (-10 mwc).
8 False Flow rate in pressurised pipes does not depend on their slopes.
9 False The opposite is true for constant fow rate along A-B.
10 False Qa = Qb regardless the diameter and head values.

Test 1.7.2
1 True Hb > Ha.
2 False The hydraulic grade line is not horizontal.
3 False The opposite is true (Hb > Ha ).
4 True Based on the Law of Continuity.
5 False Ha = 35 msl; pa /ρg < 35 mwc.
6 True Based on the friction loss reduction.
7 False The opposite is true, based on the constant fow rate.
8 True A higher water temperature reduces the kinematic viscosity.
9 True The friction loss grows with the velocity increase.
10 True Based on the equal fow velocities (va = vb ).

Test 1.7.3
1 False Hb > Ha.
2 False Hb – Ha = 10 mwc but no pressure drop.
3 True pa /ρg = pb /ρg = 14 mwc.
4 False ΔH = 10 mwc.
5 False Hb > Ha.
6 True Based on the Law of Continuity.
7 True Based on the Law of Continuity.
8 True Based on the reduction of the fow velocity.
9 False That will depend on the pipe fow rate, too.
10 False The theoretical relation between pipe fow rates and
hydraulic gradients is (nearly) quadratic.
104 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Test 1.7.4
1 False There is no fow in the pipe.
2 True The fow rate is 0 l/s.
3 True There is no fow (friction loss) in the pipe.
4 True Both kinetic energies in A and B equal 0 mwc.
5 False Ha = Hb.
6 True pb /ρg = Hb – Z b.
7 False The fow velocity equals 0 m/s in all cases when Ha = Hb.
8 True pa /ρg = Ha – Z a and pb /ρg = Hb – Z b.
9 False The fow rate stays at 0 l/s regardless the position of the pipe.
10 True False The kinetic energy equals 0 mwc in all cases when Ha = Hb.

Test 1.7.5
1 False The fow direction is opposite (Ha > Hb ).
2 False Hb = Z b.
3 False The fow is pressurised (Ha > Z a ).
4 False pb /ρg = 0 mwc.
5 True Based on the fow uniformity.
6 True pa /ρg = 20 mwc; pb /ρg = 0 mwc.
7 True The fow velocity will reduce.
8 True Ha = Hb.
9 False The fow direction will reverse (Hb > Ha ).
10 True Z a > Ha ; Z b = Hb.

Test 1.7.6
1 True Hb > Ha.
2 True Ha = 42 msl.
3 False The fow is pressurised (Hb > Z b ).
4 False Z b = 32 mwc.
5 True The fow velocity and the water temperature are also
constant.
6 True pa /ρg = 0 mwc; pb /ρg = 10 mwc.
7 False The fow velocity is constant and so is the kinetic energy, too.
8 True Ha = Hb.
9 True Z a > Ha.
10 False Flow direction in pressurised pipes does not depend on their
slopes.
 Workshop problems 105

Test 1.7.7
1 False Ha > Hb.
2 True Based on identical hydraulic conditions.
3 False The friction loss hf = 8 mwc in each pipe.
4 True Based on the connectivity of pipes in parallel.
5 False Based on possibly different lengths of each pipe.
6 True Ha – Z a = 38 mwc.
7 True Based on the proportional length of the location.
8 True Hb > Ha.
9 False The hydraulic calculation is to be conducted based on equal
friction loss in both pipes.
10 False The hydraulic gradient will change (increase), not the friction loss.

Test 1.7.8
1 True Ha > Hb and H c > Hb.
2 False Flow rate in pressurised pipes does not depend on their slopes.
3 True pb /ρg = Hb – Z b.
4 True B is supplied from A and C.
5 True hf = H c – H b .
6 True Based on the friction loss equations.
7 False va < vc, based on the Law of Continuity.
8 True Ha = Hb = Hc = 52 msl. Consequently, hf = 0 mwc.
9 True hf = H c – Hb = Hc – Ha = 20 mwc.
10 False Flow direction in pressurised pipes does not depend on their
slopes.

Test 1.7.9
1 True Hb > Ha and Hb > H c.
2 False The water fows from B towards A and C.
3 True Based on the friction loss equations. L AB is proportionally smaller
than LBC ; pipe length has a linear relation to the friction loss.
4 True The pressure along pipe section A-B-C is 10 mwc.
5 False Flow direction in pressurised pipes does not depend on their
slopes.
6 True Hb = H c = 56 msl. Consequently, hf = 0 mwc.
7 False B is a supply point. Ha is not dependant on Hb – H c .
8 True Ha > Hb and H c > Hb.
9 False B is a supply point.
10 False If QAB = QBC = 0 l/s, Ha = Hb = H c = 56 msl > 0 msl.
106 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Test 1.7.10
1 False B is receiving water from A and C.
2 True Ha > Hb and H c > Hb.
3 False pa /ρg > pc/ρg > pb /ρg.
4 False Flow direction in pressurised pipes does not depend on their
slopes.
5 False Based on different friction losses along A-B and B-C
indicating different fows QAB and QBC .
6 True The friction loss along A-B-C hf = 0 mwc.
7 False The Law of Continuity does not necessarily apply along the
section A-B-C.
8 False Based on different friction losses along A-B and B-C.
9 True Hb > Ha and Hb > H c.
10 False The friction losses along A-B and B-C become equal (hf = 1
mwc) but not necessarily the hydraulic gradients.

Test 1.7.11
1 False The component in cross section B is a pump.
2 False The water is pumped in the opposite direction.
3 False The pumping head (lift) in cross section B is 20 mwc.
4 True hf = 3 mwc along both cross sections.
5 True Based on the Law of Continuity.
6 True Based on the same friction loss and continuous fow rate.
7 True va = vc, based on the Law of Continuity.
8 True H c – Ha = 14 mwc.
9 False The fow rate increase reduces the pumping head.
10 False The fow rate increase increases the friction loss.

Test 1.7.12
1 True Based on the shape of the hydraulic grade line.
2 True Based on the slope of the hydraulic grade line along A-B-C.
3 False Flow rate in pressurised pipes does not depend on their slopes.
4 False Based on the different friction losses along A-B and B-C.
5 False The pumping head (lift) in cross section B, H p = 26 mwc.
6 True The fow rate increase reduces the pumping head.
7 False The pump is switched off in this case.
8 True QAB = 0. The friction loss along A-B also hf = 0 mwc
9 False The head Hb1 depends on the upstream hydraulic conditions,
while the head Hb2 depends on the downstream conditions.
10 True H c > Hb2 implies reversed fow direction, from C to B, which
is not allowed in pumping stations.
 Workshop problems 107

Test 1.7.13
1 False The component in B causes a loss of head (could be a valve).
2 False Based on the slope of the hydraulic grade line along A-B-C.
3 True Hb2 – Hb1 = 6 mwc.
4 True H c – Ha = 12 mwc.
5 True Based on the two times smaller friction loss along A-B,
compared to the one along B-C.
6 False The reverse fow is impossible only in case of specifc valves.
7 True va = vc , based on the Law of Continuity.
8 False The theoretical relation between pipe fow rates and
hydraulic gradients is (nearly) quadratic.
9 False The increase of Hb1 in this situation indicates the fow rate
increase, i.e. a reduction of pressure drop (an opened valve).
10 True QAB = QBC = 0 l/s (a closed valve).

Test 1.7.14
1 False Based on the shape of the hydraulic grade line.
2 True Hb1 – Z b = 22 mwc.
3 True Based on the Law of Continuity.
4 True Hb2 – Hb1 = 3 mwc.
5 True Ha – Z a = 27 mwc.
6 False Based on the twice bigger friction loss along the twice
shorter pipe length along A-B.
7 True Based on the upstream hydraulic conditions.
8 False PRVs do not allow reversed fows.
9 False The PRV condition Ha < Hb2 is impossible in theory.
10 False If Ha < 52 msl, the PRV will be fully opened.

Test 1.7.15
1 True The fully open valve would likely generate smaller head loss.
2 True Based on the slope of the hydraulic grade line.
3 False Flow rate in pressurised pipes does not depend on their slopes.
4 False Based on the different friction loss along A-B and B-C.
5 False The pressure drop in cross section B is Hb2 – Hb1 = 4 mwc.
6 False The reversed fow is possible in the case of butterfy valves.
7 False Hb2 also depends on the downstream hydraulic conditions.
8 False The pressure drop in cross section B also depends on the
downstream hydraulic conditions.
9 False The pressure drop in cross section B depends on the change
in fow rate, next to the (same) valve opening.
10 True No head loss is generated for the no fow conditions.
Appendix 2

Network modelling workshop

2.1 Learning objectives and set-up

The objective of this assignment is the analysis of the hydraulic performance of
a simple water distribution network. The main goal of the workshop is to under-
stand the basic functionality of standard demand-driven network computer mod-
elling software and the implications resulting from modifications of the system
configuration and/or its operational modes. When given as a lecture, the workshop
contact time consists of three sessions of two hours, with the following set-up:

INTRODUCTION (Session 1)
• Case description
• Introduction to the software
• Start-up, model preparation

PART 1: DIRECT PUMPING (Session 2)

• Pump selection
• Pump operation
• System extension
• Future demand
• System failure

PART 2: BALANCING STORAGE (Session 3)

• Balancing volume
• Pressure optimisation
• Future demand
• Water tower
• Fire demand

The above hydraulic aspects classified for two typical distribution schemes are
analysed by using EPANET1 pressurised network modelling software. Brief

1 EPANET (Version 2) is software for hydraulic and water quality modelling of water distribution
networks, developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA)
110 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

information about the installation and use of this software is given in Appendix 8.
The original 200-page manual can be downloaded as a PDF file, together with a
programme that is available on the Internet in the public domain.
Ten problem areas classified into two groups will be analysed, and a total of
100 partly filled answers available at the end of each question will be completed.
Before starting work, two separate computer files should be prepared:

• CWSDP.NET, the network file of the model with the direct pumping scheme
that is to be used for PART 1 of the assignment,
• CWSBS.NET, the network file of the model with the balancing storage scheme
that is to be used for PART 2 of the assignment.

These files can be easily created from the available CWS.NET file that contains
raw information about the network. The procedure to upgrade this file is explained
in Section 2.3 – Preparing the models. The text file format showing the contents of
the CWS.NET is given in this appendix.
The necessary instructions on all aspects of the assignment and the software are
to be given during the three sessions listed above, which are also meant as discus-
sion hours. The work on the assignment is to be completed at home as a self-study.
Limited modification of the network models is required while answering the
questions. Instructions and guidance on how this should be done are given for
each question, namely:

• how to modify the input file before running the simulation,

• some useful hints to better understand the problem and approach its solution,
• partly completed answers related to the question.

All the adaptations to the model within the same distribution scheme are adopted
as the work progresses; the modified model of the previous question is to be used
as the input for the following question. Furthermore, selected nodes/junctions and
pipes/links in some questions are determined from an individual number (the val-
ues between 120 and 150), or from a value between 1 and 5 reflecting the serial
number of five topographical data sets available in the assignment (see Table 2.1),
in order to create a unique combination of data for each student. Various combina-
tions of these numbers impact the magnitude of the problem differently.
The answers can be completed directly in the text of this appendix, or in the
available MS Word file (the answer sheets). If the suggested intervention in the
network is not necessary, the corresponding space should still be filled: with ‘x’,
‘invalid’, ‘not applicable’, ‘n/a’, ‘not needed’, etc. Leaving any space empty will
be regarded as an unanswered question; only a fully completed answer will be
assessed. After completing the assignment, the hard or electronic copy of the
answer sheets should be submitted to the teacher prior to the given deadline.
In principle, each correct answer earns one point, with a maximum of 100 for
the entire assignment. Alternatively, a pattern of weighting the answers/questions
can be applied by the lecturer.
Based on the average student performance, the estimated study load for this
exercise at IHE Delft is 28 hours, or one credit of the European Credit Transfer
 Network modelling workshop 111

System (ECTS), which includes the contact hours. The solved example for indi-
vidual number 150 and topographical data set number 1 is given at the end of this
appendix.

2.2 Case introduction

A town with a population of approximately 90,000 is located in a hilly area with
ground elevations ranging between A and F msl, as shown in Table 2.1 (only one
set to be selected/assigned!).
Figure 2.1 shows the configuration of the terrain together with the layout of the
network secondary mains. The node numbers and pipe diameters are indicated for
each pipe in the system.

Table 2.1 Topography, data sets (altitudes of isometric lines in msl)

Data set number A B C D E F

1 10 15 20 25 30 35
2 10 20 30 40 30 20
3 30 20 10 20 30 40
4 10 12 11 13 12 10
5 50 45 40 35 30 25

Figure 2.1 Node numbers and pipe diameters (mm)

112 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

The source of supply, located at Node 1, is groundwater stored after simple

treatment in a groundwater reservoir from where it is pumped into the sys-
tem. A rapid expansion is expected in the coming years because of regional
development activity. Consequently, a factory for production of agricultural
machinery is going to be built. Due to the demand growth, the existing water
distribution network appears to be of insufficient capacity. Its reconstruc-
tion, which includes a general overhaul of the pumping station at the source,
should provide sufficient amounts of water and minimum pressure of 20 mwc
during regular operation at all times. In addition, an uninterrupted supply of
water to the new factory is required in case of breakdowns elsewhere in the
system.
The water consumption in the area is mainly of a domestic type, except for the
new factory that is supplied from the system at an average capacity of 1080 m3/d.
The factory works at a constant (average) capacity of 12 hours a day, between
7:00 and 19:00 hours (two shifts). Based on the population distribution, the nodal
base demands have been determined in l/s as shown in Figure 2.2 (together with
the pipe lengths in m).
The typical diurnal domestic demand pattern is shown in Figure 2.3, with the
peak factor values given in Table 2.2. These values include physical water losses.
The seasonal demand variations are represented by the factor that equals indi-
vidual number/100, which describes the ratio between the maximum consump-
tion day and the average consumption day. Neither the seasonal variations nor the
water losses apply in the case of the factory.

Figure 2.2 Average nodal demands (l/s) and pipe lengths (m)
 Network modelling workshop 113

Figure 2.3 Diurnal domestic pattern (the value range 0.3–1.7)

Table 2.2 Diurnal peak factors – Figure 2.3.

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
pfh 0.38 0.30 0.34 0.45 0.78 1.15 1.70 1.60 1.44 1.06 0.87 0.76
Hour 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
pfh 0.91 0.98 1.23 1.40 1.45 1.45 1.38 1.24 1.13 0.94 0.64 0.42

Table 2.3 Effciency curve.

Q (l/s) 0.25Qd 0.50Qd 1.00Qd 1.50Qd 1.75Qd

Effciency (%) 20 60 75 65 30

PVC is chosen as the pipe material for the network. Due to this choice, it is
assumed that the roughness of the pipe remains low. The accepted k-value of
0.5 mm includes impacts of local (minor) losses in the network.
Finally, the existing pumping station is old and of insufficient capacity. Due to
frequent failures in the past, it is operating at the moment with only one unit, out
of the three initially installed in parallel. The duty head and duty flow of this unit
are Hd = 40 mwc and Qd = 200 l/s, respectively. Table 2.3 describes how the pump
efficiency curve depends on the value of the duty flow.
The energy costs for pumping are charged at a flat rate of EUR 0.15 per kWh.
114 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

2.3 Preparing the models

After studying the contents of Appendix 8 and having installed the EPANET
programme together with the network case folder, execute the following ten
steps:

2.3.1 Modifying and loading the backdrop map

1. Start MS PowerPoint and open the file CWS.ppt from the electronic materials
available with this exercise. Replace the letters A-F on the topography slide
with the data set selected/assigned from Table 2.1.
2. Save the modification as a Windows Metafile (extension WMF) under an
arbitrary name (MS PowerPoint menu command File>>Save as . . . ); answer
the question in PowerPoint that comes after selecting the WMF format as
‘No’. Exit the programme.
3. Start EPANET and open the modified file CWS.NET. Load the backdrop map
(menu command View>>Backdrop>>Load . . . ; browse within the sub-
directory and load the created WMF file).

2.3.2 Adjusting nodal elevations

4. Based on the given isometric lines, assign appropriate elevations to the nodes
(from the graph, search for the shortest distance connecting two consecutive
lines through the node in between them).
5. Modify this information in the CWS.NET file (double-click on each node and
adjust the Elevation initially set to 0 in the property editor; click on the fol-
lowing node; close the editor after the elevations in all the nodes have been
modified). To check the input for all the nodes, show it on the map (browser
option Map>>Nodes >>Elevation).
6. The source node (1) is an EPANET component called Reservoir and the
information to be modified there is Total Head. This indicates the fixed
piezometric head i.e. the water level on the suction side of the pumping
station. This is a reference-surface level from which the pumping takes
place, its variation being neglected in this case. As an approximation,
take the same value as that for isometric line A for the total head of the
reservoir.

2.3.3 Adjusting the seasonal variation factor

and the nodal demand of the factory
7. Select menu option Project>>Analysis Options . . . and replace the Demand
Multiplier value of 1.0 in the property editor by the value generated from the
selected/assigned individual number.
8. Double-click on the factory node (11) and decrease its Base Demand propor-
tionally, i.e. divide it by the demand multiplier. This is necessary in order to
cancel the effect of the seasonal variations on the factory demand. Close the
property editor.
 Network modelling workshop 115

Table 2.4 Nodal (junction) elevations for each topographical data set (msl).

Topography number 1 2 3 4 5

Node 1 10.0 10.0 30.0 10.0 50.0

Node 2 10.2 10.4 29.6 10.1 49.8
Node 3 16.5 23.0 17.0 11.7 43.5
Node 4 23.1 36.2 16.2 12.3 36.9
Node 5 18.3 26.6 13.4 11.4 41.7
Node 6 22.7 35.4 15.4 11.9 37.3
Node 7 29.5 31.0 20.0 12.1 30.5
Node 8 24.4 38.8 18.8 12.9 35.6
Node 9 31.7 26.6 33.4 11.4 28.3
Node 10 34.7 20.6 39.4 10.2 25.3
Node 11 24.0 38.0 18.0 12.8 36.0

2.3.4 Saving the information

9. Save the modifications as a new project file under the name CWSDPxyyy.
NET (recommended, not compulsory) by using the menu command File>>Save
as . . . . Index ‘x’ in the file name denotes the number of the used topography
data set from Table 2.1 (values 1–5), while ‘yyy’ stands for the applied indi-
vidual number (values 120–150). This model will be used for Part 1 (Direct
Pumping) in the workshop.
10. Run the menu command File>>Save as . . . once more and save the current
NET file under the name CWSBSxyyy.NET (recommended, not compulsory).
This model will be used for Part 2 (Balancing Storage) of the workshop.

All the other input information, referred to in the case introduction, already exists
in the above models. The last step, to create a tank in the CWSBS model, will be
explained in Section 2.5.
NOTE 1: Nodal elevations given in Table 2.4 can be used as assistance in
Step 4.
NOTE 2: To proceed faster with the preparation of the EPANET model files,
the above steps 1 to 6 can be alternatively omitted by loading the already prepared
CWS topX.NET EPANET file, and the corresponding topX WMF-topography file
(where ‘X’ is the number of selected topographical data sets).

2.4 Questions part 1 – direct pumping

2.4.1 Pump selection

Question 1.1.1
Using the initial model, analyse the pressures in the system. Identify three nodes
with the longest duration of low pressure (below the threshold of 20 mwc) and
register the hours when this pressure occurs. What is the absolute minimum pres-
sure in the system and at what time?
116 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Model modification:
• Load the model CWSDPxyyy.NET.
• Crosscheck the individual data modified by the procedure in Section 2.3
(the Browser option Map>>Nodes>>Elevation and Map>>Nodes>>Base
Demand).

Hints:
• Demand multiplier: an example of the individual number that equals
135 means a seasonal factor of 1.35.
• During simulation runs, EPANET multiplies each base demand by the
demand multiplier, with no exception. For nodes where this multiplication
is to be neutralised, the base demand should be manually divided by the
demand multiplier.
• In this case, the seasonal demand variations do not apply for the factory.
Consequently, for the same seasonal factor of 1.35, the corresponding base
demand of node 11 would be 12.5/1.35 = 9.26 l/s.
• During extended period simulations (EPS), EPANET further multiplies each
base demand by the corresponding peak factor stored in the network model
component called Pattern (available in the Data tab of the Browser). When
the duration of EPS is longer than the duration of the pattern, EPANET will
continue repeating the pattern until the end of the EPS.
• CWS.NET is prepared for 24-hour EPS (at 1-hour time steps) and the Pattern
Domestic contains 24 diurnal peak factors shown in Figure 2.3/Table 2.2.
In this, a commonly applied EPS format, the results are always shown from
00:00–24:00 hours i.e. for 25 time steps while using 24 diurnal peak factors.
• It may be therefore slightly confusing that EPANET takes the first value indi-
cated in the pattern editor as Time Period 1 to calculate the first time step at
00:00 hours, which is midnight. This will result in a shift of the maximum
demand hour from 7:00 hours to 6:00 hours, in this case.
• This is not necessarily a significant deviation, especially if it is not clear
whether the peak factor values represent a specific moment, or an average for
a particular hour. If however a full synchronisation with the data as shown in
Table 2.2 is needed, the Pattern Domestic should start with the value indi-
cated for a period of 24 hours (0.42) that will be used twice: for the first and
last snapshot calculations. In this exercise, the maximum demand hour has
been kept at 6:00 hours although the diurnal demand pattern shows it to be
at 7:00 hours; the actual meaning of this value in EPANET is the demand
representation between 6:00 and 7:00 hours.
• On the same note, the Factory demand pattern has been adjusted to reflect the
exact operation of the factory between 7:00 and 19:00 hours. The peak factor
values are consequently introduced for the time periods 8 through 19. The value
2.0 is used to indicate that the average hourly demand needs to be twice as high
to generate the actual daily demand because the factory works for only half a day.
The value of 1.0 would also be correct provided the base demand is doubled.
• Looking at the snapshot results for the pressures, identify the most critical
nodes (bear in mind the topography!). Analyse these nodes further by dis-
playing them in a time series graph (the main menu command Report>>Graph
 Network modelling workshop 117

. . . >>Time Series) or as a table (the main menu command Report>>Table

. . . >>Time series for node); specific results can be displayed by choosing
parameters in the tab Columns, and filtered in the tab Filters.

Answers:
Within a 24-hour period:
1. Node ____ has a pressure below 20 mwc during the following times:
_____________________ hours.
2. Node ____ has a pressure below 20 mwc during the following times:
_____________________ hours.
3. Node ____ has a pressure below 20 mwc during the following times:
_____________________ hours.
4. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.

Question 1.1.2
Calculate the overall duty head and flow of the pumping station at the source that
can provide a minimum pressure of 20 mwc throughout the network. Determine
the daily energy consumption and the cost of pumping, assuming 24-hour opera-
tion of the pump.

Model modification:
• Modify the pump curve of the existing pump (the Browser option
Data>>Curves, double-click on PST-HQ).
• Adjust the pump efficiency curve proportionately to the change in the duty
flow, by using the pattern from Table 2.2 (the Browser option Data>>Curves,
double-click on PST-EFF).

Hints:
• Based on the specified duty head and flow, EPANET generates a synthetic
pump curve, using the formula: hp = c – aQp2. A curve like this has a theoreti-
cal maximum flow (for hp = 0) of twice the specified duty flow, and a maxi-
mum head (for Qp = 0) that equals 4/3 of the specified duty head. E.g. for the
existing pump from the initial file, the curve is defined by the following three
hp (mwc)/Qp (l/s) points: (1)-53.33/0, (2)-40/200 and (3)-0/400, respectively.
• The duty head and flow represent a composite pump curve if it is assumed
that several units are in operation. Increasing only the duty head has the effect
of arranging the pumps in series. Increasing only the duty flow has the effect
of arranging the pumps in parallel. Increasing both the duty head and flow has
the effect of installing bigger pumps.
• The selection of the pump duty head needs to take into consideration the
topography (i.e. elevation difference between the source and the most criti-
cal point in the system), the network resistance, and the minimum pressures
required for the given demand scenario. Answer 4 suggests the deficit of the
pressure in the system. This deficit results from insufficient pumping and/
or high friction losses. The latter can be checked by analysing the hydraulic
gradients (the Browser option Map>>Links>>Unit Headloss).
118 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

• To deliver the pressure of 20 mwc in the most critical node of the network,
the pump needs to overcome the elevation difference between the source and
this node, and the head loss along the distance connecting the two points.
The latter can be determined as the piezometric head difference between the
pressure side of the pump and the most critical node (the Browser option
Map>>Nodes>> Head).
• The selection of the pump duty flow takes into consideration the range of
diurnal demand in the network. Compare this range in the initial network
model with the value of the current duty flow. A sensible starting point is to
assume the duty flow is equal to the average flow in the network. This aver-
age can be obtained by presenting the pump flow in tabular form (the main
menu command Report>>Table . . . >>Time series for link). Clicking in the
upper left corner (cell Time Hours) marks the entire table for copying to the
clipboard, and pasting it into MS Excel.
• Because of the 25 snapshot results displayed in EPANET, any further pro-
cessing of the time series results in tabular form should take into considera-
tion that the first or the last result need to be eliminated from the analysis,
because they are identical.
• The efficiency curve can be adjusted only once, at the end when the final
values for the duty flow have been determined. The last simulation with the
revised curve will then provide the accurate energy consumption to be filled
in Answer 10.
• For energy consideration, take the average hourly pump power into consid-
eration (menu option Report>>Energy>>Average Kwatts)

Answers:
5. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
6. The highest demand of ________ l/s occurs in the system at ______ hours.
7. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
8. The lowest demand of ________ l/s occurs in the system at ______ hours.
9. The highest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
10. The daily energy use and the cost of pumping are ________ kWh and
________ EUR, respectively.

2.4.2 Pump operation

Question 1.2.1
For the above pumping station an arrangement of three pump units in parallel
arrangement has been planned. Determine the duty head and duty flow of each
pump that can simulate the same operation as in Question 1.1.2.

Model modification:
• Add two extra pump units next to the existing one. The procedure for
doing this is explained after running the menu options Help>>Help
Topics>>Index>>Adding Objects>>Links.
 Network modelling workshop 119

• To avoid an overlap between the pumps and their corresponding results on

the map, use the Vertex feature (i.e. curving of the links). The procedure for
this is explained under Help>>Help Topics>>Index>>Curved Links.
• Click on the right mouse button at the original pump on the map and select
the Copy option; click on the right mouse button at the two new pumps and
select the Paste option. This action will copy the properties of the first pump
to the other two. For convenience, change the pump ID in the property edi-
tor of each pump by double-clicking on it (suggested ID: 101, 102 and 103,
respectively).
• Modify the existing pump curve (the Browser option Data>>Curves, dou-
ble-click on PST-HQ). For the same pump types the same curve (name) can
be used. Alternatively a new name(s) can be created for each pump; the new
ID of the curve should be assigned in the pump property editor.

Hints:
• All three pumps pump the water from node 1 to node 2; using the same node
ID with a different link ID represents their parallel arrangement.
• If the duty heads and duty flows are properly selected, the pumping station
should generate exactly the same pressures in the system (without any control
of the pumps!) as in Question 1.1.2.
• For the sake of simplicity, it is advisable to use the same pump types while
connected in a parallel arrangement. In this scenario, each pump will have the
same duty head and one third of the duty flow defined in Question 1.1.2.

Answers:
11. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
12. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
13. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
14. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.

Question 1.2.2
For the above selection of pumps, determine the optimum schedule for manual
operation that can reduce the pressure variation in the system during a period of
24 hours.

Model modification:
• Adjust the pump efficiency curve proportionally to the change in the duty
flow, by using the pattern from Table 2.3 (the Browser option Data>>Curves,
double-click on PST-EFF). If different duty flows have been selected, cre-
ate additional efficiency curves and assign them to the corresponding pump
units.
• All the pumps in Question 1.2.1 are operating 24 hours a day, unless stated
differently by the control commands that have to be written manually. This is
120 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

done under the Browser option Data>>Controls (double-click on Simple).

The Help button in the opened window shows the syntaxes of all the avail-
able control commands and gives a few examples. Use the second format for
this question (pump status OPEN or CLOSED AT TIME . . . ).
• The Initial Status (i.e. at the beginning of the simulation) can be changed
from OPEN to CLOSED in the property editor of each pump. This status is
valid until changed by the control commands.

Hints:
• Change the Initial Status of the two pumps to CLOSED and start the simu-
lation with one pump only; check the pressures in the system hour by hour.
For an hour when the pressure in any node drops below the minimum of 20
mwc, add a new control line that switches an additional pump on at that hour;
re-run the simulation. In contrast, for an hour when the pressure in any node
jumps substantially, write a new control line that switches one of the pumps
off at that hour.
• In the maximum peak hour, all the pumps are in operation and the pumping
station should generate exactly the same pressures in the system as in Ques-
tion 1.1.2.
• The syntax of the control commands is to be strictly followed.
• There is no limitation to the number of command lines. The last set-
ting listed for each pumping unit is valid until the end of the simulation.
Example:
LINK 101 OPEN AT TIME 1
LINK 102 OPEN AT TIME 1
LINK 101 CLOSED AT TIME 10
LINK 102 CLOSED AT TIME 12
LINK 101 OPEN AT TIME 16
means that the first pump unit operates for the whole day except in the period
from 10:00 to 16:00 hours, while the second unit works until 12:00 hours
only.
• For energy consideration, the pump power expressed through the Average
Kwatts in the energy report needs to take into consideration the Percent Uti-
lisation of the pumps.

Answers:
Within a 24-hour period:
15. Pump ____ is manually operated during the following times: ___________
_________________ hours.
16. Pump ____ is manually operated during the following times: ___________
_________________ hours.
17. Pump ____ is manually operated during the following times: ___________
_________________ hours.
18. The daily energy use of pump ____ is ________ kWh at a cost of ________
EUR.
 Network modelling workshop 121

19. The daily energy use of pump ____ is ________ kWh at a cost of ________
EUR.
20. The daily energy use of pump ____ is ________ kWh at a cost of ________
EUR.
21. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
22. The highest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.

2.4.3 System extension

Question 1.3.1
A new residential area for 6000 inhabitants has been planned in the vicinity of
node number 10 – Topography Data Set Number. The specific demand of Indi-
vidual Number l/c/d is selected as a design parameter assuming the same diurnal
pattern from Figure 2.3. What will be the maximum peak demand of the node after
the residential area is completed? Does the pump selection from problem area1.2
allow the supply of such demand without a pressure drop in the system (below the
threshold)? Test the conditions during the maximum consumption hour. Identify
the node in the system with the most critical pressure as a result of the extension.
If required, calculate the additional pumping capacity by modifying the existing
and/or adding a maximum of two new pump units. In addition, consider new
diameters for maximum two pipes to restore the normal pressure. Assume k-value
of 0.1 mm for the new pipes.

Model modification:
• Calculate the additional base demand and add it to the node in question by
activating its property editor; run the simulation and check the pressures in
the system during the maximum consumption hour.
• The duty flow and head of the existing pump units can be modified as
explained in Question 1.1.2. If additional pumps are to be added, the proce-
dure as in problem area 1.2 can be applied.
• The diameters of the selected pipes are modified through their property editor.

Hints:
• The control of the pumps is not relevant in this question as only the peak
supply conditions are considered; it is logical that all the available pumps are
in operation during the maximum consumption hour. However, adding new
pump(s) will require a change in the pump schedules whereby a situation
may occur that the lowest pressure appears outside the maximum consump-
tion hour due to some units being switched off.
• Increasing the capacity of the existing pumps or adding new pumps does not
exclude alternative measures for changing the pipe diameters, and vice versa.
A combined solution is often applicable.
• Answers 25 and 26: if the existing pump ID is specified in the answer(s), it is
assumed that the existing pump(s) will be replaced with another (bigger) unit.
If a new pump ID is specified, it will simulate additional pumping unit(s)
connected in parallel with the existing pumps.
122 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

• For maintenance purposes, it is advisable to use the same pump types while
connected in parallel arrangement, provided excessive energy consumption
can be reduced.
• Answers 27 and 28: if the existing pipe ID is specified in the answer(s), it is
assumed that the existing pipe diameter will be replaced with another (larger)
diameter. If a new pipe ID is specified with already connected nodes, it will
simulate an additional pipe connected in parallel.
• Introducing pipes between the nodes that are not initially connected is pos-
sible in theory but is not advised in this exercise as the routes of such pipes
normally follow the streets in the area.

Answers:
As a result of the system extension:
23. The highest demand of ________ l/s occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
24. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.

(Some of) the following measures are proposed to restore the pressure in the system:
25. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
26. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
27. Pipe ____ that connects nodes ____ and ____ has a ________ mm diameter.
28. Pipe ____ that connects nodes ____ and ____ has a ________ mm diameter.

As a result of these measures:

29. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
30. The highest hydraulic gradient of ________ m/km occurs at pipe ____ at
______ hours.

2.4.4 Future demand

Question 1.4.1
Annual domestic demand growth of 3 % is assumed for the next 10 years. In the same
period, the water demand of the factory will increase by 30 %. Analyse the conse-
quences for the water distribution system if the existing demand patterns were to
apply throughout this period. Identify the node with the lowest pressure. Test the
conditions during the maximum consumption hour. Propose a reconstruction of the
system that could restore the normal pressure. Establish additional pumping capac-
ity by modifying the existing and/or adding maximum two pump units and/or new
diameters of maximum four pipes. Assume k-value of 0.1 mm for the new pipes.

Model modification:
• Calculate the demand increase after ten years and modify the general multi-
plier of nodal demands accordingly; increase the average demand of the fac-
tory. The same procedure applies as explained in Section 2.3, steps 7 and 8.
• Other suggestions are the same as in the previous question.
 Network modelling workshop 123

Hints:
• Integrate the seasonal factor and the demand growth factor. Use the exponen-
tial model for the demand growth. Note that this model does not affect the
factory demand that has its own pattern of increase, largely dependent on the
production capacity.
• The same hints for the system reconstruction apply as in the case of the previ-
ous problem.
• Higher pressures are often achieved by enlarging pipes along the same route
(in series), rather than changing the diameters of scattered pipes that do not
have a direct hydraulic connection.

Answers:
As a result of the demand growth, after ten years:
31. The highest demand of ________ l/s occurs in the system at ______ hours.
32. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.

(Some of ) the following measures are proposed to restore the pressure in the system:
33. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
34. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
35. Pipe ____ that connects nodes ____ and ____ has a ________ mm diameter.
36. Pipe ____ that connects nodes ____ and ____ has a ________ mm diameter.
37. Pipe ____ that connects nodes ____ and ____ has a ________ mm diameter.
38. Pipe ____ that connects nodes ____ and ____ has a ________ mm diameter.

As a result of these measures:

39. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
40. The highest hydraulic gradient of ________ m/km occurs at pipe ____ at
______ hours.

2.4.5 System failure

Question 1.5.1
For the future system from problem area 1.4, analyse the effect if failure of the
pipe number Topography Data Set Number + 1 occurs during the maximum
consumption hour. Identify the most critical parts of the system. Propose a recon-
struction that can restore the normal pressure. Establish the required duty head
and flow with a maximum of two stand-by pump units and/or new diameters of
maximum three pipes. Assume a k-value of 0.1 mm for the new pipes.

Model modification:
• To simulate the pipe burst, change the Initial Status in the property editor of
the pipe in question from OPEN to CLOSED; run the simulation and ana-
lyse the pressures during the maximum consumption hour.
124 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Hints:
• Opting for stand-by pump units of the same type and size as the pumps used for
regular operation gives an advantage in operation and maintenance (O&M).
• The burst of a pipe affects the pressure in the system depending on the pipe
conveying capacity. Larger pipes may cause severe pressure drops that can-
not be mitigated by increasing the pumping capacity.
• Pipe replacement for the sake of increased system reliability should be
applied selectively. Bear in mind that such pipes may create permanent prob-
lems with low velocities during regular operation.

Answers:
As a result of the pipe burst:
41. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
42. The highest hydraulic gradient of ________ m/km occurs at pipe ____ at
______ hours.

(Some of) the following measures are proposed to restore the pressure in the system:
43. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
44. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
45. Pipe ____ that connects nodes ____ and ____ has a ________ mm diameter.
46. Pipe ____ that connects nodes ____ and ____ has a ________ mm diameter.
47. Pipe ____ that connects nodes ____ and ____ has a ________ mm diameter.

As a result of these measures:

48. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
49. The highest hydraulic gradient of ________ m/km occurs at pipe ____ at
______ hours.
50. The highest velocity of ________ m/s occurs at pipe ____ at ______ hours.

2.5 Questions part 2 – balancing storage

An alternative design of the network has been considered with an elevated tank at the
highest point in the system. The tank bottom is proposed at 25 m above ground level
and the cross-section diameter is 20 m. The minimum and maximum water depth in
the tank have been set at 2 and 6 meters, respectively, leading to an available balancing
volume of approximately 1260 m3. The tank is connected to the system with a pipe
of 200 mm diameter and the length of Individual Number m. The roughness factor
of the pipe is 0.5 mm. It is assumed that the tank is approximately 50 % full around
midnight and it should balance the demand in the system over a period of 24 hours.

2.5.1 Tank location

Question 2.1.1
Using the initial model, identify the nodes with absolute minimum and maximum
pressure in the system and record the hours when these pressures occur. At what
 Network modelling workshop 125

period of the day is the balancing volume exhausted (i.e. the tank is at the mini-
mum depth) or at maximum (the tank is full)?

Model modification:
• Load the model CWSBSxyyy.NET. Check if the same layout, demand
multiplier and nodal elevations are used as in Part 1 of the exercise
(Question 1.1.1).
• Add the tank into the system by clicking on the tank icon (not the reservoir
icon!) from the map toolbar (see also Help>>Help Topics>>Index>> Add-
ing Objects>>Nodes). Position the tank on the highest isometric line, in the
vicinity of the node that is nearest to that isometric line.
• Choose the Select Object tool (i.e. the black arrow icon) from the map toolbar
to open the tank property editor; adjust its contents with the above-mentioned
characteristics of the tank: elevation, initial, minimum and maximum depths,
and diameter of the cross-section area.
• Connect the tank to the rest of the system in the node with the highest elevation.
• Open the property editor of the connection pipe and adjust its length; keep the
default pipe diameter of 200 mm and the roughness of 0.5 mm unchanged.

Hints:
• Tank Elevation in the property editor assumes an absolute altitude of the bottom
level i.e. the ground elevation plus the tank height. E.g. for a tank with an elevation
of 25 m positioned on the isometric line of 35 msl, the tank elevation in EPANET
is going to be 60 msl. This is done for the sake of presenting the tank depth varia-
tion by using the same pressure parameter as for ordinary demand nodes.
• For monitoring the water level variation in the tank choose the Graph tool from
the map toolbar (see also Report>>Graph). In the new window, select Time
Series for Nodes, choose parameter Pressure and Add the tank to the list.
• EPANET signals a potential problem when the tank water level (i.e. the bal-
ancing volume) is at the minimum. The tank will be disconnected from the
system although the reserve volume is still available. If this volume is to be
used (e.g. in the analysis of emergency scenarios, the minimum depth should
be reduced to zero).
• Low pressures in the system do not exclusively occur during the maximum
consumption hour but can also be a consequence of an empty tank.

Answers:
The tank is connected to the system in the following way:
51. Pipe ____ that connects nodes ____ and ____ has a length of ________ m.
52. The bottom level and initial depth of tank ____ are ________ msl and
________ m, respectively.

As a result of such a position of the tank, within a 24-hour period:

53. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
54. Tank ____ is at the minimum depth during the following times ________
__________________ hours.
126 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Question 2.1.2
Assuming constant operation of the pumping station during a period of 24 hours,
adjust the duty head and flow, and corresponding tank volume (diameter and/or max-
imum/minimum depth) to enable the balancing function of the tank. Keep the bottom
level of the tank fixed at 25 m above ground. Analyse the pressures in the system.

Model modification:
• The pump and efficiency curves are modified in the same way as in Ques-
tion 1.1.2.
• The tank dimensions are modified in the corresponding property editor: the
data on Initial Level, Minimum Level, Maximum Level and Diameter.

Hints:
• No particular control of the pumps is needed. With the balancing tank in the
system, the pumping station will usually operate at constant (i.e. average)
flow throughout the day, when the aim is to obtain savings in the energy
costs. As a consequence, one (composite) pumping curve will be sufficient to
reflect the operation of the entire pumping station.
• In the sequence of trial and error simulations, the first run can be executed by
assuming an arbitrary initial water depth in the tank. A well-balanced demand
is achieved if a similar depth as the initial one can be met at the end of the
simulation i.e. every 24 hours.
• If the final depth is lower, the tank loses its volume over a period of 24 hours.
Depending on the pressures in the system, the remedy is to increase the
pumping and/or reduce the tank elevation. The first action alone will boost
the pressures in the system while the second one will reduce them.
• An opposite action is needed if the final depth is higher that the initial depth,
meaning that the tank receives too much water over a period of 24 hours. To
solve this problem, the pumping should be reduced and/or the tank elevation
should be increased. The first action alone will lower the pressures in the
system while the second one will boost them.
• The tank volume is insufficient if the balancing is performed too quickly: the
tank successively overflows and empties during a period of 24 hours.
• Introducing the balancing volume into the system should result in smaller
pumps than in the case of the direct supply option (in Part 1 of the exercise).
• The pumps are most efficient if they operate close to the selected duty head and
flow. Adjust the efficiency curve only once, at the end when the final value for
the duty flow has been determined. The last simulation with the revised curve
will then provide the accurate energy consumption required in Answer 62.

Answers:
To establish the balancing function of the tank, the required system modifications are:
55. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
56. The diameter and initial level of tank ____ are ________ m and ________ m,
respectively.
 Network modelling workshop 127

57. The minimum and maximum depth of tank ____ are ________ m and
________ m, respectively.

During the operation of the modified system:

58. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
59. The highest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
60. The lowest water depth of ________ m occurs in tank ____ at ______ hours.
61. The highest water depth of ________ m occurs in tank ____ at ______ hours.
62. The daily energy use of pump ____ is ________ kWh at a cost of ________
EUR.

2.5.2 Pressure optimisation

Question 2.2.1
Run the simulation of the system designed in Question 2.1.2 by reducing the
height of the tank to 15 m above ground level. Check the tank operation. Identify
the node (other than the tank itself) with the longest pressure duration below 20
mwc. Establish the lowest pressure in the system.

Model modification:
• Adjust the tank Elevation figure in the tank property editor.

Hints:
• The reduced height will probably result in the tank overflowing during peri-
ods of low demand.
• EPANET also signals a potential problem when the tank water level is at the
maximum; further filling of the tank will be stopped, assuming that the tank is
equipped with a float valve for overflow prevention. This effectively discon-
nects the tank from the network until the piezometric head in the connecting
node becomes lower than the one in the tank.

Answers:
Within a 24-hour period:
63. Tank ____ is at the maximum depth during the following times _________
________________ hours.
64. Node ____ has a pressure below 20 mwc during the following times _____
_________________ hours.
65. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.

Question 2.2.2
Assuming constant pump operation during a period of 24 hours, establish the opti-
mal parameters of the pumping station and the tank (including its height) that can
provide both the balancing function and minimum pressures in the system close
to the threshold of 20 mwc.
128 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Model modification:
• The same as in Question 2.1.2.

Hints:
• Through a continuing trial and error procedure try to finetune the parameters
of the pumping station and the tank until the pressure in the most critical node
is approximately 20 mwc at the most critical moment.
• More refined determination of the balancing volume and the initial tank
depth can be obtained, based on the system flow variation, by applying the
approach explained in the book, Section 4.2.3 on storage design, and using
the Spreadsheet Lesson 8–10.

Answers:
To establish optimal pressures in the system, the required system modifications
are:
66. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
67. The height and diameter of tank ____ are ________ m and ________ m,
respectively.
68. The minimum and maximum depth of tank ____ are ________ m and
________ m, respectively.

During the operation of the modified system:

69. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
70. The lowest water depth of ________ m occurs in tank ____ at ______ hours.
71. The highest water depth of ________ m occurs in tank ____ at ______ hours.
72. The initial and final water depth of tank ____ are ________ m and ________
m, respectively.
73. The daily energy use of pump ____ is ________ kWh at a cost of ________ EUR.

2.5.3 Future demand

Question 2.3.1
For the overall demand increase of 30 % (also in the factory) analyse the conse-
quences for the water distribution system from Question 2.2.2. Identify the node
with the lowest pressure. Propose a reconstruction of the system that can restore
the balancing function of the tank and normal pressures in the system. The mea-
sures could include an increase in pumping capacity, tank diameter, tank height
and/or new diameters for maximum three pipes. Assume a k-value of 0.1 mm for
the new pipes.

Model modification:
• Increase the general demand multiplier by 30 % (as in Section 2.3, step 7).
 Network modelling workshop 129

Hint:
• A change in the tank height is allowed but not a preferred measure if other
listed measures can solve the problem, as it actually means constructing
another elevated tank next to the existing one.
• In reality, a larger tank volume can be constructed now to cater for the future
demand. This will result in a larger emergency volume than necessary at pre-
sent, which will gradually convert into a balancing volume as a result of the
demand increase.

Answers:
As a result of the demand growth, within a 24-hour period:
74. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
75. Tank ____ is at the minimum depth during the following times ________
___________________ hours.

(Some of) the following measures are proposed to restore the pressure in the
system:
76. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
77. The height and diameter of tank ____ are ________ m and ________ m,
respectively.
78. Pipe ____ that connects nodes ____ and ____ has a ________ mm diameter.
79. Pipe ____ that connects nodes ____ and ____ has a ________ mm diameter.
80. Pipe ____ that connects nodes ____ and ____ has a ________ mm diameter.

As a result of these measures:

81. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.
82. The initial and final water depth of tank ____ are ________ m and ________ m,
respectively.
83. The daily energy use of pump ____ is ________ kWh at a cost of ________
EUR.

2.5.4 Water tower

Question 2.4.1
In the system from Question 2.3.1 reduce the tank volume to approximately 4 x
Individual Number m3. Alter the diameter and the minimum/maximum depths
to achieve this. The tank operates as a water tower i.e. without an emergency vol-
ume. Establish the optimum duty head and flow of two units arranged in parallel
in the pumping station. The first pump operates continuously over a period of 24
hours while the second pump is used to cover the morning and afternoon peaks,
and switches on/off automatically based on the water level in the tank. Calculate
the ‘on’ and ‘off’ levels of the second pump that help to maintain sufficient pres-
sures in the system. What is the total energy consumption in this scenario?
130 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Model modification:
• Add an additional pumping unit and adjust the pump and efficiency curves
according to the procedure discussed in Question 1.1.2.
• To introduce automatic operation of the second pump, follow a similar pro-
cedure for the manual operation as explained in Question 1.2.2. An example
of the command lines written for an automatic mode of operation is listed
below:
LINK 102 OPEN IF NODE 12 BELOW 1.5
LINK 102 CLOSED IF NODE 12 ABOVE 4.0
referring to the water levels in the tank at node 12. According to this regime,
pump 102 is switched on when the water depth in the tank is between the
levels of 1.5 to 4.0 meters.
• The Initial Status of pump 101 is ‘Open’ and of pump 102 is ‘Closed’.

Hints:
• Water towers have the prior purpose to maintain stable pressures in the sys-
tem and not to contribute with a buffer volume in emergency situations.
Therefore, the minimum depth can be set at 0 m, or just above the tank bot-
tom level.
• By reducing the volume, the elevated tank has almost entirely lost its demand
balancing function. Consequently, the pumps operate increasingly to fit the
diurnal demand pattern. In this question, the schedule of the second pump
is determined by the water level variation in the tank. The switching levels
should be determined throughout a number of trial and error simulations,
until stable operation has been achieved.
• Because the tank volume has been reduced, more pumping energy will be
needed to meet the diurnal demand at acceptable pressures than in the case of
larger tanks in combination with pumping stations. However, minimal capac-
ity still exists to optimise the energy consumption in the case of water towers,
by appropriate selection of the switching levels.
• The selection of the pump switching levels is dependent on the selected simu-
lation time step. A one-hour time step in this exercise may be rather coarse,
resulting in too fast a level variation between two consecutive snap-shoot cal-
culations. It is not strictly required in this exercise, but possible shortening of
the time step, for more refined analyses, would also require expansion of the
series of diurnal peak factors for two available demand categories (Domestic
and Factory) in line with the corresponding hint in Question 1.1.1. The change
in the time step can be done under the Browser option Data>>Options
(double-click on Times and modify the value of the Hydraulic Time Step in
the property editor).

Answers:
84. The diameter and initial level of tank ____ are ________ m and ________
m, respectively.
85. The minimum and maximum depth of tank ____ are ________ m and
________ m, respectively.
 Network modelling workshop 131

86. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
87. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.
88. The switch on and off levels for pump ____ are ________ m and ________
m, respectively.

As a result of the automatic pump operation, within a 24-hour period:

89. Pump ____ is switched on during the following times __________________
_______________ hours.
90. The daily energy use of pump ____ is ________ kWh at a cost of ________
EUR
91. The daily energy use of pump ____ is ________ kWh at a cost of ________
EUR.
92. The lowest water depth of ________ m occurs in tank ____ at ______ hours.
93. The highest water depth of ________ m occurs in tank ____ at ______ hours.
94. The lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs at node ____ at ______ hours.

2.5.5 Fire demand

Question 2.5.1
For the system in Question 2.4.1, analyse the consequences of a fire occurring in
the factory. On top of the regular factory demand, the additional quantity of water
of 30 l/s is required at a minimum pressure of 30 mwc. Assume that the fire event
occurs at the worst moment, during the morning peak demand period at 6:00, 7:00
and 8:00 hours (a total of three hours). Identify the node with the most critical
pressure as a result of the fire. Establish the required duty head and flow of a third
(stand-by) unit that is sufficient to provide additional flow and the required pres-
sure in the factory.

Model modification:
• Add the third pumping unit and write the control line(s) for manual operation
during the three critical hours.
• The factory demand during the fire can be simply simulated by increasing the
diurnal peak factors during the three critical hours (pattern Factory under the
browser option Data>>Patterns).

Answers:
As a result of the fire event:
95. The factory demands are __________________________ l/s at 6:00, 7:00
and 8:00 hours, respectively.
96. The factory pressures are ________________________ mwc at 6:00, 7:00
and 8:00 hours, respectively.
97. The absolute lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs in the network at node
____ at ______ hours.
132 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

To provide sufficient pressure for the firefighting:

98. The required duty head and flow of pump ____ are ________ mwc and
________ l/s, respectively.

As a result of this measure:

99. The factory pressures are ________________________ mwc at 6:00, 7:00
and 8:00 hours, respectively.
100. The absolute lowest pressure of ________ mwc occurs in the network at
node ____ at ______ hours.

2.6 Epanet raw case network model – cws.net

(INP-format)
[JUNCTIONS]
ID Elev Demand Pattern
2 0 18.5 Domestic
3 0 11.4 Domestic
4 0 16.6 Domestic
5 0 33.4 Domestic
6 0 23.5 Domestic
7 0 26.8 Domestic
8 0 11.8 Domestic
9 0 18.5 Domestic
10 0 10.6 Domestic
11 0 12.5 Factory

[RESERVOIRS]
ID Head
1 0

[PIPES]
ID Node1 Node2 Length Diameter Roughness Minor Loss Status
2 2 3 430 500 .5 0 Open
3 3 4 600 400 .5 0 Open
4 2 5 1100 500 .5 0 Open
5 3 6 950 400 .5 0 Open
6 4 7 1050 300 .5 0 Open
7 5 8 580 300 .5 0 Open
8 6 9 780 300 .5 0 Open
9 7 10 590 200 .5 0 Open
10 6 7 660 150 .5 0 Open
11 8 9 650 150 .5 0 Open
12 9 10 420 150 .5 0 Open
13 8 11 350 200 .5 0 Open
 Network modelling workshop 133

[PUMPS]
ID Node1 Node2 Parameters
1 1 2 HEAD PST-HQ;

[TAGS]
NODE 11 Industry

[PATTERNS]
ID Multipliers
Domestic Demand Pattern
Domestic .38 .3 .34 .45 .78 1.15
Domestic 1.7 1.6 1.44 1.06 .87 .76
Domestic .91 .98 1.23 1.4 1.45 1.45
Domestic 1.38 1.24 1.13 .94 .64 .42
Factory Pattern
Factory 0 0 0 0 0 0
Factory 0 2 2 2 2 2
Factory 2 2 2 2 2 2
Factory 2 0 0 0 0 0

[CURVES]
ID X-Value Y-Value
PUMP: Pump Curve
PST-HQ 200 40
EFFICIENCY: PST Efficiency Curve
PST-EFF 50 20
PST-EFF 100 60
PST-EFF 200 75
PST-EFF 300 65
PST-EFF 350 30

[ENERGY]
Global Efficiency 75
Global Price .1
Demand Charge 0
Pump 1 Efficiency PST-EFF
Pump 1 Price .15

[REACTIONS]
Order Bulk 1
Order Tank 1
Order Wall 1
Global Bulk 0
Global Wall 0
Limiting Potential 0
Roughness Correlation 0
134 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

[TIMES]
Duration 24
Hydraulic Timestep 1:00
Quality Timestep 0:05
Pattern Timestep 1:00
Pattern Start 0:00
Report Timestep 1:00
Report Start 0:00
Start ClockTime 12 am
Statistic None

[REPORT]
Status No
Summary No
Page 0

[OPTIONS]
Units LPS
Headloss D-W
Specific Gravity 1
Viscosity 1
Trials 40
Accuracy 0.001
Unbalanced Continue 10
Pattern Domestic
Demand Multiplier 1.0
Emitter Exponent 0.5
Quality None mg/L
Diffusivity 1
Tolerance 0.01

[COORDINATES]
;Node X-Coord Y-Coord
2 334.85 1314.75
3 319.29 920.58
4 355.59 378.61
5 1338.41 1392.54
6 1188.01 923.18
7 1309.89 331.93
8 1870.02 1387.36
9 1885.58 793.52
10 1846.68 399.35
11 1610.70 1205.83
1 187.03 1374.39
 Network modelling workshop 135

[LABELS]
;X-Coord Y-Coord Label & Anchor Node
8.10 1395.1 “SOURCE”
1431.77 1226.58 “FACTORY”

[BACKDROP]
DIMENSIONS 0.00 0.00 2000.00 1600.00
UNITS Meters
FILE CWStopography.wmf
OFFSET 0.00 0.00

[END]

2.7 Answer sheets – solutions 1/150

The following answers (in red font) are given for the combination of topographical
data set number 1 and the individual number of 150. This combination resembles a
scenario in which the source is at the lowest point in the network. The most critical
node is the furthest away from the source, and at the highest altitude. The highest indi-
vidual number available means the highest demand. Hence, to provide sufficient pres-
sures, relatively big pumps are needed, which makes this scenario the most extreme
of all those available in this exercise. The solutions offered are not necessarily unique,
or the best; they serve as one example of how to mitigate the pressure problems. The
EPANET files are available for each question, to view the results and possibly search
for alternative solutions. Specific comments on the results are given at the end.

PART 1 – Direct Pumping

Question 1.1.1
Answers:
Within a 24-hour period:
1. Node 10 has a pressure below 20 mwc between 4:00 and 22:00 hours.
2. Node 9 has a pressure below 20 mwc between 4:00 and 21:00 hours.
3. Node 7 has a pressure below 20 mwc between 4:00 and 21:00 hours.
4. The lowest pressure of -42.48 mwc occurs at node 10 at 06:00 hours.

Question 1.1.2
Answers:
5. The required duty head and flow of pump 1 are 85 mwc and 300 l/s,
respectively.
6. The highest demand of 436.30 l/s occurs in the system at 06:00 hours.
7. The lowest pressure of 21.04 mwc occurs at node 10 at 06:00 hours.
136 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

8. The lowest demand of 77.00 l/s occurs in the system at 01:00 hours.
9. The highest pressure of 111.27 mwc occurs at node 2 at 01:00 hours.
10. The daily energy use and the cost of pumping are 8107.44 kWh and 1216.11
EUR, respectively.

Question 1.2.1
Answers:
11. The required duty head and flow of pump 101 are 85 mwc and 100 l/s,
respectively.
12. The required duty head and flow of pump 102 are 85 mwc and 100 l/s,
respectively.
13. The required duty head and flow of pump 103 are 85 mwc and 100 l/s,
respectively.
14. The lowest pressure of 21.04 mwc occurs at node 10 at 06:00 hours.

Question 1.2.2
Answers:
Within a 24-hour period:
15. Pump 101 is manually operated during all 24 hours.
16. Pump 102 is manually operated between 4:00 and 22:00 hours.
17. Pump 103 is manually operated between 6:00 and 8:00, and 14:00 and
19:00 hours.
18. The daily energy use of pump 101 is 2792.16 kWh at a cost of 418.84 EUR.
19. The daily energy use of pump 102 is 2229.17 kWh at a cost of 334.37 EUR.
20. The daily energy use of pump 103 is 1068.03 kWh at a cost of 160.20 EUR.
21. The lowest pressure of 21.04 mwc occurs at node 10 at 06:00 hours.
22. The highest pressure of 96.34 mwc occurs at node 2 at 01:00 hours.

Question 1.3.1
Answers:
As a result of the system extension:
23. The highest demand of 85.17 l/s occurs at node 5 at 06:00 hours.
24. The lowest pressure of 12.21 mwc occurs at node 10 at 06:00 hours.

(Some of) the following measures are proposed to restore the pressure in the
system:
25. The required duty head and flow of pump 104 are 85 mwc and 100 l/s,
respectively.
26. The required duty head and flow of pump n/a are n/a mwc and n/a l/s,
respectively.
27. Pipe 11a that connects nodes 8 and 9 has a 200 mm diameter.
28. Pipe 12a that connects nodes 9 and 10 has a 200 mm diameter.
 Network modelling workshop 137

As a result of these measures:

29. The lowest pressure of 25.72 mwc occurs at node 10 at 13:00 hours.
30. The highest hydraulic gradient of 5.27 m/km occurs at pipe 7 at 07:00 hours.

Question 1.4.1
Answers:
As a result of the demand growth, after ten years:
31. The highest demand of 622.11 l/s occurs in the system at 06:00 hours.
32. The lowest pressure of -24.31 mwc occurs at node 10 at 13:00 hours.

(Some of) the following measures are proposed to restore the pressure in the system:
33. The required duty head and flow of pump 105 are 85 mwc and 100 l/s,
respectively.
34. The required duty head and flow of pump n/a are n/a mwc and n/a l/s,
respectively.
35. Pipe 7a that connects nodes 5 and 8 has a 300 mm diameter.
36. Pipe 13a that connects nodes 8 and 11 has a 200 mm diameter.
37. Pipe 8a that connects nodes 7 and 9 has a 300 mm diameter.
38. Pipe n/a that connects nodes n/a and n/a has a n/a mm diameter.

As a result of these measures:

39. The lowest pressure of 21.04 mwc occurs at node 10 at 23:00 hours.
40. The highest hydraulic gradient of 7.62 m/km occurs at pipe 11 at 06:00 hours.

Question 1.5.1
Answers:
As a result of the pipe burst:
41. The lowest pressure of -241.14 mwc occurs at node 7 at 06:00 hours.
42. The highest hydraulic gradient of 373.65 m/km occurs at pipe 11 at 06:00 hours.

(Some of) the following measures are proposed to restore the pressure in the system:
43. The required duty head and flow of pump n/a are n/a mwc and n/a l/s,
respectively.
44. The required duty head and flow of pump n/a are n/a mwc and n/a l/s, respectively.
45. Pipe 2a that connects nodes 2 and 3 has a 500 mm diameter.
46. Pipe n/a that connects nodes n/a and n/a has a n/a mm diameter.
47. Pipe n/a that connects nodes n/a and n/a has a n/a mm diameter.

As a result of these measures:

48. The lowest pressure of 21.07 mwc occurs at node 10 at 23:00 hours.
49. The highest hydraulic gradient of 6.97 m/km occurs at pipe 11 at 06:00 hours.
50. The highest velocity of 1.79 m/s occurs at pipe 2a at 06:00 hours.
138 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

PART 2 – Balancing Storage

Question 2.1.1
Answers:
The tank is connected to the system in the following way:
51. Pipe 1 that connects nodes 10 and 12 has a length of 150 m.
52. The bottom level and initial depth of tank 12 are 60.00 msl and 3.00 m, respectively.

As a result of such a position of the tank, within a 24-hour period:

53. The lowest pressure of -42.48 mwc occurs at node 10 at 06:00 hours.
54. Tank 12 is at the reserve volume (minimum depth) between 4 and 24 hours.

Question 2.1.2
Answers:
To establish the balancing function of the tank, the required system modifications are:
55. The required duty head and flow of pump 101 are 63 mwc and 255 l/s,
respectively.
56. The diameter and initial level of tank 12 are 26 m and 3.89 m, respectively.
57. The minimum and maximum depth of tank 12 are 2.00 m and 6.00 m,
respectively.

During the operation of the modified system:

58. The lowest pressure of 20.47 mwc occurs at node 9 at 07:00 hours.
59. The highest pressure of 75.63 mwc occurs at node 2 at 01:00 hours.
60. The lowest water depth of 2.75 m occurs in tank 12 at 20:00 hours.
61. The highest water depth of 6.00 m occurs in tank 12 at 05:00 hours.
62. The daily energy use of pump 101 is 5179.68 kWh at a cost of 776.94 EUR.

Question 2.2.1
Answers:
Within a 24-hour period:
63. Tank 12 is disconnected (at maximum depth) during 4:00, 5:00, 6:00, 14:00,
and 24:00 hours.
64. Node 10 has the pressure below 20 mwc between 6:00 and 8:00, and between
15:00 and 18:00 hours.
65. The lowest pressure of 16.14 mwc occurs at node 9 at 07:00 hours.

Question 2.2.2
Answers:
To establish optimal pressures in the system, the required system modifications are:
66. The required duty head and flow of pump 101 are 62 mwc and 255 l/s,
respectively.
 Network modelling workshop 139

67. The height and diameter of tank 12 are 25.00 m and 25 m, respectively.
68. The minimum and maximum depth of tank 12 are 2.20 m and 6.00 m, respectively.

During the operation of the modified system:

69. The lowest pressure of 20.02 mwc occurs at node 9 at 07:00 hours.
70. The lowest water depth of 2.30 m occurs in tank 12 at 20:00 hours.
71. The highest water depth of 6.00 m occurs in tank 12 at 05:00 hours.
72. The initial and final water depth of tank 12 are 3.50 m and 3.49 m, respectively.
73. The daily energy use of pump 101 is 5093.76 kWh at a cost of 764.07 EUR.

Question 2.3.1
Answers:
As a result of the demand growth:
74. The lowest pressure of -36.33 mwc occurs at node 10 at 16:00 hours.
75. Tank 12 is at the reserve volume (minimum depth) between 10:00 and 11:00
and between 13:00 and 22:00 hours.

(Some of) the following measures are proposed to restore the pressure in the system:
76. The required duty head and flow of pump 101 are 62 mwc and 345 l/s,
respectively.
77. The height and diameter of tank 12 are 25.00 m and 25 m, respectively.
78. Pipe 12 that connects nodes 9 and 10 has a 200 mm diameter.
79. Pipe n/a that connects nodes n/a and n/a has a n/a mm diameter.
80. Pipe n/a that connects nodes n/a and n/a has a n/a mm diameter.

As a result of these measures:

81. The lowest pressure of 20.18 mwc occurs at node 9 at 07:00 hours.
82. The initial and final water depth of tank 12 are 3.70 m and 3.76 m, respectively.
83. The daily energy use of pump 101 is 6796.08 kWh at a cost of 1019.42 EUR.

Question 2.4.1
Answers:
84. The diameter and initial level of tank 12 are 16 m and 3.00 m, respectively.
85. The minimum and maximum depth of tank 12 are 0.00 m and 4.00 m,
respectively.
86. The required duty head and flow of pump 101 are 62 mwc and 220 l/s, respectively.
87. The required duty head and flow of pump 102 are 62 mwc and 220 l/s,
respectively.
88. The switch-on and off levels for pump 102 are 2.0 m and 3.5 m, respectively.

As a result of the automatic pump operation, within a 24-hour period:

89. Pump 102 is switched on between 6:00 and 11:00 and between 13:00 and
21:00 hours.
90. The daily energy use of pump 101 is 4306.80 kWh at a cost of 646.02 EUR
140 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

91.The daily energy use of pump 102 is 2592.60 kWh at a cost of 388.89 EUR.
92.The lowest water depth of 0.00 m occurs in tank 12 at 08:00 hours.
93.The highest water depth of 4.00 m occurs in tank 12 at 01:00 hours.
94.The lowest pressure of 21.68 mwc occurs at node 10 at 08:00 hours.

Question 2.5.1
Answers:
As a result of the fire event:
95. The factory demands are 30.00, 62.49, and 62.49 l/s at 6:00, 7:00 and 8:00
hours, respectively.
96. The factory pressures are 31.95, 22.83, and 21.26 mwc at 6:00, 7:00 and
8:00 hours, respectively.
97. The absolute lowest pressure of 17.88 mwc occurs in the network at node
10 at 08:00 hours.

To provide sufficient flow and pressure for the firefighting:

98. The required duty head and flow of stand-by pump 103 are 62 mwc and
220 l/s, respectively.

As a result of this measure:

99. The factory pressures are 43.60, 34.02, and 36.53 mwc at 6:00, 7:00 and
8:00 hours, respectively.
100. The absolute lowest pressure of 20.86 mwc occurs in the network at node
10 at 09:00 hours.

Specific observations on the results

Question 1.1.1
1. Nodes, 7, 9 and 10 are the most critical because they are located the furthest
away from the source, but also at the highest elevations. Thus, the combined
effect of friction losses and elevation difference makes their pressures nega-
tive (as well as in other parts of the network), which means that the specified
nodal demand cannot be delivered.
2. EPANET shows the minimum pressure occurring in node 10 at 6:00 hours.
Based on the input and the real meaning of the diurnal peak factors, this could
also be interpreted as the minimum pressure at 7:00 hours, or the average
minimum pressure between 6:00 and 7:00 hours.

Question 1.1.2
3. Answer 4 suggests the maximum pressure deficit in the system is in the order
of 62.48 mwc at 6:00 hours (in node 10). At the same moment in time, the
system flow rate (Answer 6) is more than twice as high as the pump duty
flow. The current pump is therefore obviously far too small for the preferred
 Network modelling workshop 141

demand scenario; it is seemingly the biggest contributor to the negative pres-

sures in the network. A check of the pipe hydraulic gradients (Unit Headloss
in EPANET) throughout the network would confirm this conclusion; it shows
that the pipes are of sufficiently large diameters to convey the flows.
4. In the current layout, the water is pumped from the reservoir elevation of
10 msl towards the most distant and the highest elevated node (number 10),
located at 34.7 msl, where the pressure needs to be maintained at minimum
20 mwc. The (piezometric) head difference is then 44.7 mwc. In addition,
the pump needs to recover the system head loss at 6:00 hours, which can be
estimated from the Head difference in nodes 2 and 10. In the model in Ques-
tion 1.1.1 these values are −0.12 msl and −7.78 msl, respectively, indicating a
head loss of 7.66 mwc.
5. Thus, the task of the pump at 6:00 hours is to deliver a maximum flow of
436.30 l/s with a head of minimum 44.7 + 7.66 = 52.36 mwc. Consequently,
the pumping curve equation used in EPANET would show that 52.36 =
c – a436.302, where c = 4Hd /3 and a = Hd /(3Qd2). Using these relations, the
duty head Hd can be calculated for the selected duty flow Qd as Hd = 3Hpmin/(4
– (Qpmax/Qd)2), where Qpmax is the maximum pumping flow to be delivered at
the minimum pumping head Hpmin.
6. In the first assumption, the duty flow Qd is made equal to the average flow in
the network. In the initial demand scenario, this average is 269.14 l/s. Apply-
ing the above equation, this results in the duty head Hd of 114.65 mwc. With
some rounding of values i.e. including a minor safety factor, the first assump-
tion of the duty flow and duty head can be based on values 270 l/s and 115
mwc, respectively.
7. The hydraulic simulation with these values (and the efficiency curve adapted
accordingly) yields a pressure in node 10 of 20.87 mwc at 6:00 hours, and a
total pump energy consumption of 9882.96 kWh at a cost of EUR 1482.44.
While the minimum pressure condition is satisfied, the energy consumption
would not necessarily be optimal because much depends on the shape of the
diurnal pattern, which could partly eliminate the preliminary choice of Qd. It
is therefore advisable to reiterate with slightly higher/lower values of Qd/Hd
than those calculated, which will eventually lead to the results as presented in
the answers. For the Qd = 300 l/s the above equations yields Hd = 83.33 mwc,
rounded to 85 mwc in Answer 5.

Question 1.2.1
8. Three pumps in parallel arrangement offer identical hydraulic performance,
provided their duty flow is one third of the value of the big pump of equiva-
lent capacity, and the duty head is the same as for the big pump used in the
simulation run in the previous question.
9. The efficiency curve needs to be adapted accordingly, but the total energy
consumption will still be the same if all three pumps are switched on during
the entire period of EPS. This can be seen by comparing the energy report of
the simulation run in this question with the one in Question 1.1.2.
142 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Question 1.2.2
10. Using EPANET syntax, the modified pump scheduling looks as follows:
LINK 102 OPEN AT TIME 4
LINK 103 OPEN AT TIME 6
LINK 103 CLOSED AT TIME 9
LINK 103 OPEN AT TIME 14
LINK 103 CLOSED AT TIME 20
LINK 102 CLOSED AT TIME 23
11. Manual operation of the pumps clearly helps to reduce the energy costs. For the
pump operation given in answers 15–17, the total energy consumption is 6089.36
kWh at a cost of 913.41 EUR, which is a saving of approximately 25 % com-
pared to the operation of one big pump of equivalent capacity used in the simula-
tion run in Question 1.1.2. The improved performance can also be seen from the
improved efficiency of the pumps (Average Efficiency) and the lower pumping
costs per m3 of supplied water (Kw-hr/m3) both presented in the energy report.
12. Furthermore, the maximum pressure of 111.27 mwc indicated in Answer 9 has
been reduced to 96.34 mwc, given in Answer 22 (or by approximately 14 %). This
reduction is more moderate than in the case of the energy, because the duty
head of the pumps is rather high. This high pressure can only be further miti-
gated by increasing the number of pumps and/or mixing/reducing their size.

Question 1.3.1
13. In this data set, the residential area is planned in the vicinity of node 9 (10–1,
which is the topography data set number). 6000 inhabitants should receive
on average 150 l/c/d. This additional consumption converts into a surplus of
Base Demand in node 9 of 10.42 l/s, increasing it to 28.92 l/s.
14. Three pumps in operation as in the previous question result in a minimum
pressure below 20 mwc at 6:00 hours (Answer 24).
15. The proposed solution is to add an additional pump with the same capacity as
the existing three, and two pipes in parallel. The modified pump scheduling
looks as follows:
LINK 102 OPEN AT TIME 4
LINK 103 OPEN AT TIME 5
LINK 104 OPEN AT TIME 6
LINK 104 CLOSED AT TIME 8
LINK 103 CLOSED AT TIME 10
LINK 103 OPEN AT TIME 14
LINK 103 CLOSED AT TIME 21
LINK 102 CLOSED AT TIME 23
16. For this scenario, the pressure in node 10 at 6:00 hours is 44.19 mwc, which
is rather high. However, with pump 104 switched off this pressure would
drop to 14.68 mwc, which is below the required 20 mwc. Consequently, the
minimum pressure appears to be at 13:00 hours, when only two pumps are
in operation, yet well above 20 mwc, as shown in Answer 29.
 Network modelling workshop 143

Question 1.4.1
17. The annual demand increase of 3 % over 10 years means an exponential
demand growth of 34.4 % (1.0310 = 1.344). Consequently, the initial demand
multiplier in this case grows from 1.5 to 2.016.
18. Furthermore, the base demand of the factory needs to be adapted to reflect a
demand growth of 30 %, which will result in the value of 12.5/2.016 multi-
plied by 1.3, which is 8.06 l/s.
19. Four pumps in operation as in the previous question each deliver 155.53 l/s,
which makes a total of 622.11 l/s at 6:00 hours, in the future demand scenario
(Answer 31). The minimum pressure in node 10 at the same point in time is
8.48 mwc, thus below 20 mwc. However, this is not the absolute minimum
pressure because the lowest appears at 13:00 hours (Answer 32) due to only
two pumps being in operation at this point in time, according to the schedule
in the previous question.
20. The proposed solution is to add an additional pump with the same capacity as
the existing four, and an additional three pipes in parallel. The modified pump
scheduling will then look as follows:
LINK 102 OPEN AT TIME 3
LINK 103 OPEN AT TIME 5
LINK 104 OPEN AT TIME 6
LINK 105 OPEN AT TIME 6
LINK 105 CLOSED AT TIME 8
LINK 104 CLOSED AT TIME 9
LINK 104 OPEN AT TIME 14
LINK 104 CLOSED AT TIME 20
LINK 103 CLOSED AT TIME 22
LINK 102 CLOSED AT TIME 23
21. For this scenario, the pressure in node 10 at 6:00 hours is 36.33 mwc, which is
relatively high for the same reason as in Question 1.3.1. The minimum pres-
sure appears to be at 23:00 hours, when only one pump is in operation, yet
above 20 mwc, as shown in Answer 39.

Question 1.5.1
22. The burst of pipe 2 is analysed (1, which is the topography data set number, + 1).
This pipe is connected to the source and conveys a significant flow to the net-
work. Its failure is therefore considered to be a major problem, which is illus-
trated by the extreme values of the pressure and hydraulic gradient shown in
answers 41 and 42, respectively. Also, the disturbed flow distribution moves
the most critical point from node 10 to node 7, and also the parallel pipes 11
and 11a are clearly a bottleneck for they are not able to convey the surplus of
flow resulting from the burst of pipe 2.
23. The magnitude of the problem is therefore so high that the available rem-
edies of additional pumping and/or the increase of other pipe diameters
become questionable, being very expensive and thus ineffective. The only
144 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

reasonable intervention is to lay a parallel pipe next to pipe 2, as sug-

gested in Answer 45. This makes the hydraulic operation look similar
to Question 1.4.1; the minor improvements seen in answers 48 and 49,
compared to 39 and 40, originate from the lower roughness value of the
added parallel pipe.

Question 2.1.1
24. The length of the pipe connecting the tank with the network has been selected
based on the assigned individual number.
25. The tank bottom level includes the ground elevation and the height of the
tank. It is actually the altitude of the tank bottom, expressed in msl.
26. The tank loses its volume very quickly because the pump is too weak
to fill it. The minimum depth is therefore already reached at 4:00 hours
when the tank is disconnected from the network. From there, the system
operates as the direct pumping system for the rest of the day i.e. exactly
as in Question 1.1.1. That is what makes the result in Answer 53 identical
to the one in Answer 5.

Question 2.1.2
27. The duty head and flow, as well as the initial tank depth, have been obtained
by running a number of trial and error simulations in order to reach a ‘proper’
demand balancing of the tank. ‘Proper’ here means: (1) a similar water depth
at the beginning and the end of the day, (2) a full tank before the morning
peak demand hour occurs, and (3) the tank depth ideally at the minimum after
the afternoon peak demand has been supplied.
28. The latter condition has not been satisfied (Answer 60), which leaves room
for further optimisation of the tank design, yet the current result means more
volume in emergency situations i.e. additional safety.
29. Because the tank is connected to the highest elevated node (10), this node is
no longer the most critical one, as long as the tank water depth is above the
minimum. The pressure in node 10 is mostly influenced by the height of the
tank (25 m above the ground), which means that node 9 is the most critical.
The lowest pressure, shown in Answer 58, appears in this node one hour after
the maximum consumption hour, which results from the actual water depth
in the tank at that moment.
30. Having the balancing tank clearly helps to reduce the pump energy costs.
Compared to the pump operation given in answers 18–20, the results
in Answer 60 suggest further energy savings of 15 % compared to the
operation of three pumps in the simulation run in Question 1.2.2. The
improved performance can also be seen from the slightly improved
efficiency of the pump (Average Efficiency) and further reduced cost
of pumping per m3 of supplied water (Kw-hr/m3). In addition, this dis-
tribution scheme has more favourable consequences for the maximum
pressures in the network (75.63 mwc in Answer 59, against 96.34 mwc in
Answer 22; nearly 22 %).
 Network modelling workshop 145

Question 2.2.1
31. The tank volume is positioned too low and more water fills the tank than
needed, which disturbs the balancing function. For part of the day, the tank is
full and therefore disconnected from the system.
32. The lowest pressure still occurs in node 9, but this is not the node with the
longest duration of pressures below 20 mwc.
33. Node 10 is actually the most affected by the reduced tank height because of
being directly connected to the tank.
34. The pressure drop is not significant because the tank is still able to supply
pressures above 17 mwc. When the tank is disconnected, the demand becomes
lower and therefore the pump can still deliver the pressures above 20 mwc.

Question 2.2.2
35. The hydraulic simulation of the network gives the system/pump flow in l/s
which can be viewed in tabular form and shows the following values:

Table 2.5 Diurnal system/pump fows, Question 2.2.2

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Qp (l/s) 159.09 165.91 185.77 240.86 282.08 349.10 350.38 328.25
Hour 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Qp (l/s) 290.27 272.47 257.28 276.10 282.79 301.77 323.17 330.79
Hour 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Qp (l/s) 331.68 323.35 299.29 292.18 271.05 224.27 183.95 175.48
146 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

The average hourly flow for this scenario is 270.72 l/s (or 974.60 m3/h).
Transposing these values in the Spreadsheet Lesson 8–10 (see Appendix 7)
make it possible to calculate the tank balancing volume straight forwardly,
using the principles explained in Section 4.2.3. The balancing volume
obtained in this way is 2015 m3. Assuming the minimum and maximum tank
levels remain at 2 and 6 m, respectively, makes the emergency volume half
of the balancing volume, or 1007.5 m3.
36. In the above calculations, the tank which has a volume of 3022.5 m3 needs to
be 61% full at the beginning of the day, suggesting an initial level of 3.66 m
and a tank diameter of 25.36 m. Not surprisingly, these parameters are rela-
tively close to those selected in Question 2.1.2.
37. The tank is fed and supplies the demand through the same pipe, which makes
these patterns different to those shown in the above spreadsheet table. Moreover,
the pump does not feed the tank directly but through the network where it fol-
lows the nodal demand patterns; it can therefore not operate at the average flow.
However, the above tank parameters will yield a smooth balancing curve with the
exception that the minimum tank level is 2.60 m; thus, higher than needed. This
can be reduced by further elevating the tank, which will unnecessarily increase
the cost and pressures in the network. An alternative option is to reduce the
pumping, which may have the opposite effect on the pressures (the pipe hydraulic
gradients should be checked in this case to possibly mitigate this problem).
38. After minor fine-tuning, the scenario presented in answers 66–73 results in
the tank balancing curve as shown in Figure 2.4.
39. The question gives no possibility to modify the pipe diameters. Relatively high
hydraulic gradients in pipes 1, 9 and 12 give the impression that enlarging these
diameters would create a significant positive effect on the surrounding pres-
sures, leaving the option open to further reduce the pumping and the tank height.
This would require additional fine-tuning of the demand balancing curve, which
is left outside the scope of this exercise but can be tested as self-study.

Figure 2.4 Variation of the tank depth (answers 67–72)

 Network modelling workshop 147

Question 2.3.1
40. The demand increase of 30 % cannot be met without an increase in the tank
and/or the pump capacity. The drop of pressure in Answer 74 is a combined
consequence of the pump that is unable to feed the tank with the required vol-
ume, and the tank that is losing the volume too fast due to increased demand.
The negative pressure appears at the moment the tank is empty (i.e. at the
minimum volume = disconnected) and the pump alone cannot deliver the
demand required in the network.
41. The scenario described in answers 76–83 assumes the increase of the pump
capacity alone, as a cheaper investment option. The implication is that the
energy costs will increase because the surplus of the demand is entirely sup-
plied by direct pumping. Comparing the answers 73 and 83, the demand
increase of 30 % has been mitigated by the increase in pumping costs of
nearly 34%. Lastly, the diameter increase of pipe 12 is needed to provide the
required minimum pressure in the most critical node.
42. The selected pump of the duty head/flow of 62 mwc/345 l/s is the equivalent
of adding a smaller pump of 62 mwc/90 l/s to the existing one of 62 mwc/255
l/s. With the same size of tank, and slightly increased initial depth (to 3.70 m),
the balancing curve for the future demand looks as shown in Figure 2.5.
43. The option with the 30 % larger diameter of the tank has also been tested.
Making a bigger tank volume however does not work without increasing the
pump capacity to be able to feed the tank. In the scenario of the tank diameter
increase from 25 to 32.5 m, in combination with the pump of 62 mwc/320 l/s,
the minimum pressure in node 9 at 7:00 hours is 22.12 mwc and the pump-
ing energy cost is 971.10 EUR; thus, somewhat lower than in the case of
Answer 83. The tank balancing curve for this option will look similar to the
one above, which is shown in Figure 2.6. Further refinement would possibly
improve the energy savings at the cost of the tank and pipe enlargement
(as another self-study problem).

Figure 2.5 Variation of the tank depth (answers 77 and 82)

148 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 2.6 Variation of the tank depth (30 % larger volume)

Question 2.4.1
44. The elevated tank is insufficiently high and too small to deliver the pressure
in the whole network alone; therefore, one of the pumps must always be
switched on.
45. In selecting the switch-off level for the second pump, care needs to be taken
not to choose a level that would switch the pump off prematurely during the
peak demand hours, which would result in an instant drop in pressure.
46. The pumping costs increase as a result of the tank volume reduction. The
smaller the tank volume, the more closely the distribution scheme becomes
to the direct pumping. The opposite extreme is where the pumps operate on
average flow, in combination with maximised tank volume. A range of solu-
tions between these two extremes can also be considered, based on economic
grounds and reliability of supply.
47. Due to the significantly reduced volume of the tank, the selected switching
levels for the second pump (102) result in a rather erratic variation between
the maximum depth (for three hours) and the minimum depth (for one hour).
Having the tank disconnected in those periods however does not affect the
network pressures in any negative way because the entire demand can be
supplied by the pumps alone.

Question 2.5.1
48. The base demand in the factory in Question 2.4.1 is 8.33 l/s. The actual hourly
demand is calculated by multiplying this demand by the diurnal peak factor
of 2.0 (specified in the factory demand pattern for time intervals 8:00–19:00),
and the general demand multiplier of 1.95. Hence, by the time it is working,
the factory water demand is 32.49 l/s = 116.95 m3/h, which is 1403.44 m3/d
(over 12 hours per day).
 Network modelling workshop 149

Figure 2.7 Modelling of the fre demand in the pattern editor

49. The additional 30 l/s needs to be provided for the fire extinguishing purposes
in the period 6:00–8:00 hours, by adapting the diurnal peak factors for the time
intervals 7:00–9:00. At 6:00 hours the factory is still closed, and the peak factor
to generate the demand of 30 l/s will be 30/1.95/8.33 = 1.847, while the peak
factor at 7:00 and 8:00 hours will be (32.49 + 30)/1.95/8.33 = 3.847 (equal to
1.847 of the fire demand + 2.0 of the regular factory demand). The Factory pat-
tern will consequently look in the EPANET as shown in Figure 2.7.
50. Obviously, in reality the regular diurnal pattern may also change during an
irregular event (in the case of the factory, the start of morning production is
delayed due to the fire). Keeping the regular pattern unchanged in this case
will probably add additional safety to the selected option.
51. The modified pattern does not create a significant drop in pressures, as can
be seen in answers 96 and 97. At 6:00 hours, the pressure is already above
the required 30 mwc because the regular factory demand is 0 l/s at that point
in time (it only opens at 7:00 hours). Adding a third pump unit with the same
size as the existing two solves the pressure problem in the factory at 7:00 and
8:00 hours relatively easily.
52. The following adapted pump scheduling has been applied in the shown
scenario:
LINK 102 OPEN IF NODE 12 BELOW 2.5
LINK 102 CLOSED IF NODE 12 ABOVE 3.5
LINK 102 OPEN AT TIME 6
LINK 102 CLOSED AT TIME 9
LINK 103 OPEN AT TIME 6
LINK 103 CLOSED AT TIME 9
Pumps 102 and 103 are closed at the beginning of the simulation and addi-
tional time-based controls are needed between 6:00 and 9:00 to ensure that all
three pumps work during the fire, regardless of the water level in the tank.
150 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

53. Normal automatic operation of pump 102 will be restored after the emergency
period is over. Nevertheless, the pump switching schedule may be disturbed
by the fire event and correction of the switching levels is needed to avoid
low pressures because the pump is off. This is why in the above controls
the switch-on level is increased to 2.5 m, from 2.0 m used in Question 2.4.1.
Equally, the initial tank level may also be corrected in order to synergize the
pump operation with the demand variation (2.6 m in this case, compared to
2.5 m in Question 2.4.1).
Appendix 3

Network design exercise

3.1 Learning objectives and set-up

This assignment concerns the design of a new water distribution network. The main
objective of this exercise is to set appropriate pipe diameters and analyse the hydrau-
lic performance of looped network configurations in two possible supply schemes:

• Alternative A – direct pumping, and

• Alternative B – pumping combined with balancing storage.

This should also include the appropriate combination of the required pump
capacity and the storage volume, sufficient to maintain the required service level
expressed by the minimum pressure to be guaranteed over the entire design period;
thus, maintaining the anticipated demand growth. The selected designs are then to
be tested in failure scenarios by using a simplified demand-driven approach, and
finally evaluated financially using the approach explained in Section 4.1.2. When
lectured, the design exercise contact time consists of six sessions of three hours,
with the following set-up:

INTRODUCTION (session 1)
• Case description
• Software introduction
• Start-up, model preparation

PART 1: HYDRAULIC DESIGN (sessions 2 and 3)

• Preliminary design concept
• Determination of nodal consumptions
• Selection of pipe diameters
• Required pumping heads and flows
• Design of storage volume

PART 2: NETWORK OPERATION (sessions 4, 5 and 6)

• Optimisation of network operation
• Pipe burst, fire requirements
• Reliability assessment
• Choice of final alternatives
• Cost comparisons and final conclusions
152 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

The network design is developed based on the availability of two water sources:
an initial one with limited capacity, and a future one connected when the capacity
of the current source has been exceeded. To provide a variety of solutions, each
student works with an individual data set combining the two sources in different
locations with a number (Nr), which they select at random between 150 and 200,
and which is used in the calculation of particular data.
The design alternatives are analysed with the help of a computer modelling
tool. As in the computer workshop elaborated in Appendix 2, EPANET software
(Version 2) is used throughout the tutorial. For this purpose, a model of the case
network has been prepared, which consists of a group of EPANET input files
describing the various steps of the analysis. All file names follow uniform coding:
‘Sxyz.NET’, where:

• S stands for Safi (the name of the hypothetical town used in this example),
• x = 6 or 30, indicates respectively the first or the last year of the design
period,
• y = A or B, indicates the two alternatives requested by the assignment, and
• z = the serial number of the particular network layout explored.

The results of the calculations are presented in the tables and figures. These may
be accompanied by:

• Clarification that explains some (calculation) details from the table/figure,

• Conclusions that suggest further steps based on the calculation results,
• Comments that elaborate points in a wider context of the problem, and/or
• Reading that refers to the chapters of the main text in Volume 1 that are
related to the problem.

Although the explanations in the tutorial should be understood without neces-

sarily using the computer programme, more will be gained if the case network
is studied in parallel on a PC. For this purpose, the full version of the EPANET
software and the case network files mentioned in the text are available with the
descriptions. General information relevant for this exercise, which includes the
programme installation and digested instructions for use, is given in Appendix 8.
The output of the work is to be described in a design exercise report that is to be
submitted for evaluation; an oral exam can be organized for this purpose. Based
on the average student performance, the estimated study load for this exercise is
56 hours, or two credits of the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS), which
includes the contact time. The solved example presented in this appendix contains
partly modified data where the network is laid on a different topography; again,
for the sake of preventing the copying of the solutions that are, in fact, not neces-
sarily the best ones.

3.2 Case introduction – the town of Safi

Safi is a secondary town located in a moderately hilly area. Over the coming
years, a rapid expansion of the area around the town is expected because of good
 Network design exercise 153

regional development activities. A factory for production of agricultural machin-

ery is going to be built near the town itself.
The existing water distribution network, which presently covers just a half of
the area of the town, is in very poor condition and the construction of a completely
new system has been proposed. The pumping station at the source is also rather
old and of insufficient capacity. Its general overhaul has also been planned for
during the project implementation. An international loan for both purposes was
requested and has been approved.
A looped-type network is planned for the construction. The planned design
period of the new distribution network is 25 years. Within that time, the sys-
tem should provide sufficient amounts of water and pressure variations of
between 20–60 mwc during regular operation. Based on the evaluation of the
present situation and the estimates for future growth, a technically and eco-
nomically acceptable solution for construction of the network needs to be
proposed.

3.2.1 Topography
The town is located in a hilly area with ground elevations ranging between 6
and 26 msl. Figure 3.1 shows the configuration of the terrain together with the
layout of the main streets in the urban area (blue dotted lines). The grey dotted
border line indicates the boundary of the town area supplied by the distribution
network.

Figure 3.1 Topography and location of the supply sources

154 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

3.2.2 Supplying source

The source of supply located at [A][B][C][D][E][F]1 is groundwater stored after
simple treatment in a ground reservoir from where it is pumped into the sys-
tem. The new pumping station will need to be built at the source, together with
the clear water reservoir at the suction node. Centrifugal, fixed-speed pumps are
going to be installed in parallel arrangement. The number and size of the pumps
should be sufficient to provide smooth operation of the system, which includes a
number of anticipated irregular supply scenarios.
The maximum production capacity of the source is 10 Nr2 m3/h. The additional
groundwater source located at [A][B][C][D][E][F]3 can be put into operation
once the indicated capacity has been exceeded.

3.2.3 Population distribution and future growth

The town is divided into six districts (A-F, in Figure 3.2), each of a homogenous
population density. The total surface areas of the districts and sub-districts are
given in Table 3.1.
The present population density for each area, expressed as the number of inhab-
itants per hectare, is shown in Table 3.2.
In the absence of more reliable data, the indicated population growth is assumed
to be constant throughout the entire design period.

Figure 3.2 Areas of different population density

1 One supply point should be chosen as Source 1, used in the current demand scenario.
2 Students each select an individual number at random between 150 and 200.
3 Another supply point should be chosen as Source 2, to be used in the future.
 Network design exercise 155

Table 3.1 The town of Saf – surface area of the districts and sub-districts

District Area (ha) District Area (ha) District Area (ha)

A 83.2 C3 50.0 D3 78.0

B 30.8 C4 84.4 E1 97.2
C1 73.6 D1 37.2 E2 117.2
C2 80.8 D2 55.6 E3 83.2
F 29.6

Table 3.2 The town of Saf – population density and growth

District Present Annual

(inhab./ha) growth (%)

A 0.6 Nr* 2.0

B 0.7 Nr 1.0
C1,2,3,4 0.4 Nr 2.4
D1,2,3,4 0.5 Nr 2.8
E1,2,3 0.3 Nr 3.5
F 0.2 Nr 3.5
* - Number selected by individual students

Figure 3.3 Node numbers and pipe routes

3.2.4 Distribution system

The distribution pipes will be laid alongside the main streets of Safi. The network
layout is shown in Figure 3.3, with the lengths of the pipe routes. The intersec-
tions (nodes) are numbered. Connection of the factory (Node 01) to the system is
planned to be in Node 06.
156 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Regarding the local situation (soil conditions, local manufacturing), PVC has
been chosen as the pipe material for the network. Because of this choice, it is
assumed that the roughness of the pipe will remain low throughout the design
period. The accepted k value of 0.5 mm includes the impact of local losses in the
network.

3.2.5 Water demand and leakage

The water consumption in the area is mainly domestic, except for the new fac-
tory that will also be supplied from the distribution system. In the new system,
the domestic consumption per capita is planned to be 150 l/d. In addition, the
projected water demand of the new factory is 1080 m3/d. The water loss is not
expected to exceed 10 % of the water production after the commissioning of the
system. This is assumed to increase by a further 10 % by the end of the design
period, i.e. would grow to 20 % of the water production.
The typical diurnal domestic consumption pattern is shown in Figure 3.4 (the
peak factor values given in Table 3.3), which does not include water losses. Varia-
tion of the consumption during the week is within the range of 0.95 and 1.10 of

Figure 3.4. Consumption pattern

Table 3.3 Diurnal peak factors – Figure 3.4

Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
pfh 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.62 0.50 0.58 0.80 1.08 1.10 1.22 1.35 1.42

Hour 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
pfh 1.45 1.10 0.90 0.75 0.65 0.73 1.00 1.20 1.47 1.45 1.40 1.20
 Network design exercise 157

the average daily figure. In addition, the monthly (seasonal) variations are in the
annual range of between 90 and 115 % of the average consumption. The factory
will be working at a constant (average) capacity for 12 hours a day, between 7
am and 7 pm (two shifts). Neither seasonal variations nor water loss percentages
apply in this case.

3.2.6 Financial elements

An international loan has been requested and approved with a payback period of
30 years and an interest rate of 8 %. The loan is intended only for construction of
the distribution part of the network, which does not include the tertiary network
or service connections.
The monthly instalments are to be financed entirely through the sale of water.
It is therefore agreed that the repayments will start only after the system has been
commissioned, i.e. five years from now (in year 6).
Procurement of the equipment will be according to the prices listed in Table 3.4.
If considering the possibility of laying of pipes in parallel, the price indicated
under 1.1–1.8 should be doubled.
Operation and maintenance costs (O&M) are determined as a percentage of the
investment costs, which is shown in Table 3.5:
As all cost calculations are to be made in EUR, the effect of local inflation can
be ignored.

Table 3.4 Investment costs of the equipment

No. Component EUR Per

1.1 Laying pipe D = 80 mm 60.00 m

1.2 Laying pipe D = 100 mm 70.00 m
1.3 Laying pipe D = 150 mm 90.00 m
1.4 Laying pipe D = 200 mm 130.00 m
1.5 Laying pipe D = 300 mm 180.00 m
1.6 Laying pipe D = 400 mm 260.00 m
1.7 Laying pipe D = 500 mm 310.00 m
1.8 Laying pipe D = 600 mm 360.00 m

2. Pumping station 0.5 × 10 4 × Q0.8 Q = Qmax m3 /h

3. Reservoir 35 × 10 4 + 150 × V V = Vtot m3

4. Support structure for H 3×H×V V = Vtot m3

m-elevated tank

Table 3.5 Annual operation and maintenance costs (O&M)

No. Component % of investment

1. Distribution pipes 0.5

2. Pumping station 2.0
3. Storage 0.8
158 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

3.3 Questions

3.3.1 Hydraulic design

Preliminary concept
1.1 Calculate the demand increase throughout the design period.
Two possible alternatives for the network design have to be analysed:

A) Supply by direct pumping (source pumping stations), and

B) Supply by pumping and by gravity (balancing tank or water tower).

For both alternatives:

1.2 Regarding the supply points:

• determine if and when the second source will need to be put into opera-
tion and calculate its maximum required capacity by the end of the
design period, and
• decide in which nodes the sources need to be connected to the network,
and find the lengths of the connecting pipes.
1.3 Develop a preliminary supply strategy: suggest possible phases in the devel-
opment of the system, function of the pumping stations, reservoirs, etc.

Nodal consumption
1.4 Calculate the average consumption for nodes 01–24:
• at the beginning of the design period, and
• at the end of the design period.

Network layout
1.5 Size the pipe diameters in the system at the beginning and the end of the
design period.

Pumping stations
1.6 For the source pumping stations, determine:
• the required duty head and duty flow, and
• the provisional number and arrangement of the pumping units, both at
the beginning and the end of the design period.
1.7 Determine the location, duty head and flow of the booster station(s), if needed
in the system.

Storage
1.8 Determine the volume of the clear water reservoir at the suction side of the
source pumping stations, at the beginning and the end of the design period
(assume ground-level tanks).
 Network design exercise 159

1.9 For Alternative B only: determine the provisional location, volume and
dimensions of the balancing storage in the network at both the beginning and
the end of the design period.

Summary
1.10 Draw conclusions based on the hydraulic performance of the system
throughout the entire design period. Explain the phased development of the
system, if applied. Suggest a preference for layout alternative A or B.

3.3.2 System operation

Upgrade the computer model of the selected layout alternative A and B at the end
of the design period. Model the pumping station operation by assuming a parallel
arrangement of the pump units.
For both alternatives, run the simulation of the maximum consumption day and
consider the following steps:

Regular operation
2.1 Propose a plan of operation for both pumping stations during regular supply
conditions. Compare the manual pump operation with an automatic operation
based on the pressure in the selected critical node (or tank) in the network.

Factory supply under irregular conditions

2.2 A reliable supply and also fire protection have to be provided for the factory. Anal-
yse the preliminary layout under the maximum consumption hour conditions, if:
• a single pipe, either 15–16, 16–24 or 16–17, bursts, and/or
• a requirement for firefighting of Nr4 m3/h at a pressure of 30 mwc is
needed in Node 01.
If necessary, propose an operation that can provide a supply of the required quan-
tities and pressures.

Network reliability assessment

2.3 Assess the reliability of the distribution network. Determine the consequences
of single pipe failure events if a supply of minimum 75 % of the maximum
consumption hour demand has to be maintained in the system.

Choice of final layouts

Summarise all the findings from the exercise and adjust the network layouts for
alternatives A and B, where required. For these final layouts:

2.4 Show the network layout, number and size of the pump units and distribution
of the storage volume at the beginning of the design period.

4 Student’s individually selected number.

160 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

2.5 For the manual mode of operation on the maximum consumption day, show
the range of pressures in the system. For Alternative B only, show the volume
variation in the balancing tank.
2.6 Describe the steps for the reconstruction/extension of the system and show its
operation at the end of the design period (as required by Question 2.5).

Cost comparisons
2.7 Calculate the investment costs of the network.
2.8 Calculate the operation and maintenance (O&M) costs of the network.
2.9 Determine the average increase in cost per m3 of water, due to the loan repay-
ment and O&M of the system.

If a phased development of the system is planned, explain its impact on the above costs.

Summary
2.10 Summarise all the conclusions and select the final design.

NOTE: The tutorial that follows is based on a partly modified case! The changed
input data are:

• population densities and growth (for the values, see Table 3.6),
• maximum capacity of the first source selected in location A, which is 2500 m3/h,
• location of the factory, which is connected in Node 16,
• factory demands, which are 1300 m3/d for regular operation and 180 m3/h for
firefighting,
• nodal ground elevations, which are extracted from the map shown in Figure 3.5.

All other data are taken from the original data set.
In this context, the demands in the tutorial will be generally higher than from
the selection of an individual numbers in the range 150–200. As the figure also
shows, the future source is at location D, with the highest elevations in the
middle of the town area (a hill), while the student’s case in Figure 3.1 shows the

Table 3.6 Saf tutorial – population density and growth

District Present Annual

(inhab./ha) growth (%)

A 225 1.0
B 248 1.2
C1,2,3,4 186 2.0
D1,2,3,4 202 2.7
E1,2,3 144 2.9
F 115 3.3
 Network design exercise 161

Figure 3.5 Saf tutorial – topography and location of supply sources

lowest elevations in the middle of the town (a valley). This difference obviously
has implications for the monitoring of the most critical nodes in the network,
which will not be in the same area of the town. It also impacts the location of
the storage that is to be designed in Alternative B.

3.4 Hydraulic design

3.4.1 Preliminary design concept

By combining the information from tables 3.1 and 3.2, the population and domes-
tic consumption figures are shown in Table 3.7. A spreadsheet calculation is con-
ducted for:

• the present situation (year 1),

• commissioning of the system after five years (year 6), and
• the end of the 25-year design period (year 30).

Clarification:
• An exponential growth model is assumed in the demand calculations.
162 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 3.7 Population and domestic consumption growth

Population (inhabitants)
Districts Area Density Growth Present At year At year
(ha) (inh./ha) (%) 6* 30

A 83.2 225 1.0 18,720 19,872 25,232

B 30.8 248 1.2 7638 8205 10,925
C1 73.6 186 2.0 13,690 15,417 24,797
C2 80.8 186 2.0 15,029 16,925 27,223
C3 50.0 186 2.0 9300 10,473 16,846
C4 84.4 186 2.0 15,698 17,679 28,435
D1 37.2 202 2.7 7514 8817 16,711
D2 55.6 202 2.7 11,231 13,178 24,977
D3 78.0 202 2.7 15,756 18,487 35,040
E1 97.2 144 2.9 13,997 16,616 32,998
E2 117.2 144 2.9 16,877 20,035 39,788
E3 83.2 144 2.9 11,981 14,223 28,245
F 29.6 115 3.3 3404 4136 9016
Total 160,835 184,062 320,232

Specifc consumption 150 l/c/d

Total average consumption m3 /d 24,125 27,609 48,035
m3 /h 1005.2 1150.4 2001.5
l/s 279.23 319.55 555.96
* The shaded areas in the table indicate the input information used in the calculations.

Conclusions:
• The population i.e. the demand will nearly double in the next 30 years.

Comments:
• The exponential growth model simulates a faster growth of population than
the linear growth model does. Local conditions determine which of the two
models is more suitable.

Reading:
• Volume 1, Section 2.5: ‘Demand forecasting’.

The design alternatives to be compared are:

A) Supply by direct pumping from the source(s), and

B) Supply combined by pumping and by gravity.

The principal difference between these two is:

A) The entire demand in the area is supplied from the source(s) at all times.
Hence, the sources must be capable of satisfying the demand during the max-
imum consumption hour of the maximum consumption day.
 Network design exercise 163

B) In peak periods of the day, part of the demand can be supplied from the bal-
ancing tank in the system. The source will normally supply the average flow
on the maximum consumption day, provided the position and volume of the
balancing tank are properly determined.

Consequently, the first source will reach its maximum capacity of 2500 m3/h
sooner in the case of Alternative A than in Alternative B. Table 3.8 indicates when
this will happen.

Table 3.8 Demand growth

Seasonal variations Peak hour at:

Max Min 12 4
Factory: 1300 m3/d Factors: 1.265 0.855 1.45 0.5
Average demands Peak demands
Populat. Consum. Leakage Demand Qmax,day Qmin,day Qmax,hour Qmin,hour
(inh.) (m3/d) (%) (m3/d) (m3/d) (m3/d) (m3/h) (m3/h)
Present 160,835 24,125 0 24,125 30,518 20,627 1843.8 429.7
year 06 184,062 27,609 10 31,977 40,106 27,529 2452.9 546.4
year 07 188,274 28,241 10 32,679 40,994 28,129 2506.5 558.9
year 08 192,590 28,889 10 33,398 41,904 28,744 2561.5 571.8
year 09 197,013 29,552 10 34,136 42,837 29,374 2617.9 584.9
year 10 201,545 30,232 10 34,891 43,792 30,020 2675.6 598.3
year 11 206,190 30,929 11 36,051 45,260 31,012 2764.3 619.0
year 12 210,951 31,643 11 36,854 46,275 31,698 2825.6 633.3
year 13 215,830 32,375 11 37,676 47,315 32,401 2888.4 647.9
year 14 220,830 33,125 11 38,519 48,381 33,122 2952.8 663.0
year 15 225,955 33,893 11 39,382 49,474 33,860 3018.9 678.3
year 16 231,208 34,681 13 41,163 51,727 35,383 3155.0 710.1
year 17 236,593 35,489 13 42,092 52,902 36,177 3225.9 726.6
year 18 242,112 36,317 13 43,043 54,105 36,991 3298.7 743.6
year 19 247,769 37,165 13 44,019 55,339 37,825 3373.2 760.9
year 20 253,568 38,035 13 45,019 56,604 38,679 3449.6 778.7
year 21 259,513 38,927 16 47,642 59,922 40,922 3650.1 825.5
year 22 265,607 39,841 16 48,730 61,299 41,852 3733.3 844.8
year 23 271,855 40,778 16 49,846 62,710 42,806 3818.5 864.7
year 24 278,259 41,739 16 50,989 64,157 43,784 3905.9 885.1
year 25 284,826 42,724 16 52,162 65,640 44,787 3995.6 906.0
year 26 291,558 43,734 20 55,967 70,454 48,040 4286.4 973.8
year 27 298,460 44,769 20 57,261 72,091 49,147 4385.3 996.8
year 28 305,536 45,830 20 58,588 73,769 50,281 4486.7 1020.4
year 29 312,792 46,919 20 59,949 75,490 51,444 4590.7 1044.7
year 30 320,232 48,035 20 61,344 77,255 52,637 4697.3 1069.5
164 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Clarification:
• The demand calculation in the table is based on Equation 2.1 in Volume 1,
Section 2.4
• The growth scenario of the leakage percentage is hypothetical.
• The maximum and minimum consumption day demands are determined based
on the seasonal factors 1.10 × 1.15 = 1.265 and 0.95 × 0.90 = 0.855, respectively.
• The factory is treated as a major user. However, unlike the domestic demand, its
demand (1300 m3/d, constant throughout the design period) is included without
taking into account any influences of the seasonal variations and leakage.
• The maximum/minimum consumption hour demands are calculated from the
peak factors displayed in Figure 3.4/Table 3.3. The factory demand is added
based on a 12-hour operation (1300/12 = 108.3 m3/h) if the factory was in
operation during the maximum/minimum consumption hour.

Conclusions:
• From the domestic diurnal diagram, the maximum hourly peak factor is at
20:00 hours (1.47). Nevertheless, the maximum consumption hour occurs at
12:00 hours due to the factory demand (combined with the peak factor of the
domestic demand of 1.45). The minimum consumption hour is at 04:00 hours
(peak factor = 0.50 and the factory is closed).
• By applying the direct pumping scheme (Alternative A), the maximum
capacity of the first source is going to be reached in year 7 i.e. already by the
second year after being commissioned. The additional peak capacity needed
in year 30 from the second source is therefore: 4697.3–2506.5 ≈ 2200 m3/h
(see Table 3.8, column Qmax,hour).
• By applying the combined system (Alternative B), the capacity of the first source
is going to be reached in year 21. If this capacity is supplied 24 hours a day (2500
m3/h = 60,000 m3/d), the additional capacity needed from the second source will
be 77,255–59,922 ≈ 17,300 m3/d (Table 3.8, column Qmax,day). The combined
supply scheme assumes that the balancing tank will provide/accommodate the
difference between any hourly flow and the average flow during 24 hours. This
assumption is going to be taken as the starting point in this design alternative.

Comments:
• The calculation procedure applied in Table 3.8 is determined by the origin of
the diurnal pattern.
The crucial questions to be answered are:
• Does the diurnal diagram represent one or more demand categories?
• Does it include leakage or not?
• Which consumption day does it represent (average, maximum, minimum)?
• A distinction should be made between the non-revenue water (NRW) percentage
and the leakage percentage (i.e. physical loss). Part of the NRW is water that is in
the system but is not paid for, e.g. due to illegal connections or under-reading the
water meter. Consequently, including the entire NRW level instead of the leak-
age level alone reduces the calculated pressures, which works as a kind of safety
factor for the design. Moreover, the total NRW is often easier to assess than its
contributing components, as this figure is reflected in the loss of revenue.
 Network design exercise 165

Reading:
• Volume 1, sections 2.3 and 2.4: ‘Water demand patterns’ and ‘Water demand
calculation’.

Initial scenarios
The following initial scenarios are going to be tested while developing the system:

Alternative A
• Both sources 1 and 2 will be connected to the system at the beginning of the
design period because the first source alone will become exhausted soon after
the system is commissioned. By connecting the second source immediately,
the whole construction can be carried out at once.
• Both sources should each supply roughly half of the total demand during
regular operation. They are located on the opposite sides of the system which
allows for a network of a narrower range of pipe diameters, which is in prin-
ciple a more convenient layout for future extensions.
• Source 1 will not exceed more than 90% of its maximum capacity during
regular operation. The buffer of minimum 10% will be kept as a stand-by for
irregular supply (firefighting, pipe bursts, etc.).
• In case of failure or planned maintenance in any of the two sources, the source
remaining in operation should have sufficient capacity to supply the factory.

Alternative B
• Source 1 has to supply the average flow on the maximum consumption day.
The diurnal demand variation will be satisfied from the balancing tank.
• The balancing tank should also have provision for irregular supply conditions.
• From the year in which it reaches its design capacity, the first source will
continue to operate at this capacity until the end of the design period.
• The second source should become operational in year 21, at the latest. If
required, this source should also assist with supply during irregular situations.
• It is assumed that the volume of the balancing tank can only be recovered
from the two sources (no other source in the vicinity of the tank is available).

In Alternative B, Source 1 is the major source of the system. The constant i.e. aver-
age delivery from this source is possible throughout the design period because the
peak flows are to be supplied from the balancing tank. This will delay the connec-
tion of Source 2, compared to Alternative A where this needs to happen earlier.
In both alternatives:

• A looped structure for the secondary mains will be designed. This is a ‘must’
in any serious consideration of the system reliability (more reliability = more
investment). Question 2.3 stipulates a high reliability in this assignment.
• Pipe and street routes should coincide (no pipe routing underneath buildings).
• The source connections to the system will depend on the selected route for
the secondary mains. Moreover:
• these connections should be directed towards the high demand areas, and
• their pipe route should be as short as possible.
166 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Reading:
• Volume 1, Section 3.7: ‘Hydraulics of storage and pumps’,
• Volume 1, sections 4.2.1: ‘Design criteria’ and 4.2.2: ‘Basic design principles’.

3.4.2 Nodal consumption

The average consumption in the nodes has been determined by calculating the
specific consumption per metre of pipe in each loop, assuming an even dispersion
of house connections throughout the system. A spreadsheet calculation can be
carried out based on the procedure described in Volume 1, Section 4.3: ‘Computer
models as design tools’. The nodal consumption is calculated for the following
points of time: at year 6, which is the beginning of the design period, and at year
30, which is the end of the design period. The results are shown in the table below.

Table 3.9 Average nodal consumption

NODE At year 6 At year 30 Factor of

Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) increase

01 30.09 108.3 30.09 108.3 1.000

02 7.15 25.7 13.12 47.2 1.834
03 18.79 67.6 31.00 111.6 1.650
04 18.43 66.3 34.96 125.9 1.897
05 16.91 60.9 34.28 123.4 2.027
06 9.13 32.9 18.83 67.8 2.062
07 16.77 60.4 26.97 97.1 1.608
08 5.42 19.5 10.77 38.8 1.986
09 16.93 60.9 33.62 121.0 1.986
10 17.30 62.3 32.32 116.4 1.869
11 16.66 60.0 32.39 116.6 1.944
12 23.05 83.0 40.59 146.1 1.761
13 12.73 45.8 17.90 64.4 1.405
14 16.75 60.3 24.85 89.5 1.484
15 19.37 69.7 28.81 103.7 1.488
16 15.94 57.4 22.64 81.5 1.420
17 21.45 77.2 32.31 116.3 1.506
18 21.36 76.9 38.17 137.4 1.787
19 13.21 47.6 25.04 90.2 1.895
20 4.10 14.8 7.77 28.0 1.895
21 3.76 13.5 7.12 25.6 1.895
22 7.43 26.7 14.08 50.7 1.895
23 10.59 38.1 18.27 65.8 1.725
24 6.31 22.7 10.15 36.5 1.608
Total 349.64 1258.7 586.05 2109.8 1.676
 Network design exercise 167

Clarification:
• The figures in the table represent the ‘baseline’ or average consumption. For
actual demand at a certain point in time, these figures have to be modified
by the hourly peak factors, water losses, and seasonal variations, specified
separately in the input file of the computer model.
• As a check, the total demands in years 6 and 30 correspond to the maximum
consumption day demands from Table 3.8 (column Qmax,day). For the water
loss of 10 and 20 %, respectively:
((1258.7–108.3) × 1265/0.90) × 24 + 1300 ≈ 40,106 m3/d.
((2109.8–108.3) × 1265/0.80) × 24 + 1300 ≈ 77,255 m3/d.
• The increase factor shown in the table indicates the ratio between the demands
at the end and the beginning of the design period.

Conclusions:
• Due to different growth percentages in the various districts of the town,
the pattern of population (demand) distribution will change throughout the
design period. It can be observed from the table that the demands in nodes
02, 04–06, 08–12 and 18–23 grow faster than in the rest of the network, shift-
ing the demand concentration towards the south of the town. This fact should
also be taken into consideration while deciding on the network layout.

Comments:
• Analysis of the demand distribution is an important element of the network
design. Larger pipe diameters are normally laid in, or on the route to, the
areas of higher demand.
• Phased system development should follow the demand development through-
out the design period.

Reading:
• Volume 1, Section 4.3: ‘Computer models as design tools’.

3.4.3 Network layout

The design of the network layout begins by defining the preliminary routes of the
secondary mains. What is important to realise at this stage is the obvious hydrau-
lic correlation between the system parameters:

• the demand distribution throughout the area,

• the location and capacity of the supply points and their connection to the
system,
• the pipe diameters,
• the pump units, and their type, number and operating schedule, and
• the position, elevation and volume of the storage.

One single combination of the above parameters results in one unique distribution
of the pressures and flows in the system. Modifying even a single nodal demand
or pipe diameter will affect this equilibrium, to some degree.
168 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

In theory, different network configurations can show a similar hydraulic per-

formance provided that correct judgements have been made while building the
model. For a final choice of the network configuration, other criteria such as a
reliability assessment, soil conditions, access for maintenance, future extensions,
etc. will also be considered.

Alternative A – direct pumping

Based on the preliminary design concept and the demand analysis, the first model
has been built for the demand situation after the commissioning of the system
(year 6). The given EPANET filename is S6A1.NET and its contents can be stud-
ied from the electronic materials available with this tutorial. The main compo-
nents of the system have been modelled as follows:

• [JUNCTIONS]: An average nodal consumption as shown in Table 3.9 in year

6 has been introduced in each node.
• [JUNCTIONS]: Altitudes of nodes 102 and 202 have been assumed to equal
the ground elevations taken from Figure 3.2.
• [DEMANDS]: The multiplier of the nodal demand has been set for the condi-
tions on the maximum consumption day, including the water loss of 10 %; the
factor has been calculated as 1.265/(1–10/100) = 1.406.
• [RESERVOIRS]: The pump suction heads at the sources are assumed to be
fixed at the ground elevation.
• [PIPES]: Given the fact that the population density is going to increase in the
southern part of the town, the connection of the first source has been tested in
nodes 06 and 02. The pipe lengths are estimated based on the scale of Figure
3.2: for Pipe 102–06 at 1550 m and for 102–02 at 1700 m.
• [PIPES]: The factory is connected at Node 16 (pipe length 01–16 = 350 m). To
provide good connectivity with Source 2, via the shortest path along route 16–17–
18, this source will be connected in Node 18 (pipe length 202–18 = 750 m).
• [PUMPS]: Equal-size pumping stations have been assumed at the sources,
with the following duty head and flow: Hd = 50 mwc; this is an estimate to
satisfy the design pressure criteria, and Qd = 230 l/s is an estimate based on
the information from Table 3.8 (at year 6: Qmax,day = 40,106 m3/d ≈ 460 l/s).
For the duty head and flow specified as a single pair of Q/H points, EPANET
generates a synthetic pump curve based on this principle: Qp (at Hp = 0) equals
2 × Qd, and Hp (at Qp = 0) equals to 1.33 × Hd. As a result, the following three
Q/H points define the curve: 0–66.5, 230–50 and 460–0 (in l/s-mwc).

To analyse the demand distribution in the system, the first simulations have been run
using uniform pipe diameters of 222 mm; the results are shown in figures 3.6 and 3.7.

Clarification:
• The graphs show the snapshot at 12:00 hours (the maximum consumption hour).
• The pipe unit head loss is displayed in m/km.
• With regard to the pumping stations, the negative figures indicate the actual
pumping head in mwc.
• The reservoir symbols represent the suction nodes of the pumping stations.
 Network design exercise 169

Conclusions:
• The source connection to different nodes influences the head-loss (flow)
distribution.
• The pipes with a large unit head loss i.e. the hydraulic gradient (greater than
5–10 m/km) imply the routes of the bulk flows, which is a direct consequence
of the demand distribution in the nodes. The diameter of these pipes has to be
increased whereas the pipes with smaller head loss should be reduced in size.
• Connecting Source 1 to Node 06 suggests that the secondary pipes should
pass through the peripheral area of the town; a possible main loop is indi-
cated in Figure 3.6. The logic behind it is to connect both sources and the
factory with pipes that can carry additional capacity in case of accidents in
the system.
• An alternative connection of Source 1 to Node 02 shifts the resistance towards
the central part of the system; the main loop is shown in Figure 3.7. This loop
is shorter (= less expensive) but may not provide a satisfactory distribution
of water throughout the network. An extra loop or larger lateral pipes should
therefore be considered.
• Out of the two equal pumping curves selected for the pumping stations, the
one at Source 2 shows a lower head (i.e. higher supply), which is in contra-
diction to the initial requirement that both sources should supply a similar
capacity. The likely cause is in the higher elevation of this pumping station
compared to that in Source 1. Consequently, the pumping station at Source 2
can be smaller than the one at Source 1 (to be tested later).

Figure 3.6 S6A1 (Source 1–06): unit head loss (m/km) at 12:00 hours
170 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.7 S6A1 (Source 1–02): unit head loss (m/km) at 12:00 hours

In order to proceed, the layout from Figure 3.6 has been further developed:

• [PIPES]: The main loop from the figure has been formed from pipes D = 400 mm,
• [PIPES]: The source connections to the system were provided with pipes
D = 600 mm,
• [PIPES]: All other pipes in the network have been set at D = 200 mm.

The input file has been named S6A2.NET, with simulation results shown in Fig-
ure 3.8.

Conclusions:
• The unit head losses in most of the secondary pipes are low, suggesting that
D = 400 mm is too large. Two possible solutions are:
• to look at each pipe individually and reduce the diameters where required,
and/or
• to choose a smaller loop of secondary pipes.

The first approach in the conclusions actually means abandoning the loop con-
cept and switching to a branched structure of the secondary mains, which could
potentially raise problems related to the reliability of supply. For these reasons,
the approach with a smaller loop has been tried in the S6A3.NET file, created in
the same way as S6A2.NET. The proposed layout is shown in Figure 3.9.
 Network design exercise 171

Figure 3.8 S6A2: unit head loss (m/km) at 12:00 hours

Figure 3.9 S6A3: unit head loss (m/km) at 12:00 hours

172 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Conclusions:
• The length of the loop has been reduced with a slight improvement of the
head loss. However, some pipes are still too large (e.g. 04–10 or 13–17).
• The lateral pipes at the northern side (03–07, 14–15, 17–16 and 23–24) show
large unit head losses, which is the consequence of making the main loop
smaller. These pipes should be enlarged.

The smaller loop of the secondary pipes combined with laterals stretched towards
the ends of the system appears to be a promising concept. To explore in addition
the effects of the connection between Source 1 and Node 02, file S6A4.NET has
been created from S6A3.NET:

• by introducing connection 102–02 instead of 102–06, and

• by reducing further the length of the main loop.

The layout with the results is shown in Figure 3.10.

Conclusions:
• Connection 102–02 allows further reduction of the main loop. As a conse-
quence, the head losses in the lateral pipes will increase.
• The head losses in the main loop remain low, which implies again that D =
400 mm is too large a diameter for the supply conditions at the beginning of
the design period.

The network layout is further developed in file S6A5.NET. Through a number of

trial and error computer runs, the pipe diameters are adopted to satisfy the design
unit head loss of ± 1–5 m/km. The final layout is shown in Figure 3.11.

Figure 3.10 S6A4: unit head loss (m/km) at 12:00 hours

 Network design exercise 173

Figure 3.11 S6A5: pipe diameters (mm)

To satisfy the minimum design pressure of 20 mwc while supplying a similar

flow from both sources, the pumping characteristics have been adjusted as follows:

• Source 1: Hd,1 = 60 mwc, Qd,1 = 270 l/s, and

• Source 2: Hd,2 = 40 mwc, Qd,2 = 250 l/s.

The results of calculating with these values are shown in figures 3.12 and 3.13.

Conclusions:
• As preferred, the pumping stations now work at an even capacity. The total
supply (346 + 336 = 682 l/s = 2455 m3/h) equals approximately the maximum
hour on the maximum consumption day at the beginning of the design period
(in Table 3.8, Qmax,hour = 2452.9 m3/h at year 6).
• The system has been deliberately left with extra capacity at this stage of the
analysis. Firstly, lower velocities (head losses) indicate that the pipes possess
some spare capacity, which can be of use during irregular supply conditions.
Secondly, the larger pipes can deal with demand growth in the longer term,
which postpones the system extension. Justification of these assumptions is
going to be tested whilst analysing the system operation.
• The minimum pressure in the system is in Node 11 (22.22 mwc). The maxi-
mum (night) pressures are to be analysed after the number of pump units, and
their arrangement and operation has been decided.
• Assuming the unit costs as given in Table 3.4, the total investment cost for the
pipes is calculated at EUR 4,661,500.
174 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.12 S6A5: unit head loss (m/km) at 12:00 hours

Figure 3.13 S6A5: velocities and pressures at 12:00 hours

 Network design exercise 175

Figure 3.14 S6A6: pipe diameters (mm) for a large loop

For reasons of comparison, two additional alternatives have been developed based
on the design hydraulic gradient of ± 1–5 m/km and minimum pressure of 20 mwc:

• An alternative with the large loop of secondary mains, as discussed in Fig-

ure 3.6, is developed in file S6A6.NET. This network layout is shown in
Figure 3.14. Similar hydraulic performance (Figure 3.15) yields the total cost
of the pipes as EUR 5,218,500.
• A branched layout of the secondary mains (file S6A7.NET), shown in fig-
ures 3.16 and 3.17. The total cost of the pipes in this case is EUR 4,484,500.

In both cases the same pump characteristics were used as in the S6A5 layout.

Conclusions:
• All three configurations, 5, 6 and 7, provide similar hydraulic performances
during the maximum hour on the maximum consumption day. However,
given the pattern of the population growth and reliability requirements, the
S6A5 layout is anticipated to be the most adequate one. Further development
of the direct pumping alternative is going to be based on this layout.
• The S6A6 layout is more expensive than the other two. Nevertheless, this is an
acceptable approach in situations where the growth in population is followed by
an overall growth of the town’s size. As this is not anticipated in this case, addi-
tional investment in a large loop of secondary mains does not seem to be justified.
• The S6A7 layout is the cheapest but probably the least reliable. The cost saving
compared to the S6A5 alternative does not itself make this more attractive. Its
weak points will be illustrated during the reliability assessment of the network.
176 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.15 S6A6: velocities and pressures at 12:00 hours

Figure 3.16 S6A7: branched mains – pipe diameters (mm)

 Network design exercise 177

Figure 3.17 S6A7: velocities and pressures at 12: 00 hours

Comments:
• While sizing pipes:
• A pipe with extremely low velocity/head loss is a potential source of
water quality problems and should therefore be reduced in diameter.
Pipes in which the water stagnates play no role in a proper distribution
network. These can be removed without major implications for the over-
all hydraulic performance of the network, unless needed for service con-
nections or as a reliability provision.
• Pipes with extremely high velocity/head loss require high energy input
for distribution and should therefore be increased in diameter. Often it is
necessary to enlarge not just one but a sequence of pipes following the
same path/flow direction (i.e. connected in series).
• Choosing appropriate pipe diameters means optimisation of the hydraulic
gradients/flow velocities in the system. However, this does not mean:
• Satisfying the design hydraulic gradient/flow velocity in each pipe of the
network at a particular point in time,
• Satisfying the design hydraulic gradient/flow velocity of a single pipe at
any point in time.
178 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Depending on the demand pattern, one pipe may generate a range of

velocities over 24 hours that will be rather wide; this is normal.
• Optimisation of pipe diameters is usually done for the maximum
consumption day demand. Thus, a pipe with extremely low veloci-
ties on that day will maintain even lower velocities throughout the
year. On the other hand, the velocities/head losses tend to increase
throughout the design period, as a result of the demand growth, and
the same pipe may improve its hydraulic performance within a cou-
ple of years.
To finalise the network design of Alternative A, the proposed layout in S6A5 has
also been tested for the demand level at the end of the design period, i.e. 30 years
from now. File S30A1.NET has been created from S6A5.NET by modifying the
following sections:

• [JUNCTIONS]: The nodal consumption in year 30 has been put in (see

Table 3.9).
• [DEMANDS]: The multiplier of the nodal consumption represents the maxi-
mum consumption day with water loss of 20 %.

The simulation has been run with the same pump characteristics as at the begin-
ning of the design period. The results are shown in Figure 3.18.

Figure 3.18 S30A1: unit head losses and pressures at 12:00 hours
 Network design exercise 179

Conclusions:
• The nodal pressures become negative at a minimum of -80.54 mwc at Node
09. This is a consequence of the demand/population growth that has created
two problems:
• The existing pumps are too weak to deliver the increased flow at suf-
ficient head (the pressures already become negative at the nodes nearest
to the supply points),
• The flow increase causes a substantial increase of the head loss in some
pipes (∆H > 8 m/km).
• The warning message in EPANET will also indicate the negative pressures,
which was registered in 12 out of 24 hours; thus, the system has an insuffi-
cient supply for at least half of the day.
• Between midnight and 06:00 hours in the morning, the system is able to
satisfy demand at the required minimum pressure. The problems occur from
07:00 hours onwards. At that moment the pressure will become negative for
the first time, while the head loss in some pipes will start to grow, as Figure
3.18 shows. The total demand of the system at 07:00 hours is 979 l/s ≈ 3526
m3/h, which is the level of demand at the maximum hour of the maximum
consumption day in around the year 20–21 (see column Qmax,hour in Table 3.8).
This is the critical moment but the new investment is likely to be necessary

Figure 3.19 S30A1: unit head losses and pressures at 07:00 hours
180 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

a few years earlier, to maintain regular supply throughout the entire design
period. These include:
• Extension of the pumping stations (the duty flows have to be nearly dou-
bled, based on the calculated demand increase during the design period),
and
• Replacement of the critical pipes with larger ones or laying the pipes in
parallel.
During the second phase, the pipes already laid will be approximately 10–15 years
old. These should normally still be in good condition and their replacement with
a larger diameter pipe may not be economically justified, especially if trench
widening is required. If reliability is an issue, parallel pipes could be considered
instead. In the case of Safi, the combination of both measures has been applied as
an illustration for purely educational reasons.

Summary of Alternative A
The layouts for the regular supply conditions have been finalised in files S6A8.
NET and S30A2.NET (beginning and end of the design period, respectively). The
results are displayed in figures 3.20–3.23.

Figure 3.20 Alternative A: pipe diameters (mm) at the beginning of the design period
 Network design exercise 181

Figure 3.21 Alternative A: pipe diameters (mm) at the end of the design period

Figure 3.22 Alternative A: operation at 12:00 hours at the beginning of the design period
182 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.23 Alternative A: operation at 12:00 hours at the end of the design period

Clarification:
• The bold lines in Figure 3.21 indicate routes where action will be taken in
around year 15. Parallel pipes D = 500 mm are planned along routes 102–02,
02–03 and 202–18, while all other indicated pipes will be replaced with the
next larger diameter from Table 3.4.
• At the beginning of the design period, the diameters of pipes 102–02 and
202–18 will be reduced to D = 500 mm instead of 600 mm, as previously
determined in S6A5. As a consequence, the pressure will drop by a few
mwc compared to the values in Figure 3.13. To prevent it falling below
pmin/ρg ≈ 20 mwc, the pumping capacity has to be slightly increased. In
Source 1, Qd = 280 l/s (from 270 l/s), and in Source 2, Qd = 260 l/s (from
250 l/s).

Conclusions:
• Pipe investment for the network at the beginning of the design period is EUR
4,539,000. The additional cost for the pipes laid in the second phase is EUR
2,330,000.
• Both network configurations provide stable operation during the regular
(maximum) supply conditions. At the end of the design period, the total peak
supply of the pumping stations fits the figure from Table 3.8 (645 + 660 =
 Network design exercise 183

1305 l/s = 4698 m3/h ≈ Qmax, hour in year 30). The first source will have reached
93 % of its maximum capacity (2500 m3/h = 695 l/s).
• For some pipes, there is still room for further reduction of the diameter. Rela-
tively low velocities are registered in pipes 08–09, 09–11, 10–12, 14–13,
13–17, 15–16 and 16–24, some of these indicating a ‘hydraulic border’
between the part of the network supplied by Source 1, and the one supplied
by Source 2. The final decision on this is going to be taken after the reliability
aspects have been analysed.

Alternative B – pumping and balancing storage

Based on the preliminary concept and applying the same basic principles, the
network layout has been developed for the beginning (file S6B1.NET) and the
end of the design period (file S30B1.NET). To utilise the existing topography,
the tank has been positioned at the highest altitude in the area (28.0 msl), in the
vicinity of Node 13. The layouts and the results of the simulation are shown in
figures 3.24–3.29.

Figure 3.24 Alternative B: pipe diameters (mm) at the beginning of the design period
184 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.25 Alternative B: pipe diameters (mm) at the end of the design period

Figure 3.26 Alternative B: a ground-level tank, operation at 12:00 hours at the beginning
of the design period
 Network design exercise 185

Figure 3.27 Alternative B: an elevated tank, operation at 12:00 hours at the beginning of
the design period

Figure 3.28 Alternative B: a ground-level tank, operation at 12:00 hours at the end of the
design period
186 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.29 Alternative B: an elevated tank, operation at 12:00 at the end of the design period

Clarification:
• As the first approximation, the tank surface level has been assumed to be
constant throughout the entire period of the simulation (the ‘fixed head’ node,
which is modelled in EPANET as a reservoir). This gives an initial impres-
sion of the pressure distribution in the system. Two possibilities have been
analysed:
• a ground-level tank with a depth of 6 m (the fixed head = 28 + 6 = 34 msl),
and
• an elevated tank ± 20 m high incl. ± 2 m water depth (the fixed head = 28 +
22 = 50 msl).
• Based on the previous experience, the pump characteristics have been set as
follows:
• at the beginning of the design period: Hd,1 = 60 mwc, Qd,1 = 460 l/s =
Qmaxd at year 6, and
• at the end of the design period: Hd,1 = 60 mwc, Qd,1 = 650 l/s (≈ Qmax of
Source 1), and Hd,2 = 40 mwc, Qd,2 = 250 l/s (Qd,1 + Qd,2 = 900 l/s ≈ Qmaxd
at year 30).
To provide a link with the main loop, the second source has been connected at
Node 12.
 Network design exercise 187

Conclusions:
• Pipe investment for the network at the beginning of the design period is
EUR 4,927,500. The additional cost for the pipes to be laid in approximately
year 20 is EUR 1,455,000. Compared to Alternative A, the saving is mainly
obtained by avoiding parallel pipes from the sources.
• There is a difference in the unit head loss distribution, depending on the level
of the tank. This results from different quantities supplied from the tank and
the pumping station(s). However, with a few exceptions, this does not have
significant implications for the choice of pipe diameters.
• The ground-level tank draws too much water from the sources throughout the
day. As a consequence, the required supply from Source 1 at the end of the
design period exceeds its maximum capacity, which is 695 l/s. In addition,
the nodal pressures in the system are too low.
• The elevated tank is showing much better hydraulic performance; the pump-
ing is reduced due to increased water flow supplied from the tank. With the
same pump characteristics, the pressures in the system are almost correct.
However, erecting tanks with a large volume can be quite an expensive solu-
tion. The final decision on the tank height will be made after the balancing
volume has been determined.

Comments:
• A balancing tank that is positioned too low receives more water than it can
supply to the system. Such a tank will become full after some time. To pre-
vent this, the pumping at the source can be reduced, which will slow down
the filling of the tank. Another possibility would be to install an additional
pumping station in the vicinity of the tank, which will empty its volume,
thereby providing sufficient pressure.
• A balancing tank that is positioned too high will receive less water than it
should supply to the system and therefore will soon become empty. To pre-
vent this, the pumping head at the source should be increased.
• The amounts of water entering and leaving the tank can be calculated in
advance, if the source is to supply the average flow throughout the day. A
sophisticated way to quickly evaluate the tank position is to model it as an
ordinary node with the balancing flows as its consumption. Such consump-
tion would fluctuate between the maximum or minimum hour consumption
reduced by the average flow supplied by the pump. It becomes negative when
the tank is supplying the system and positive when its volume is being recov-
ered. The pressure in the node, resulting from the simulations for two extreme
consumptions, can give an impression about the range of water depths in the
tank; it should therefore be reasonably high and within a range of a few metres.

3.4.4 Pumping heads and flows

The pumping heads and flows determined at the beginning and the end of the
design period are summarised in tables 3.10 and 3.11 for both alternatives, respec-
tively. As expected, more pumping will be involved in Alternative A than in the
case of Alternative B.
188 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 3.10 Alternative A: pumping stations

Beginning of the design period End of the design period
Qd (l/s) Hd (mwc) Qmax,hour (l/s) Qd (l/s) Hd (mwc) Qmax,hour (l/s)
Source 1 280 60 338 560 60 645
Source 2 260 40 344 520 40 660

Table 3.11 Alternative B: pumping stations

Beginning of the design period End of the design period

Qd Hd Qmax,hour Qmax,hour Qd Hd Qmax,hour Qmax,hour

(l/s) (mwc) (l/s) (l/s) (l/s) (mwc) (l/s) (l/s)
ground elevated ground elevated

Source 1 460 60 622 533 650 60 784 679

Source 2 – – – – 250 40 438 355
Tank – – 60 149 – – 83 271

Table 3.12 Preliminary pump selection

Alternative A Alternative B (elevated tank)

Qp Hp No. of No. of units Qp Hp No. of No. of units

(l/s) (mwc) units end (l/s) (mwc) units end
begin begin
Source 1 100 60 3+1* 6+1 150 60 3+1 6+1
Source 2 90 40 3+1 6+1 130 40 – 2+1
* One unit is on stand-by.

In order to facilitate the demand variations over a period of 24 hours, the logical
choice is to arrange the pumps in parallel. One possibility is shown in Table 3.12.
The final choice of the pump type and number of units will take place after the
network operation has been analysed.

Clarification:
• A hydraulically equivalent performance is reached between one pump of a
particular Qd and Hd, and n pumps of Qd/n and Hd connected in parallel. For
example, three units of 100 l/s against duty head of 60 mwc equal one unit of
300 l/s and the same duty head.

Application of booster stations

To illustrate the difficulties with pressure boosting in looped systems, file S6B2.
NET has been created from S6B1.NET. The operation of the booster station
has been tested in three different locations: from nodes 13 to 17, 13–12 and
 Network design exercise 189

Figure 3.30 S6B2: a ground-level tank and booster 13–17, operation at 12:00 hours

14–301 (instead of Pipe 14–13). In all cases the same duty head and flow have
been used: Hd,bs = 30 mwc, Qd,bs = 270 l/s. The results of calculation are shown
in figures 3.30–3.34.

Conclusions:
• Putting a booster station in the system causes a pressure drop in nodes at the
suction side of the pump.
• The booster station tends to re-circulate the water along the loop to which it
belongs (loop 12-13-17-18 in Figure 3.30 and the same loop together with
14-13-12-10-04-03 in Figure 3.32). This becomes obvious if one pipe is
removed from the loop(s); the pressure downstream of the booster station
will increase (figures 3.31 and 3.33).
• The pipe resistance increases in the vicinity of the booster station. Contrary
to expectations, enlarging the diameter of these pipes makes no sense as it
creates negative effects on the pressure in the system. The fact is that, with
larger pipes, even more water will be pushed towards the booster station,
which reduces the pumping head.

To analyse the relation between the booster pumping capacity and the pipe
resistance, the pipes indicated in Figure 3.34 have been replaced with the
next larger diameter from Table 3.4 (file S6B3.NET). As a result (shown in
190 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.31 S6B2: booster 13–17, pipe 12–13 removed, at 12:00 hours

Figure 3.32 S6B2: a ground-level tank and booster 13–12, at 12:00 hours
 Network design exercise 191

Figure 3.33 S6B2: a booster 13–12, pipes 04–10 and 17–18 removed

Figure 3.34 S6B2: a ground-level tank and booster, at 12:00 hours

192 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.35), the booster station increases the flow on account of the head
(pressure). Installing much stronger pumps will reinstate the pressure, but
will also initiate the old problem of water re-circulation and large pressure
drops in some of the pipes. Operation of the system with doubled duty flow
(Hd,bs = 30 mwc, Qd,bs = 540 l/s) of the booster station is shown in Figure 3.36.

Figure 3.35 S6B3: pipe enlargement, operation at 12:00 hours

Figure 3.36 S6B3: booster pump enlargement, operation at 12:00 hours

 Network design exercise 193

Comments:
• Booster stations are useful if pressure has to be provided for higher zones of a
distribution system, in which case they will be installed on a single line feed-
ing a particular zone. They are of little hydraulic use in applications within
looped networks, except to prevent water stagnation, which is not common in
engineering practice.
• Three general observations regarding the modelling of booster stations in
EPANET are:
• Compared to the modelling of a source pumping station, the suction
node of a booster station can be any node within the network. The flow
direction in the pump will be from the first to the second node selected
on the map after clicking on the pump button. The reversed flow is pre-
vented by the programme (which shows Qbs = 0).
• A pipe replaced by a booster station has to be deleted first; otherwise the
programme assumes two pipes in parallel where in fact one is with the
booster pump.
• In addition, the friction loss of the replaced pipe is also removed from
the calculations (pumps as links do not generate any losses of energy in
EPANET). If this loss is not negligible, the pump should be modelled by
introducing a dummy node on either side (suction or pressure).

Due to all the listed deficiencies, Alternative B with a ground-level tank and
booster station is therefore discounted with regard to the Safi network.

3.4.5 Storage volume

Based on the diurnal domestic consumption pattern from Figure 3.4 and the leakage
levels as assumed in Table 3.8, the balancing volume at the beginning of the design
period is calculated according to the principles explained in the section ‘Storage
design’ in Chapter 4. The results of a spreadsheet calculation are shown in Table 3.13.

Table 3.13 Balancing storage volume

At year 6 Leakage 10 Vbal (m3) 4373.0
(%)

Hour pf Consumed Leakage Factory Demand ΔV ∑V

(m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h)

1 0.68 989.6 110.0 1099.5 571.6 571.6

2 0.65 945.9 105.1 1051.0 620.1 1191.7
3 0.62 902.2 100.2 1002.5 668.6 1860.3
4 0.50 727.6 80.8 808.5 862.6 2722.9
5 0.58 844.0 93.8 937.8 733.3 3456.2
6 0.80 1164.2 129.4 1293.5 377.6 3833.7
7 1.08 1571.7 174.6 108.3 1854.6 −183.5 3650.2
8 1.10 1600.8 177.9 108.3 1887.0 −215.9 3434.4

(Continued)
194 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

(Continued)
At year 6 Leakage 10 Vbal (m3) 4373.0
(%)

Hour pf Consumed Leakage Factory Demand ΔV ∑V

(m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h) (m3/h)
9 1.22 1775.4 197.3 108.3 2081.0 −409.9 3024.5
10 1.35 1964.6 218.3 108.3 2291.2 −620.1 2404.4
11 1.42 2066.4 229.6 108.3 2404.4 −733.3 1671.1
12 1.45 2110.1 234.5 108.3 2452.9 −781.8 889.3
13 1.10 1600.8 177.9 108.3 1887.0 −215.9 673.5
14 0.90 1309.7 145.5 108.3 1563.6 107.5 781.0
15 0.75 1091.4 121.3 108.3 1321.0 350.1 1131.0
16 0.65 945.9 105.1 108.3 1159.3 511.8 1642.8
17 0.73 1062.3 118.0 108.3 1288.7 382.4 2025.2
18 1.00 1455.2 161.7 108.3 1725.3 −54.2 1971.0
19 1.20 1746.3 194.0 1940.3 −269.2 1701.8
20 1.47 2139.2 237.7 2376.9 −705.8 996.0
21 1.45 2110.1 234.5 2344.6 −673.5 322.6
22 1.40 2037.3 226.4 2263.7 −592.6 −270.0
23 1.20 1746.3 194.0 1940.3 −269.2 −539.2
24 0.70 1018.7 113.2 1131.9 539.2 0.0
Average 1.00 1455.2 161.7 1671.1

Clarification:
• The spreadsheet calculation has been conducted for the maximum consump-
tion day conditions. The total balancing volume equals 3833.7 + 539.2 =
4372.9 ≈ 4400 m3.
• The same calculation for the demand at the end of the design period yields the
balancing volume of 8196 ≈ 8200 m3.

Conclusions:
• In Alternative A, the reservoirs are located at the suction side of the source pump-
ing stations that were designed to operate at similar capacity. Hence, the balanc-
ing volume can be shared evenly between the two sources. The total volume per
tank, required at the beginning of the design period, is determined as follows:
• balancing volume: 4400/2 = 2200 m3,
• emergency volume for one (maximum consumption) hour in each tank:
2452.9 ≈ 2500 m3,
• other provisions: approximately 0.6 m of the tank height.
Assuming a circular cross-section of the tank, D=35 m, 0.6 m of water
column is equivalent to 577.3 ≈ 600 m3. The total tank volume equals
2200 + 2500 + 600 = 5300 m3. For example, for a height of 5.5 m, Vtot ≈
5290 m3. Two equal tanks yield the total storage volume in the system of
approximately 10,600 m3.
 Network design exercise 195

• In the case of Alternative B, the balancing volume is located within the net-
work. If the source pumping station works at constant average capacity, the
reservoir volume in Source 1 will consist mainly of the emergency provision.
Thus, at the beginning of the design period:
• at Source 1, Vtot = 2500 + 600 = 3100 m3 (for D = 30 m and H = 4.3 m,
Vtot = 3040 m3),
• for the tank in the system, Vtot = 4400 + 2500 + 600 = 7500 m3 (D =
40 m, H = 6.0 m, Vtot = 7540 m3). The total storage volume in the system
remains the same as in the case of Alternative A.
• During the design period, the emergency volume will be gradually converted
into the balancing volume. If no action is taken, the deficit of the balancing
volume 8200−4400 = 3800 m3 would reduce the initial emergency volume of
5000 m3 to only 1200 m3 at the end of the design period. Thus, it is advisable
to start extending the volume in good time; otherwise the emergency reserve
will become effectively exhausted. An option is to construct the entire vol-
ume at the beginning of the design period, but care is to be taken about water
stagnation due to initially large emergency volumes (post-chlorination may
be required to prevent water quality deterioration).
• Based on the demand growth, it is estimated that some additional 10,000 m3
of storage volume would be required at the end of the design period. An even
share of this volume is planned between the two sources in Alternative A. A
preliminary scenario for Alternative B is:
• in Source 1, the tank volume increases from ± 3100 to ± 4600 m3,
• in Source 2, a new clear water tank of ± 4600 m3 is to be built,
• the balancing tank volume increases from ± 7500 to ± 11,400 m3.
Such a large volume of the elevated balancing tank changes the earlier con-
clusion about its better hydraulic performance compared to the ground-level
tank; to construct a volume of ± 10,000 m3 at a height of ± 20 m might be a
relatively expensive solution, not to mention the aesthetic aspects if the struc-
ture is to be located in an urban area.

Preliminary dimensions of all tanks are summarised in tables 3.14 and 3.15. The
dimensions at the end of the design period indicate the total required volumes.
Depending on the selected form of the tanks (not necessarily circular cross-
section) these dimensions should match the already existing design as much
as possible in order to make the volume extension easier (i.e. by adding of the
second compartment).

Table 3.14 Alternative A – storage tanks

Beginning of the design period End of the design period

D (m) H (m) Vtot (m3) D (m) H (m) Vtot (m3)

Source 1 35 5.5 5290 50 5.5 10,800
Source 2 35 5.5 5290 50 5.5 10,800
196 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 3.15 Alternative B – storage tanks

Beginning of the design period End of the design period

D (m) H (m) Vtot (m3) D (m) H (m) Vtot (m3)

Source 1 30 4.3 3040 30 6.5 4600
Source 2 – – – 30 6.5 4600
Tank 40 6.0 7540 50 6.0 11,780

Comments:
• The balancing volume is exclusively dependent from the demand and its pat-
tern of variation. It is in fact a property of a certain distribution area and not
of the chosen supply scheme.
• In the direct pumping supply schemes, the balancing volume is located at
the source(s) i.e. at the suction side of the source pumping stations. There, it
evens out the constant production and variable pumping (Alternative A).
• In the combined supply schemes, the balancing volume is located within the
distribution area and evens out the constant pumping and variable demand
(Alternative B).

Reading:
• Volume 1, Section 4.2.3: ‘Storage design’.

3.4.6 Summary of the preliminary hydraulic design

Alternative A – direct pumping

This alternative comprises:

• network layouts as shown in Figures 3.20 and 3.21 (EPANET input files
S6A8 and S30A2),
• selection of the pump units as displayed in Table 3.12, and
• storage volume in the system as displayed in Table 3.14.

The following development strategy has been adopted:

• The network is left with larger diameters for reasons of reliability. Part of the
reserve capacity will be exhausted before the system is extended.
• Extension of the pumping stations is tentatively planned around year 15. Lay-
ing of new pipes in the system will take place at the same time.
• For practical reasons, the clear water tanks will be immediately constructed
with the volumes required at the end of the design period, which also adds to
the reliability of supply.

Alternative B – pumping and balancing storage

The main characteristics of the system in this alternative are:

• network layout as shown in figures 3.24 and 3.25 (EPANET input files S6B1
and S30B1),
 Network design exercise 197

• selection of the pump units as displayed in Table 3.12, and

• storage volume in the system as displayed in Table 3.15.

The following development strategy has been adopted:

• The start of the supply from Source 2 is planned in year 21 at the latest, after
the first source reaches its maximum capacity. The additional pipes should be
in place at the same time.
• As an additional safety precaution, it is proposed to construct the clear water
tank at Source 1 at the beginning with the volume that will be required at the
end of the design period.
• The option with the ground-level balancing tank has been abandoned due to the
pressure problems that cannot be solved by installing a booster station. It is not
yet clear either the option with the elevated balancing tank should be accepted
due to its excessively large volume and consequently expensive construction.

It appears at this stage that the present topography does not offer an effective way
of using the balancing tank in the system, unless its (large) volume is elevated.
Initially, this makes Alternative A appear simpler and more straightforward from
the hydraulic point of view. Nevertheless, this conclusion is yet to be verified by
further analyses of the system operation and a cost calculation.
The third possibility could be to keep the balancing volume at the sources, com-
bined by a water tower with a volume of 500–1000 m3. The main task of the water
tower would be to stabilise the operation of the pumps that in this case no longer
operate at a constant capacity. Such an alternative is in essence a combination of
alternatives A and B.

3.5 System operation

3.5.1 Regular operation

Alternative A – direct pumping

File S30A3.NET has been created based on the summary in Section 3.3.6. The test
simulations of this layout show that sufficient pressure in the network can also be
maintained with a pump duty head of 50 instead of 60 mwc at Source 1. Thus:

• Source 1: 6 units + 1 stand-by, Qd = 100 l/s, Hd = 50 mwc, and

• Source 2: 6 units + 1 stand-by, Qd = 90 l/s, Hd = 40 mwc.

The simulation starts with three units, 1001, 1002 and 1003, in operation at the
first source and two units, 2001 and 2002, at the second source; for all other units,
the Initial Status in the pump property editor is set as CLOSED. By checking
the pressures in the system, hour by hour, each pump is further switched on or off
when the pressure in any node drops outside the range of 20–60 mwc; this opera-
tion can be done manually or automatically. It is necessary to keep the pressure as
close to 20 mwc for as long as possible.
Both the manual and automatic mode of pump operation are modelled in EPANET
in the browser option Data>>Controls (double-click on Simple). For the above-
selected pump units, the optimal schedule of manual operation is as shown below:
198 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Link ID Setting Condition

LINK 1003 CLOSED AT TIME 2
LINK 1003 OPEN AT TIME 6
LINK 2003 OPEN AT TIME 6
LINK 1004 OPEN AT TIME 7
LINK 2004 OPEN AT TIME 7
LINK 1005 OPEN AT TIME 9
LINK 2005 OPEN AT TIME 9
LINK 1006 OPEN AT TIME 11
LINK 2006 OPEN AT TIME 11
LINK 1006 CLOSED AT TIME 13
LINK 2006 CLOSED AT TIME 13
LINK 1005 CLOSED AT TIME 13
LINK 2005 CLOSED AT TIME 13
LINK 1004 CLOSED AT TIME 14
LINK 2004 CLOSED AT TIME 14
LINK 1003 CLOSED AT TIME 15
LINK 1003 OPEN AT TIME 18
LINK 1004 OPEN AT TIME 18
LINK 2004 OPEN AT TIME 18
LINK 1005 OPEN AT TIME 19
LINK 2005 OPEN AT TIME 20
LINK 1006 OPEN AT TIME 20
LINK 2006 OPEN AT TIME 20
LINK 1006 CLOSED AT TIME 23
LINK 2006 CLOSED AT TIME 23
LINK 1005 CLOSED AT TIME 24
LINK 2005 CLOSED AT TIME 24
LINK 1004 CLOSED AT TIME 24
LINK 2004 CLOSED AT TIME 24
LINK 2003 CLOSED AT TIME 24

Summarised per pump unit, the same schedule is shown in Table 3.16 (1 is On, 0
is Off). Pumps 1007 and 2007 have been left out of the operation, as stand-by units.
For such an operation, the ranges of pressures and velocities in the system are
shown in figures 3.37 and 3.38. The supply ratio between the sources is given in
Figure 3.39 (shown in EPANET as negative demand = source supply).

Table 3.16 Alternative A: pumping schedule for manual operation (S30A3)

Source 1 Schedule from 0–24 Source 2 Schedule from 0–24

1001 1111111111111111111111111 2001 1111111111111111111111111

1002 1111111111111111111111111 2002 1111111111111111111111111
1003 110 0 0 01111111110 0 01111111 2003 0 0 0 0 0 01111111111111111110
1004 0 0 0 0 0 0 011111110 0 0 01111110 2004 0 0 0 0 0 0 011111110 0 0 01111110
1005 0000000001111000000111110 2005 0000000001111000000011110
1006 0000000000011000000011100 2006 0000000000011000000011100
1007* 0000000000000000000000000 2007* 0000000000000000000000000
* Stand-by units.
 Network design exercise 199

Figure 3.37 S30A3: pressure range in the network; manual pump operation (schedule in
Table 3.16).

Figure 3.38 S30A3: velocity range in the network; manual pump operation (schedule in
Table 3.16)

Figure 3.39 S30A3: supply from the sources; manual pump operation (schedule in Table 3.16)
200 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Clarification
• Nodes 11 and 23 indicate the range of pressures in the system; the pressures
in all the other nodes lay within this range.
• Pipes 08–09 and 03–04 show extreme velocities in the system; the velocities
in all the other pipes lay within this range.
• Supply/source reservoirs are in EPANET always shown as nodes with nega-
tive demand.

Conclusions:
• A fairly balanced supply with stable pressures is provided by the proposed
pumping regime.
• In very few cases, pressure slightly below 20 mwc has been tolerated. The
minimum pressure of 18.89 mwc occurs in Node 11 at 02:00 hours. This is
an hour of low demand and such pressure does not really affect the consum-
ers. Switching on an extra unit at 02:00 hours in Source 1 would unneces-
sarily boost the pressure in Node 11 up to 30.01 mwc. Alternatively, an
extra pump in Source 2 would give an even higher pressure of 31.59 mwc
in Node 11.
• Constantly low velocities in a number of pipes suggest that these should be
reduced in diameter unless additional capacity is required for the network
operation in irregular situations.

Comments:
• Scheduling of pumps results in a minimum pressure that does not necessarily
occur during the maximum consumption hour.
• The minimum pressure criterion should be maintained throughout the entire
day. Much higher pressures during the low demand hours are not justified;
they cause increased waste of pumping energy and water.
• Choosing the same model of pump for all the installed units has the advan-
tage that the various units can implement the same pumping schedule
on different days, which loads them more evenly. The stand-by unit can
then also be employed. One possible adaptation of the regime is shown in
Table 3.17.

Table 3.17 Alternative A: pumping schedule for adapted manual operation (S30A3)

Source 1 Schedule from 0–24 Source 2 Schedule from 0–24

1001 0000000111111111111111111 2001 0000000111111111111111111

1002 1111111000000111111000000 2002 1111111000000111111000000
1003 1100001111111110001111111 2003 0 0 0 0 0 01111111111111111110
1004 0000000111111100001111110 2004 0000000111111100001111110
1005 0000000001111000000111110 2005 0000000001111000000011110
1006 1111111000011000000011100 2006 1111111000011000000011100
1007 0000000111111000000111111 2007 0000000111111000000111111
 Network design exercise 201

In the automatic mode of operation, the pumps are controlled based on the refer-
ence pressure or the water level somewhere in the system. The usual monitoring
point is at the discharge of the pumping station. In this exercise, Node 11, as the
most critical pressure-wise, has been chosen. After a number of trials, the sug-
gested pump control looks as follows (file S30A4.NET):

Link ID Setting Condition

LINK 1003 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 37
LINK 1003 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 47
LINK 1004 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 32
LINK 1004 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 42
LINK 1005 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 27
LINK 1005 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 37
LINK 1006 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 22
LINK 1006 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 32
LINK 2003 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 37
LINK 2003 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 47
LINK 2004 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 32
LINK 2004 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 42
LINK 2005 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 27
LINK 2005 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 37
LINK 2006 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 22
LINK 2006 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 32

Pumps 1001, 1002, 2001 and 2002 are assumed to be constantly in operation.
The simulation starts with three pumps switched at each source. This control
regime will result in the pump operation as shown in Table 3.18.
For this schedule, the pressure and velocity range in the system are shown in
figures 3.40 and 3.41, and the supply ratio in Figure 3.42.

Table 3.18 Alternative A: pumping schedule for automatic operation (S30A4)

Source 1 Schedule from 0–24 Source 2 Schedule from 0–24

1001 1111111111111111111111111 2001 1111111111111111111111111

1002 1111111111111111111111111 2002 1111111111111111111111111
1003 1111111111111111111111111 2003 1111111111111111111111111
1004 0 0 0 0 0 01111111111011111110 2004 0 0 0 0 0 01111111111011111110
1005 0 0 0 0 0 0 011111110 0 0 0 0111110 2005 0 0 0 0 0 0 011111110 0 0 0 0111110
1006 0000000000111000000011100 2006 0000000000111000000011100
1007 0000000000000000000000000 2007 0000000000000000000000000
202 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.40 S30A4: pressure range in the network; automatic pump control (schedule in
Table 3.18)

Figure 3.41 S30A4: velocity range in the network; automatic pump control (schedule in
Table 3.18)

Figure 3.42 S30A4: supply from the sources; automatic pumps control (schedule in Table 3.18)
 Network design exercise 203

Clarification:
• The same control node (11) has been selected for both pumping stations
for reasons of simplification, which yields the same schedule for both of
them.

Conclusions:
• For specified controls, the model reacts by maintaining units 1001–1003
and 2001–2003 permanently switched on, while the other pumps are used
during the peak demand hours only. To load all pumps evenly, groups
1004–1006 and 2004–2006 could take over the 24-hour operation every
second day.
• A larger pressure variation is registered in the nodes over 24 hours than in the
case of the manual operation.
• No significant change of the velocities is registered compared to the manual
mode of operation.
• The supply ratio is nearly 50–50, which is preferable.

Comments:
• Modelling of the automatic pump operation yields the schedule as a result (as
in Table 3.18), while the modelling of the manual pump operation requires
such a schedule as an input (tables 3.16 and 3.17).

The selection of proper control pressures/levels may pose a problem. The follow-
ing example shows how the system becomes sensitive to even slight modification
of the control pressures:

Link ID Setting Condition

LINK 1003 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 37
LINK 1003 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 42
LINK 1004 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 32
LINK 1004 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 37
LINK 1005 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 27
LINK 1005 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 32
LINK 1006 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 22
LINK 1006 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 27
LINK 2003 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 37
LINK 2003 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 42
LINK 2004 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 32
LINK 2004 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 37
LINK 2005 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 27
LINK 2005 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 32
LINK 2006 OPEN IF NODE 11 BELOW 22
LINK 2006 CLOSED IF NODE 11 ABOVE 27
204 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.43 S30A5: pressure range in the network; modifed settings of automatic pump
operation

Figure 3.43 shows the pressures in the system (S30A5.NET).

Clarification:
• The diagram shows different pressure at 0 and 24 hours although the demand
level is the same. The reason is the operation at 0 hours that is defined through
the initial status of the pumps, while the operation at 24 hours depends on the
specified control of pumps.

Conclusions:
• Unlike in S30A4, there is no overlap of the On and Off settings in the [CON-
TROLS] section of S30A5. This is the likely cause of the unstable operation
and the low pressure in the system.

Simulations of the automatic pump operation may also show different results
depending on the selected time step of the calculation. With the same pump con-
trols as in S30A5, the hydraulic time step and the reporting time step have been
reduced from one hour to 30 minutes (the browser option Data>>Options>>Times
(click on Hydraulic/Reporting Time Step). Consequently, EPANET has applied
linear interpolation of the hourly peak factors creating 48 values, each for every
30 minutes, which has influenced the automatic operation of the pumps. A refined
pressure in the system is indicated in Figure 3.44 (file S30A6.NET).
If the Pattern Time Step is also reduced to 30 minutes, EPANET will then attribute
the existing hourly peak factor values to the hydraulic time steps of 30 minutes con-
secutively. A manual input of 48 peak-factor values is needed in this case; otherwise,
the available set of 24 hourly values will be utilised within the first 12 hours of the
simulation run and therefore repeated twice causing wrong results (EPANET does not
send any warning message in this situation!). Hence, a consistent choice of the time
steps and the corresponding set of peak factors are needed in general. Depending on
the mode of network operation, more accurate results can be occasionally obtained by
choosing shorter time steps, which obviously requires longer simulation runs.
 Network design exercise 205

Figure 3.44 S30A6: pressure range in the network; automatic pump operation with time
steps of 30 minutes

Alternative B – pumping and balancing storage

The simulation starts with the same system components as listed in Section 3.3.6
(input file S30B2.NET). As in the case of Alternative A, the pump duty head of 50
mwc has been adopted in Source 1. After a number of trial simulations, the tank
D = 50 m with a depth of 6.5 m, slightly above the original estimate, has been
elevated to 22 m (50 msl). Furthermore:

• The pump suction water levels in 101 and 201 have been set at ground
level (modelled as reservoirs with a Total Head of 10.7 msl and 25.0 msl,
respectively).
• The minimum depth of the elevated tank in 301 is 2.5 m and at the beginning
of simulation the depth is estimated to be 3 m.
• The pumping stations are designed with the following units:

[PUMPS]

ID Suction Pressure Duty Head Duty

Node Node (mwc) Flow (l/s)
1001 101 102 50 150 ; PST1 - unit 1
1002 101 102 50 150 ; - unit 2
1003 101 102 50 150 ; - unit 3
1004 101 102 50 150 ; - unit 4
1005 101 102 50 150 ; - unit 5
1006 101 102 50 150 ; - unit 6
1007 101 102 50 150 ; PST1 - stand-by
2001 201 202 40 130 ; PST2 - unit 1
2002 201 202 40 130 ; - unit 2
2003 201 202 40 130 ; PST2 - stand-by
206 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

All the pumps in both sources, except the stand-by pumps, are switched on and
operate for 24 hours at a more or less constant regime i.e. average flow; the
demand variation is balanced from the tank. Consequently, no control com-
mands are required for the pumps in this mode of operation. The pressure range
in the system is shown in Figure 3.45 and the tank water depth variation in
Figure 3.46.

Conclusions:
• The system operation is stable. The minimum pressure of 20.80 mwc appears
in Node 11 at 12:00 hours. Switching a few pumps off during the periods of
high pressure (low demand) can further reduce the pressure. For example,
operating four instead of six pumps in Source 1 until 06:00 hours will have

Figure 3.45 S30B2: pressure range in the network; 22 m-high balancing tank, D = 50 m, H = 6.5 m

Figure 3.46 S30B2: variation of the tank depth; 22 m-high balancing tank, D = 50 m, H = 6.5 m
 Network design exercise 207

no significant implication on the patterns in the above two figures except that
the pressure will slightly drop (in Node 11 at 12:00 hours, p/ρg = 20.47 mwc).

A further test is done with smaller pumps and an elevated tank of 20 m (S30B3.NET):

[PUMPS]

ID Suction Pressure Duty Head Duty Flow

Node Node (mwc) (l/s)
1001 101 102 50 130 ; 150->130
1002 101 102 50 130
1003 101 102 50 130
1004 101 102 50 130
1005 101 102 50 130
1006 101 102 50 130
1007 101 102 50 130
2001 201 202 40 120
2002 201 202 40 120
2003 201 202 40 120

The results are shown in figures 3.47 and 3.48.

Conclusions:
• The system is stable although the pressure drops slightly below 20 mwc. The
most critical value is 18.53 mwc in Node 11 at 12:00 hours.

Comments:
• For the given network layout, efficient operation of the balancing tanks is
reached as a result of matching the pump operation with the tank elevation
and its size. While doing this, the following three cases are possible:

C ASE 1 – THE TANK RECEIVES TOO MUCH WATER

This situation is simulated in the file S30B3–1.NET by setting the balancing vol-
ume 10 m lower, i.e. from 20 to 10 m height. The water depth variation of the tank
is shown in Figure 3.49. It is clear from the figure that the tank will overflow by the
next day already if the same operation is maintained. The following design options
are suggested provided sufficient pressure can be maintained in the system:

• the tank bottom should be raised to a higher elevation, and/or

• smaller pumps should be used at the sources, and/or
• some pumps should be switched off in periods of low demand.

CASE 2 – THE TANK LOSES TOO MUCH WATER.

This is simulated in S30B3–2.NET by setting the balancing volume at 30 m high,

instead of 20 m. The water depth variation in the tank resulting from this action is
shown in Figure 3.50. This case contrasts with the above.
208 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.47 S30B3: smaller pumps and 20 m-high tank, D = 50 m, H = 6.5 m

Figure 3.48 S30B3: smaller pumps and 20 m-high tank, D = 50 m, H = 6.5 m

Figure 3.49 S30B3: 10 m-high balancing tank, D = 50 m, H = 6.5 m (Case 1)

 Network design exercise 209

CASE 3 – THE TANK IS BALANCING TOO QUICKLY.

To demonstrate this, the volume of the tank has been reduced from D = 50 m to
D = 25 m, keeping the elevation at H = 20 m. The results are shown in Figure 3.51
(S30B3–3.NET). The remedies are:

• to increase the tank volume i.e. the cross-section area (diameter) or/and the
available depth, and/or
• to adjust the pumping schedule; if the balancing volume has been reduced,
the pumps can no longer operate at constant (average) flow.

Figure 3.50 S30B3: 30 m-high balancing tank, D = 50 m, H = 6.5 m (Case 2)

Figure 3.51 S30B3: 20 m-high balancing tank, D = 25 m, H = 6.5m (Case 3)

210 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

When the elevated tank is reduced in volume, it loses the demand balancing func-
tion and becomes in fact a water tower.
Water towers provide stable pressures in the system and at the same time pre-
vent too frequent switching of the pumps. The pumping schedule in this case
becomes similar to those for the direct supply conditions. To satisfy the pumping
flow that exceeds Qavg in some periods of the day, stronger pumps are needed than
those operated in combination with balancing tanks.
Usually, the pump operation will be controlled automatically depending on the reg-
istered water level in the tank. To simulate these conditions, a 20 m-high water tower
of diameter 12 m, minimum and maximum depth of 0.2 m and 6.5 m, respectively
(making the volume approximately 730 m3), has been simulated in file S30B4.NET.
The initial water depth at the beginning of the simulation was set at 1.0 m and the fol-
lowing pump control is suggested by taking the same pumps from file S30B2.NET:

[CONTROLS]

Link ID Setting Condition

LINK 1003 OPEN IF NODE 301 BELOW 4.0
LINK 1003 CLOSED IF NODE 301 ABOVE 6.0
LINK 1004 OPEN IF NODE 301 BELOW 3.0
LINK 1004 CLOSED IF NODE 301 ABOVE 5.0
LINK 1005 OPEN IF NODE 301 BELOW 2.0
LINK 1005 CLOSED IF NODE 301 ABOVE 4.0
LINK 1006 OPEN IF NODE 301 BELOW 1.0
LINK 1006 CLOSED IF NODE 301 ABOVE 3.0
LINK 2002 OPEN IF NODE 301 BELOW 3.0
LINK 2002 CLOSED IF NODE 301 ABOVE 6.0
LINK 2003 OPEN IF NODE 301 BELOW 2.0
LINK 2003 CLOSED IF NODE 301 ABOVE 5.0
LINK 2004 OPEN IF NODE 301 BELOW 1.0
LINK 2004 CLOSED IF NODE 301 ABOVE 4.0

Two pumps at Source 1 and one pump at Source 2 are switched on at the begin-
ning of the simulation. Based on the above controls, the pumps will operate further
according to the schedule shown in Table 3.19. As a consequence of the control

Table 3.19 Alternative B: pumping schedule for automatic operation controlled from the
water tower (S30B4)

Source 1 Schedule from 0–24 Source 2 Schedule from 0–24

1001 1111111111111111111111111 2001 1111111111111111111111111

1002 1111111111111111111111111 2002 10 0 0 0 0 01111111110 01111111
1003 101110 0 011111111101111111 2003 10 0 0 0 0 0 011111110 0 0 0 011111
1004 10 0 0 0 0 0111111110 0 01111110 2004 1000000000011100000001110
1005 10 0 0 0 0 0 01011110 0 0 0 0 011110 2005 0000000000000000000000000
1006 1000000000011100000001100
1007 0000000000000000000000000
 Network design exercise 211

regime, two additional units at Source 2 will be needed. The pressure range in the
system is shown in Figure 3.52, while the volume variation in the water tower is
shown in Figure 3.53.

Conclusions:
• More sudden changes of the water tower depth are caused by the pump opera-
tion. This has no serious implications on the pressure in the system.
• The level in the tank at the end of the day does not match the level at the
beginning of the day. This is not a problem because the tank does not have
a demand-balancing role. In an automatic mode of operation switching the
pumps on or off can adjust any extremely low or high level.

Figure 3.52 S30B4: pressure range in the network; 20 m-high water tower,V = 730 m3

Figure 3.53 S30B4: variation of the tank depth; 20 m-high water tower,V = 730 m3
212 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

3.5.2 Factory supply under irregular conditions

One of the design requirements is to provide a reliable supply for the factory.
Under normal supply conditions the minimum pressure at that point is ± 27 mwc,
in both alternatives. Obviously, the most critical situation will be caused by the
pipe burst 01–16, which is rather easy to solve because another pipe in parallel
could be added to it. More difficult to predict are the consequences of the failure
of other pipes connecting Node 16. Furthermore, the supply requirement during
firefighting in the factory has been examined in this section.
In all cases it is assumed that the disaster takes place at the worst moment i.e.
during the maximum consumption hour. As a remedy, both pumping stations are
set at full capacity, including the stand-by units.

Alternative A – direct pumping

The regular operation of the S30A3 layout is shown in Figure 3.54. The failure of
pipes 15–16, 16–24 and 16–17 respectively are shown in figures 3.55–3.57.

Clarification:
• While simulating a pipe failure, it is assumed that the line is closed i.e. being
repaired. This is an acceptable approach bearing in mind that the real quan-
tities of water lost from the system are difficult to predict. Hence, the pipe
should be simply disconnected from the rest of the system by changing the
Initial Status in its property editor from OPEN to CLOSED, or writing the
corresponding command in the Control Editor.

Figure 3.54 S30A3: manual operation at 12:00 hours

 Network design exercise 213

Figure 3.55 S30A3–1: burst 15–16, operation at 12:00 hours

Figure 3.56 S30A3–2: burst 16–24, operation at 12:00 hours

214 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.57 S30A3–3: burst 16–17, operation at 12:00 hours

Conclusions:
• There is hardly any effect on pressure in the system as a result of the burst of
pipes 15–16 and 16–24. These are small diameters pipes (D = 100 mm) with
low flows during regular operation and can be disconnected without affecting
the rest of the system.
• Failure of pipe 16–17 is a much more serious problem. This pipe is on the
main path from Source 2 and if closed, the water will move to the alternative
routes towards the factory. In this case, pipes 15–16–24 become much too
small and a severe pressure drop (velocities above 4 m/s!) will be caused.
Increasing the pumping head at the sources does not help and enlarging at
least one of the pipes will be necessary.

Figure 3.58 shows the solution by replacing the diameter of 15–16 with D = 300 mm.
In both pumping stations, the stand-by units are switched on.

Conclusions:
• The pressure in critical points has been restored at a somewhat lower level,
however it is still above the required minimum of 20 mwc.

To simulate fire demand at the factory node, an additional quantity of 180 m3/h = 50 l/s
has been assigned to Node 01 (total 80.09 l/s) in the S30A3 layout. The results of
the calculation are shown in Figure 3.59.
 Network design exercise 215

Figure 3.58 S30A3–4: remedy, operation at 12:00 hours

Figure 3.59 S30A3: fre demand at the factory, operation at 12:00 hours
216 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.60 S30A3: remedy for fre demand, operation at 12:00 hours

Conclusions:
• As a result of the increased demand in Node 01, the pressure in this node
drops to 16 mwc, while a minimum 30 mwc has been stipulated. Except for
nodes 01 and 16, the rest of the system is not affected; the bottleneck is again
somewhere in the area nearby the factory.

Replacing pipes 07–15–16 with diameter D = 300 mm can solve the problem. An
operation with this modification of the system layout is shown in Figure 3.60. The
stand-by pumps in both pumping stations are turned on.

Conclusions:
• The pressure in the factory is slightly below the required 30 mwc (28.90
mwc). Further computer runs would show that reaching the minimum of
30 mwc requires an additional pumping unit in both pumping stations. This
is considered to be rather an expensive option in relation to the gain in the
pressure.

Comments:
• It can be assumed that the fire is limited to a certain number of hours. The
fire demand specified in this exercise is slightly exaggerated for educational
 Network design exercise 217

purpose i.e. to realise the impact on the rest of the network. Pressure prob-
lems during firefighting can also be solved by local measures, such as the
operation of district valves, booster installation at the factory, etc. It is normal
to assume that consumers in the vicinity of the object will be temporarily
affected during firefighting. Nonetheless, the inconvenience caused during a
few hours is usually acceptable compared to a large investment in pipes and
pumps that would rarely function to the full capacity.

Alternative B – pumping and balancing storage

The simulation of disasters in distribution systems with balancing tanks takes into
consideration the tank level at the moment of disaster. Obviously, the balancing
pattern of the tank is going to be disrupted, which may affect the pressure in the
system.
The pipe burst near the factory has been simulated keeping the 20 m-high bal-
ancing tank and manually operated pumps (file S30B3.NET). The regular opera-
tion is shown in Figure 3.61.
The same burst scenarios have been analysed as in the case of Alternative A. To
consider the level in the tank, the bursts have been assumed to occur during the
maximum consumption hour, with the stand-by pumps switched on at the same

Figure 3.61 S30B3: elevated tank, operation at 12:00 hours

218 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

point in time. The sample input format for the control lines to simulate such an
operation is as follows:

[CONTROLS]

Link ID Setting Condition

LINK 31 CLOSED AT TIME 12
LINK 2003 OPEN AT TIME 12

Clarification:
• Figures 3.62, 3.64 and 3.66 show the effect of the burst that happened at
12:00 hours, while figures 3.63, 3.65 and 3.67 show the situation after switch-
ing on the stand-by pump at the second source, also at 12:00 hours.

Conclusions:
• In none of the cases did the burst cause severe pressure problems. Pipes
15–16–17 already belong to the secondary mains loop and further enlarge-
ment is therefore not required. Due to sufficient reserve capacity in the sys-
tem, the stand-by pump at Source 2 is able to easily restore the minor drop of
pressure.

Figure 3.62 S30B3: burst 15–16, operation at 12:00 hours

 Network design exercise 219

Figure 3.63 S30B3: remedy, operation at 12:00 hours

Figure 3.64 S30B3: burst 16–24, operation at 12:00 hours

220 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.65 S30B3: remedy, operation at 12:00 hours

Figure 3.66 S30B3: burst 16–17, operation at 12:00 hours

 Network design exercise 221

Figure 3.67 S30B3: remedy, operation at 12:00 hours

Fire demand at the factory is analysed in a similar way as the pipe burst, assuming
that the fire breaks out exactly during the maximum consumption hour. To achieve
this condition in the model, the demand pattern of the factory has been adjusted to
simulate the disaster at 12:00 hours (the peak factor has been changed from 1.0 to 2.66,
which increases the regular factory demand from approximately 30 to 80 l/s).
The simulation results are shown in Figure 3.68.

Conclusions:
• No serious loss of pressure will be observed in the system. However, the
pressure in the factory itself drops significantly below the required 30 mwc
to 23.98 mwc; thus some remedying is necessary. In the first place the pipes
01–16 and 13–17 should be enlarged from 300 to 400 and 400 to 500 mm,
respectively. In particular, the second pipe was generating a large velocity
(head loss) and this measure was meant to reduce its resistance. In addition,
two extra pumps should be added to the pumping station in Source 2 (total
4 + 1). This remedy, shown in Figure 3.69, brings the pressure in the factory
close to 30 mwc, but is altogether complex and rather expensive.

A better solution would have been reached if, instead of two extra units in Source
2, a parallel pipe of 600 mm had been laid next to 102–02, and the stand-by pump
in Source 1 switched on. The pressure would have grown substantially but the
maximum supply capacity of Source 1 would have been exceeded in this situa-
tion. This solution, shown in Figure 3.69, is therefore unacceptable.
222 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 3.68 S30B3: fre demand, operation at 12:00 hours

Figure 3.69 S30B3: fre demand remedy 1, operation at 12:00 hours

 Network design exercise 223

Figure 3.70 S30B3: remedy 2, operation at 12:00 hours

3.5.3 Reliability assessment

Reliability of the two alternative networks has been tested by assuming a sin-
gle pipe failure and running the simulations at 75% of the demand on the maxi-
mum consumption day except for the factory where the demand of 30.09 l/s has
remained constant.
Effects of the failure have been analysed for each pipe in the system. The nodes
where the pressure drops below 20 mwc during the maximum consumption hour,
as a result of the failure, have been identified.
The direct pumping layout from the S30A3 file has been tested, while in the
case of Alternative B this was the layout from the S30B3 file. In both cases, the
new input files have been created, by dropping the demand (through the demand
multiplier) to 75% and switching the stand-by pumps on. The new file names are
S30A7 and S30B5, respectively. The calculation results are shown in tables 3.20
and 3.21.

Clarification:
• The tables indicate the nodes with pressure below 20 mwc, the minimum
pressure value, node number, and pressure in the factory. Furthermore the
supply flows are shown for Source 1, Source 2 and the reservoir (Alterna-
tive B).
• The negative value for the reservoir indicates the inflow (refilling).
224 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 3.20 Alternative A: reliability assessment (S30A7)

Pipe burst Nodes with pmin/ρg (mwc) pfact/ρg (mwc) Q1 (l/s) Q2 (l/s)
p/ρg < 20 mwc in node (x)

02–03* None 39.76 (11) 43.27 440 546

02–06 05, 06, 08 −10.05(08) 43.43 439 547
03–04 None 34.78 (09) 42.63 415 571
04–05 None 40.22 (11) 43.78 450 536
05–06 05, 08 16.58 (08) 43.55 443 543
05–08 None 27.06 (08) 43.70 447 539
08–09 None 40.20 (11) 43.76 449 537
09–10 09 −37.98 (09) 43.89 452 534
04–10 None 38.06 (09) 43.22 431 555
10–12 None 38.77 (09) 44.10 459 527
09–11 None 40.32 (11) 43.77 449 537
11–12 None 39.19 (11) 43.76 448 538
12–18 None 36.73 (12) 44.05 474 512
11–19 None 22.73 (11) 43.83 454 532
18–19 11, 19, 20 −9.96 (11) 43.86 459 527
19–20 20 19.96 (20) 43.75 449 537
20–21 None 40.13 (11) 43.77 449 537
21–22 21 16.95 (21) 43.79 449 537
18–22 None 34.53 (21) 43.17 451 535
22–23 None 40.22 (11) 43.65 449 537
17–18 None 28.78 (16) 31.82 515 471
12–13 None 40.15 (11) 43.84 449 537
03–14 None 37.33 (15) 41.61 419 567
03–07 07 −393.98 (07) 42.84 443 543
07–15 None 40.20 (11) 43.74 449 537
14–15 15 −83.19 (15) 40.62 450 536
13–14 None 40.28 (11) 43.87 451 535
13–17 None 39.48 (15) 44.55 462 524
17–23 None 26.16 (24) 42.70 448 538
15–16 None 40.20 (11) 43.46 449 537
16–17 01, 16 −200.07 (16) −197.73 451 535
16–24 None 40.21 (11) 43.65 449 537
23–24 24 −13.79 (24) 41.68 449 537
102–02* None 35.33 (09) 39.46 374 612
202–18* None 35.89 (11) 39.59 503 483
Pipe burst Nodes with pmin /ρg (mwc) pfact /ρg Q1 (l/s) Q 2 (l/s)
p/ρg < 20 mwc in node (x) (mwc)
* Assumes the burst of one of the pipes in parallel.
 Network design exercise 225

Table 3.21 Alternative B: reliability assessment (S30B5)

Pipe burst Nodes with pmin/ρg (mwc) pfact/ρg (mwc) Q1 (l/s) Q2 (l/s) Qr (l/s)
p/ρg < 20 mwc in node (x)

02–03 None 23.02 (11) 28.31 175 456 356

02–06 05, 06, 08 −54.44 (08) 31.80 573 441 −27
03–04 None 24.29 (11) 32.00 551 448 −12
04–05 None 25.31 (11) 31.81 589 437 −40
05–06 05, 08 −11.29 (08) 31.80 578 439 −31
05–08 08 −82.22 (08) 31.81 585 438 −37
08–09 None 25.28 (11) 31.80 588 437 −39
09–10 09 −261.73 (09) 31.72 592 435 −41
04–10 None 24.67 (11) 31.87 567 444 −25
10–12 None 25.45 (11) 31.74 601 431 −46
09–11 None 25.21 (11) 31.81 588 437 −39
11–12 11 7.21 (11) 31.43 588 433 −35
12–18 None 22.72 (19) 29.96 585 422 −20
11–19 None 26.24 (11) 31.75 588 436 −38
18–19 19, 20 14.68 (19) 32.04 589 439 −42
19–20 20 3.61 (20) 31.79 588 437 −39
20–21 None 25.20 (11) 31.81 588 437 −39
21–22 21 0.08 (21) 31.84 588 437 −39
18–22 20, 21, 22 −24.24 (21) 31.82 588 437 −39
22–23 None 25.30 (11) 31.81 588 437 −39
17–18 None 24.99 (11) 31.96 588 439 −41
12–13 None 27.04 (13) 32.56 571 408 8
03–14 None 25.94 (11) 32.21 546 430 11
03–07 None 21.31 (15) 26.85 549 435 2
07–15 None 23.85 (15) 29.03 562 436 −12
14–15 None 25.23 (11) 31.61 589 437 −40
13–14 None 25.73 (11) 32.25 566 433 −13
13–17 None 23.36 (11) 27.30 603 446 −63
17–23 23, 24 8.79 (23) 31.68 589 437 −40
15–16 None 24.95 (11) 29.73 577 438 −28
16–17 None 25.33 (11) 31.04 590 437 −41
16–24 None 25.29 (11) 31.84 588 437 −39
23–24 None 25.31 (11) 31.77 588 437 −39
102–02 05, 08, 09, 15 18.77 (08) 24.64 0 521 465
202–12 None 20.72 (11) 29.83 618 0 368
Pipe burst Nodes with pmin/ρg (mwc) pfact/ρg (mwc) Q1 (l/s) Q 2 (l/s) Qr (l/s)
p/ρg < 20 mwc in node (x)
226 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Conclusions:
• Both layouts show a fairly good reliability level. The effects of the pipe bursts
are minimal for the majority of the nodes. In a few cases the pressure will be
affected in the vicinity of the burst location. The most critical pipes appear to
be 02–06, 18–19 and 16–17 in the case of the Alternative A layout and 02–06,
18–19, 17–23 and 102–02 in the case of the Alternative B layout.
• The direct pumping alternative shows higher pressures in general, which
gives the impression that this network has more reserve capacity i.e. more
room for reduction of the pipe diameters than the other one. This conclusion
will be taken into account while deciding the final layout of this alternative.

As a comparison, the initially developed layout with the branched structure of the
secondary mains, shown in Figure 3.16 (S6A7), has been tested for reliability as
well. The results are shown in Table 3.22.

Table 3.22 Alternative A: reliability assessment for branched secondary mains (S6A7–1)

Pipe burst Nodes with pmin/ρg (mwc) pfact/ρg (mwc) Q1 (l/s) Q2 (l/s)
p/ρg < 20 mwc in node (x)

02–03 01, 03, 04, 07, 09–20 2.95 (15) 15.81 106 413
02–06 None 22.59 (08) 41.61 274 245
03–04 None 26.57 (11) 33.87 211 308
04–05 None 35.88 (11) 41.93 277 242
05–06 None 32.09 (08) 41.72 275 244
05–08 08 −32.16 (08) 41.81 276 243
08–09 None 35.82 (11) 41.88 277 242
09–10 09 −154.27 (09) 41.94 277 242
04–10 None 28.00 (11) 35.08 220 299
10–12 None 34.12 (11) 40.28 262 257
09–11 None 35.66 (11) 41.87 277 242
11–12 None 25.99 (11) 41.83 276 243
12–18 None 31.92 (13) 43.78 299 220
11–19 None 33.59 (11) 41.90 277 242
18–19 19 19.11 (19) 41.95 278 241
19–20 20 19.22 (20) 41.82 277 242
20–21 None 35.87 (11) 41.87 277 242
21–22 None 35.74 (11) 41.88 277 242
18–22 None 35.66 (11) 41.63 277 242
22–23 None 35.82 (11) 41.82 277 242
17–18 01, 16, 17, 23, 24 −172.42 (16) −172.39 284 235
12–13 None 24.08 (08) 41.67 277 242
03–14 None 29.21 (15) 41.29 274 245
03–07 None 26.72 (15) 41.31 275 244
07–15 None 34.88 (15) 41.60 276 243
 Network design exercise 227

Pipe burst Nodes with pmin/ρg (mwc) pfact/ρg (mwc) Q1 (l/s) Q2 (l/s)
p/ρg < 20 mwc in node (x)

14–15 None 34.85 (15) 41.62 276 243

13–14 None 35.79 (11) 41.86 276 243
13–17 None 35.82 (11) 41.83 277 242
17–23 None 35.80 (11) 41.81 277 242
15–16 None 35.80 (11) 41.77 276 243
16–17 01, 16, 24 −176.49 (16) −173.46 280 239
16–24 None 26.42 (24) 42.08 277 242
23–24 None 35.81 (11) 41.86 277 242
102–02 01–24 −32.25 (15) −6.89 0 519
202–18 01–24 −49.86 (11) −45.29 519 0
Pipe burst Nodes with pmin/ρg (mwc) pfact /ρg (mwc) Q1 (l/s) Q 2 (l/s)
p/ρg < 20 mwc in node (x)

Conclusions:
• Large parts of the network will lose pressure if pipes 02–03, 17–18, 102–02
and 202–18 burst. A critical pipe is also 16–17. If the branched layout of the
secondary pipes has to be maintained, laying of the parallels is inevitable in
the case of these listed pipes.

3.6 Final layouts

3.6.1 Alternative A – direct pumping

Beginning of the design period

The following adjustments of the layout proposed in Section 3.3.6 have been
introduced based on the conclusions regarding the system operation:

• The diameters of a few, mainly peripheral, pipes have been reduced.

• To improve the supply reliability of the factory:
• pipe 15–16 has been enlarged to D = 300 mm,
• parallel pipes, D = 300 mm, have been laid along route 01–16.
• In order to maintain the system reliability in general, parallel pipes, D = 500
mm, have been laid along route 202–18.
• Slightly smaller pump units have been proposed for the pumping station in
Source 1.

As in the conclusions of Section 3.3.6:

• the second source has been immediately connected to the system, and
• the storage volume has been immediately constructed for the demand at the
end of the design period.
228 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 3.23 Alternative A: beginning of the design period

Pumping stations Storage volume
Qp Hp No. of Units D H Vtot
(l/s) (mwc) (m) (m) (m3)
Source 1 100 50 3+1 50 5.5 10,800
Source 2 90 40 3+1 50 5.5 10,800

Figure 3.71 Alternative A: pipe diameters (mm) at the beginning of the design period

Table 3.24 Alternative A: pumping schedule for manual operation (S6A9)

Source 1 Schedule from 0–24 Source 2 Schedule from 0–24

1001 1111111111111111111111111 2001 111111111111111111111111

1002 0 0 0 0 0 0 0111111111111111110 2002 1110 0 01111110 0 0111111111
1003 0000000000111100000011110 2003 000000001110000011100000
1004* 0000000000000000000000000 2004* 000000000000000000000000
* Stand-by units.

The main characteristics of the pumping stations and the storage volume are given
in Table 3.23.
The final layout of the system at the beginning of the design period is shown in
Figure 3.71 (file S6A9.NET). For the manual operation as shown in Table 3.24,
 Network design exercise 229

Figure 3.72 S6A9: pressure range in the network; manual pump control (schedule in
Table 3.24)

the range of pressures in the system on the maximum consumption day is shown
in Figure 3.72.
The registered pressure in the factory during the maximum consumption hour
is 30.38 mwc. The following pressures are observed in the case of the pipe burst
(the stand-by pumps are ‘Off’):

Burst pipe pfact/ρg (mwc)

15–16 28.79
16–17 24.73
16–24 30.53
01–16 (single) 30.18

The pressure during the firefighting in the factory is 34.12 mwc (the stand-by
pumps = ‘On’). The reliability assessment for the 75% demand conditions shows
insufficient pressure during the following pipe bursts (the stand-by pumps are
‘On’):

Burst pipe Nodes with p/ρg < 20 mwc pmin/ρg (mwc) pfact/ρg (mwc)

05–08 08 −31.44 48.51

09–10 09 −144.73 48.55
102–02 09, 13 and 15 17.24 23.63

Except for Node 13, all those indicated are peripheral nodes. The table shows that
the effects of the listed pipe bursts are localised to very small parts of the system
and the situation can therefore be considered as satisfactory. The pressure in the
factory will also not be affected.
230 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

End of the design period

The following system extension is planned to satisfy the demand at the end of the
design period (file S30A8.NET):

Pipe Dold (mm) Dnew (mm)

102–02 500 2×500

02–03 500 2×500
02–06 300 400
09–10 200 300
11–19 200 300
18–19 300 400

Three additional pump units of the same size as the existing ones are planned in
each pumping station. For the manual operation as shown in Table 3.25, the range
of pressures in the system during the maximum consumption day is shown in
Figure 3.73.

Table 3.25 Pumping schedule – Alternative A, manual operation (S30A8)

Source 1 Schedule from 0–24 Source 2 Schedule from 0–24

1001 1111111111111111111111111 2001 1111111111111111111111111

1002 1111111111111111111111111 2002 1111111111111111111111111
1003 110 0 0 01111111110 0 01111111 2003 0 0 0 0 0 01111111111111111110
1004 0 0 0 0 0 0 011111110 0 0 01111110 2004 0000000111111100001111110
1005 0000000001111000000111110 2005 0000000001111000000011110
1006 0000000000011000000011100 2006 0000000000011000000011100
1007 0000000000000000000000000 2007 000000000000000000000000

Figure 3.73 S30A8: pressure range in the network; manual pump control (schedule in
Table 3.25)
 Network design exercise 231

Pressure in the factory during the maximum consumption hour is 26.15 mwc.
The following pressures are observed in the case of the pipe burst:

Burst pipe Stand-by pfact/ρg (mwc)

pumps

15–16 Off 23.80

16–17 On 19.32
16–24 Off 26.61
01–16 (single) Off 25.95

The pressure during the firefighting in the factory reaches pfact/ρg = 25.23 mwc,
with the stand-by pumps turned on. This pressure is below the required mini-
mum of 30 mwc and local pressure boosting is suggested.
The reliability assessment for the 75% demand conditions shows insufficient
pressure during the following pipe bursts (the stand-by pumps are ‘On’) file
S30A8–1.NET:

Burst pipe Nodes with p/ρg < 20 mwc pmin/ρg (mwc) pfact/ρg (mwc)

02–06 05, 06 and 08 −54.97 43.25

05–06 05 and 08 −5.56 43.36
05–08 08 −317.41 43.53
09–10 09 −893.27 43.68
18–19 11, 19 and 20 −18.03 43.01
19–20 20 3.20 43.48
21–22 21 17.26 43.62
18–22 21 19.53 42.93
03–07 07 −395.09 41.12
17–23 24 15.50 43.54
23–24 24 −12.71 42.96

Here as well, the pressure drop is localised to a few peripheral nodes with the fac-
tory pressure not being affected by the disaster. Hence, the system reliability can
be considered as acceptable.

3.6.2 Alternative B – Pumping and balancing storage

Beginning of the design period

The following adjustments of the layout presented in Section 3.3.6 have been
introduced: a few, mainly peripheral pipes, have been reduced in diameter.

• To improve the supply reliability of the factory, parallel pipes of D = 300 mm

have been laid along route 01–16.
• The balancing tank, D = 40 m, H = 6.5 m, has been adopted. The height of the
tank has been set to 20 m.
• Smaller pumping units are proposed in Source 1. One extra unit, out of three
planned for the extension, will be installed immediately for more flexible
supply in irregular situations.
232 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

As in the conclusions of Section 3.3.6, the storage volume at Source 1 has been
immediately constructed for the demand at the end of the design period.
The information on the pumps and the storage volume is given in Table 3.26.
The final layout of the system at the beginning of the design period is shown in
Figure 3.74 (file S6B4.NET).
For constant average operation of the pumping station, the range of pressures
in the system on the maximum consumption day is shown in Figure 3.75 and the
volume variation of the balancing tank in Figure 3.76.
Pressure in the factory during the maximum consumption hour is 29.69 mwc.
The following pressures are observed in the case of the pipe burst (the stand-by
pumps are turned off):

Burst pipe pfact/ρg (mwc)

15–16 27.17
16–17 29.34
16–24 29.72
01–16 (single) 29.50

Table 3.26 Alternative B: beginning of the design period

Pumping stations Storage volume

Qp Hp No. of Units D H Vtot

(l/s) (mwc) (m) (m) (m3)
Source 1 130 50 4+1 30 6.5 4600
20 m-high tank – – – 40 6.5 8170

Figure 3.74 S6B4: pipe diameters (mm) at the beginning of the design period
 Network design exercise 233

Figure 3.75 S6B4: pressure range in the network; 20 m-high balancing tank, D = 40 m,
H = 6.5 m

Figure 3.76 S6B4: variation of the tank depth; 20 m-high balancing tank, D = 40 m, H = 6.5 m.

The pressure during the firefighting in the factory is pfact/ρg = 28.59 mwc (the
stand-by pumps are ‘On’).
The reliability assessment for the 75% demand conditions shows insufficient
pressure during the following pipe bursts (the stand-by pumps are turned on):

Burst pipe Nodes with pmin/ρg (mwc) pfact/ρg (mwc)

p/ρg < 20 mwc

02–06 05, 06 and 08 13.19 32.80

05–08 08 −47.94 32.78
09–10 09 −159.89 32.73
11–12 11 and 19 10.34 32.46
234 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

End of the design period

Compared to the summary in Section 3.3.6, the extent of renovation towards
the end of the design period has been reduced. The following reconstruction is
planned (file S30B6.NET):

Pipe Dold (mm) Dnew (mm)

02–06 300 400

09–10 200 300
11–12 300 400
12–18 200 400
18–19 200 300

• two additional pump units of the same type as the existing ones are going to
be installed in the pumping station of Source 1,
• the pumping station in Source 2 is going to be built with three units of the
following duty flow and head: Qd = 120 l/s, Hd = 40 mwc,
• the clear water reservoir, V = 4600 m3, is going to be constructed in Source 2,
• the diameter of the balancing tank is to be increased from D = 40 to 50 m,
which effectively means the construction of an additional compartment, D =
30 m, besides the existing one. The total additional volume is accidentally
equal to those of the clear water reservoirs in the two sources (V = 4600 m3).

For the average flow supply from the pumping stations, the system operation on
the maximum consumption day is shown in figures 3.77 and 3.78.
Pressure in the factory during the maximum consumption hour is 27.28 mwc.
The following pressures are observed in the case of the pipe burst (the stand-by
pumps are ‘Off’):

Burst pipe pfact/ρg (mwc)

15–16 24.43
16–17 24.01
16–24 27.49
01–16 (single) 27.09

Figure 3.77 S30B6: pressure range in the network; 20 m-high balancing tank, D = 50 m, H = 6.5 m
 Network design exercise 235

Figure 3.78 S30B6: variation of the tank depth; 20 m-high balancing tank, D = 50 m, H = 6.5 m

During the firefighting in the factory, the pressure on the maximum consump-
tion hour is pfact/ρg = 26.28 mwc (stand-by pumps are ‘On’). This pressure is
below the required minimum of 30 mwc and local pressure boosting is advised.
The reliability assessment for the 75% demand conditions (stand-by pumps are
‘On’) shows insufficient pressure during the following pipe bursts:

Burst pipe Nodes with pmin/ρg (mwc) pfact/ρg (mwc)

p/ρg < 20 mwc

06 05, 06 and 08 −66.86 32.06

05–06 05 and 08 −17.45 32.06
05–08 08 −329.39 32.06
09–10 09 −904.88 32.03
11–12 11 4.89 31.59
18–19 19 18.72 32.23
19–20 20 and 21 −11.42 32.02
21–22 21 1.04 32.07
18–22 20, 21 and 22 −28.40 32.02
17–23 23 and 24 6.00 31.93
102–02 05, 08, 09 and 15 18.57 24.77

3.6.3 Phased development

Running the simulation of the layouts proposed at the beginning of the design
period for the demand conditions at the end of the design period suggests the point
in time when the system extension should take place.

Alternative A:
• With the stand-by pumps switched on, the S6A9 layout will show a consid-
erable drop of pressure for the demands above ± 850 l/s (3060 m3/h). This
demand corresponds to the maximum consumption hour demand around
year 15–16 (see Table 3.8). Hence, the proposed year of the system extension
236 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

is year 15. As an additional safeguard, five (instead of four) pumps will be

installed in both pumping stations at the beginning of the design period, to
facilitate the pressure until the extension will take place. The two remaining
units are left for the second phase.

Alternative B:
• In the case of layout S6B4, the pressure problems start for the demands
around ± 950 l/s (3420 m3/h), which is the maximum consumption hour
demand around year 19–20. The reason for this is the reservoir itself; it
facilitates the pressure as long as it is not empty. To prevent this, the final
decision has been made to build the pumping station with the full number
of seven units already at the beginning of the design period. This should
help to maintain the balancing role of the reservoir in the years before the
extension will take place. The proposed year of the system extension is
year 19.
Tables 3.27 and 3.28 show the summary of the phased development of the system
for the two alternatives.

3.6.4 Cost analyses

Based on the prices listed in Tables 3.3 and 3.4, the following cost calculations of
the proposed layouts have been conducted.

Table 3.27 Alternative A: phased development

Beginning of the Construction End of the

design period at year 15 design period

Pipe diameter Total length (m)

D = 80 mm 2700 – 2700
D = 100 mm 2200 – 2200
D = 150 mm 2550 – 2550
D = 200 mm 6850 – 6850
D = 300 mm 5950 1650 7600
D = 400 mm 4800 2100 6900
D = 500 mm 3500 2000 5500
D = 600 mm – – –
Total pipes (m) 28,550 5750 34,300
Pumping stations Number of units/Qp (l/s)/Hp (mwc)
Source 1 5 / 100 / 50 2 / 100 / 50 7 / 100 / 50
Source 2 5 / 90 / 40 2 / 90 / 40 7 / 90 / 40
Storage Volume (m3)
Source 1 10,800 – 10,800
Source 2 10,800 10,800
Total volume (m3) 21,600 – 21,600
 Network design exercise 237

Table 3.28 Alternative B: phased development

Beginning of the Construction End of the

design period at year 19 design period

Pipe diameter Total length (m)

D = 80 mm 2700 – 2700
D = 100 mm 1200 – 1200
D = 150 mm 2750 – 2750
D = 200 mm 7250 – 7250
D = 300 mm 4050 2050 6100
D = 400 mm 7100 2950 10,050
D = 500 mm 100 – 100
D = 600 mm 2000 – 2000
Total pipes (m) 27,150 5000 32,150
Pumping stations Number of units/Q p (l/s)/Hp (mwc)
Source 1 7 / 130 / 50 – 7 / 130 / 50
Source 2 – 3 / 120 / 40 3 / 120 / 40
Storage Volume (m3)
Source 1 4600 – 4600
Source 2 – 4600 4600
Water tower 8170 4600 12,770
Total volume (m3) 12,770 9200 21,970

Investment costs
The investment costs of the final layouts are summarised in Table 3.29 for Alter-
native A and Table 3.30 for Alternative B.

Clarification:
• The installed capacity of the pumping stations has been assumed as Qmax = 1.5 × Qd,
with all units (including stand-by) in operation. Note that the price is calcu-
lated for the capacities converted from l/s into m3/h.
• Investment price of the water tower includes the cost of the supporting
structure.

Assuming that 60 % of the investment needed at the beginning of the design

period will be borrowed immediately, 40 % in year 4 and the entire sum for the
second phase in the year when the extension will take place, the total values of the
investments brought to year 6 are (the loan interest is 8%):

Alternative A:

0.6 × 13,485,481/1.08–5 + 0.4 × 13,485,481/1.08–2 + 4,026,430/1.089 = EUR

20,194,761

The repayment of the loan starts at year 6. The annual instalments to be paid are:

20,194,761 × (0.08 × 1.0825)/(1.0825–1) = EUR 1,891,821

238 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 3.29 Alternative A: investment costs, rounded in Euros (EUR)

Beginning of the design period Investment at year 15
Pipe diameter Total length (m) Total price Total length (m) Total price
(EUR) (EUR)
D = 80 mm 2700 162,000 – –
D = 100 mm 2200 154,000 – –
D = 150 mm 2550 229,500 – –
D = 200 mm 6850 890,500 – –
D = 300 mm 5950 1,071,000 1650 297,000
D = 400 mm 4800 1,248,000 2100 546,000
D = 500 mm 3500 1,085,000 2000 620,000
D = 600 mm – – – –
Total pipes 28,550 4,840,000 5750 1,463,000
Pumping stations Installed Total price Installed Total price
capacity (m3/h) (EUR) capacity (m3/h) (EUR)
Source 1 5 × 540 = 2700 2,780,104 2 × 540 = 1080 1,335,700
Source 2 5 × 486 = 2430 2,555,377 2 × 486 = 972 1,227,730
Total PST 5130 5,335,481 2052 2,563,430
Reservoirs Total volume (m3) Total price Total volume (m3) Total price
(EUR) (EUR)
Source 1 10,800 1,655,000 – –
Source 2 10,800 1,655,000
Total reservoirs 21,600 3,310,000 – –
Total A – 13,485,481 – 4,026,430

Table 3.30 Alternative B: investment costs, rounded in Euros (EUR)

Beginning of the design period Investment at year 19
Pipe diameter Total length (m) Total price (EUR) Total length (m) Total price
(EUR)
D = 80 mm 2700 162,000 – –
D = 100 mm 1200 84,000 – –
D = 150 mm 2750 247,500 – –
D = 200 mm 7250 942,500 – –
D = 300 mm 4050 729,000 2050 369,000
D = 400 mm 7100 1,846,000 2950 767,000
D = 500 mm 100 31,000 – –
D = 600 mm 2000 720,000 – –
Total pipes 27,150 4,762,000 5000 1,136,000
Pumping Installed Total price (EUR) Installed Total price
stations capacity (m3/h) capacity (m3/h) (EUR)
Source 1 7 × 702 = 4914 4,488,675 – –
Source 2 – – 3 × 648 = 1944 2,137,603
Total PST 4914 4,488,675 1944 2,137,603
Reservoirs Total volume Total price (EUR) Total volume Total price
(m3) (m3) (EUR)
Source 1 4600 725,000 – –
Source 2 – – 4600 725,000
Water tower 8170 1,750,700 4600 1,001,000
Total reservoir 12,770 2,475,700 9200 1,726,000
Total B – 11,726,375 – 4,999,603
 Network design exercise 239

Alternative B:

0.6 × 1 1,726,375/1.08–5 + 0.4 × 11,726,375/1.08–2 + 4,999,603/1.0813 = EUR

17,647,336

The annual instalments to be paid are:

17,647,336 × (0.08 × 1.0825)/(1.0825 – 1) = EUR 1,653,381

Conclusions:
• Alternative B costs less than A. The reason is the lower initial investment and
later start of the second phase.
• The cost of the elevated balancing tank appears not to be the predominant
factor. Alternative A has lower investment costs for the storage but more
expensive pumping stations.

Reading:
• See notes, Volume 1, Section 4.1.2: ‘Economic aspects’.

Operation and maintenance costs

The operation and maintenance costs are calculated as a percentage of the raw
investment costs (Table 3.4). The average value is taken although a trend of
increase might be expected towards the end of the design period.

Alternative A:
Distribution system: 0.005 × (4,840,000 + 1,463,000) = EUR 29,735
Pumping stations: 0.020 × (5,335,481 + 2,563,430) = EUR 157,978
Reservoirs: 0.008 × 3,310,000 = EUR 26,480
TOTAL: EUR 214,193 per year.

Alternative B:
Distribution system: 0.005 × (4,762,000 + 1,136,000) = EUR 29,490
Pumping stations: 0.020 × (4,488,675 + 2,137,603) = EUR 132,526
Reservoirs: 0.008 × (2,475,700 + 1,726,000) = EUR 33,614
TOTAL: EUR 195,630 per year.

Water price increase

From Table 3.8, the average water demand/production at year 6 is 31,977 m3/d =
11,671,605 m3/y.
At the end of the design period, the annual production equals 61,344 × 365 =
22,390,560 m3/y.
The total quantity of water supplied during the design period equals 406,381,510
m3 or on average 16,255,260 m3 per year.
Due to the loan repayment and the O&M costs, the average water price increase
is going to be:
240 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Alternative A:

(1,891,821 + 214,193)/16,255,260 = EUR 0.13 per m3

Alternative B:

(1,653,381 + 195,630)/16,255,260 = EUR 0.11 per m3

3.6.5 Summary and conclusions

Design and construction

The design layout B is less expensive than in the case of Alternative A; it requires
lower initial investments and a later extension of the system. The distribution net-
work is purposely left with surplus capacity at the beginning of the design period
in order to provide a good supply in the final years before the reconstruction of
the system takes place.
Construction of the large elevated tank may prove to be a structural or even an
aesthetic problem, bearing in mind the location that is close to the centre of the
town. Otherwise, the price does not seem to be a limitation.

Operation and maintenance

Operation of the system B is stable, with mild variations in pressures throughout
the day. Moreover it is reasonable to expect that the pumping costs in this scheme
of supply will be lower than in Alternative A. The maintenance costs are also
lower compared to Alternative A although the price difference is small.

Supply to the factory

Here as well, Alternative B shows better performance than A. The layout provides
sufficient pressures in the factory regardless of calamities in the system. The small
deficit of pressure during firefighting should be overcome by local measures.

Reliability
Both A and B layouts are fairly reliable in case of failure in the system.

Overall conclusion
Given all the facts, the final choice in this exercise is Alternative B.
Appendix 4

Network rehabilitation exercise

4.1 Learning objectives and set-up

This assignment concerns the rehabilitation of an existing water distribution net-
work. The main objective of this exercise is to convert a single-source gravity
system into a combined system, where the second source and pumping station
are to be added to provide a stable hydraulic operation over a period of 20 years.
The pressures in the network are also to be controlled by the appropriate location
and setting of a pressure-reducing valve (PRV). Compared to the design exercise
in Appendix 3, in this exercise more attention is given to the modelling of bal-
ancing storage, and to the design of pumping stations as described in Chapter 4
(Volume 1). In addition, water loss is introduced by modelling it as a separate
‘consumption’ category, separating the pressure-driven pattern from the diurnal
patterns of other consumption categories. A single rehabilitation alternative is to be
analysed for the present situation and the future demand scenario with the phased
development of the network halfway through the design period i.e. in year 10.
When lectured, the exercise contact time consists of four sessions of three hours
(excluding the software introduction!), with the following set-up:

Session 1 – Current demand scenario

• Case introduction
• Demand calculation
• Network rehabilitation: sizing of pipe diameters, calculation of tank volume
• Network operation: pressure range, demand balancing, PRV settings.

Session 2 – Future demand scenario

• Calculation of the demand growth, connection of new source
• System redesign by adding pumps and storage; possible relocation of the
PRV
• Pump scheduling, pressure range, demand balancing, final PRV settings.

Session 3 – Pumping station design

• Selection of pumps and motors
• Layout of pumping station
• Calculation of hydraulic losses and NPSH.
242 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Session 4 – Cost calculations

• Investment costs for network rehabilitation and upgrade
• Operation and maintenance costs
• Loan repayment through water tariff increase.

The future network operation is feasible because of the additional water source,
which must be connected at the point in time when the capacity of the current
source is exceeded. To provide a variety of solutions, each student will work
with an individual data set combining one of the six different locations of the
second source (A to F), with an individual number (IN), which is assigned with
values between 1.3 and 1.8, and which is used in the calculation of particular
demand.
Here as well, the elaborated rehabilitation alternatives are analysed with the
help of EPANET software (Version 2), used throughout the tutorial. For this pur-
pose, a model of the case network has been prepared, which consists of a group
of EPANET input files answering particular questions in the exercise. All the file
names follow uniform coding: ‘NTxy.NET’, where:

• NT stands for the name of the town (the raw EPANET file given to the stu-
dents at the beginning of the work is named NAMETOWN.NET; they are
requested to rename it, leading to a unique set of files submitted for evalu-
ation, and eliminating the possibility of misplacing or duplicating any of
them),
• x is the number of the question but without the dots; e.g. for Question 3.1.5,
x = 315,
• y is the index of specific alternatives considered in the process of answering
the question.

The full version of the EPANET software and the case network files mentioned
in the text are available in the electronic materals attached to the book. General
information relevant for this exercise, which includes the EPANET programme
installation and abbreviated instructions for use, is given in Appendix 8. In addi-
tion to the network modelling software, the electronic materials include spread-
sheet applications and documents prepared to facilitate faster handling of the input
data, which also includes a catalogue of fixed speed ETANORM pumps from the
German manufacturer KSB; these are available for the final pump selection and
design of the pumping station.
As is the case in Appendix 3, the results of calculations are presented in the
tables and figures. These may be accompanied by:

• Clarifications that explain some (calculation) details from the table/figure,

• Conclusions that suggest further steps based on the calculation results,
• Comments that elaborate points in a wider context of the problem,
• Reading that refers to the chapters of the main text in Volume 1 that are
related to the problem.
 Network rehabilitation exercise 243

The output of the work is to be described in a design exercise report that is sub-
mitted for evaluation, together with the prescribed set of EPANET input files pre-
pared by the student. Although not compulsory, an oral exam can be organized to
further enlighten and defend the selected design alternatives. Based on the aver-
age student performance, the estimated study load for this exercise is 56 hours, or
two credits in the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS), which includes the
contact time.
The solved example presented in this appendix contains partly modified data
where IN = 2.0 and the number of consumers connected to the network in the
district SUBURBS is 3700. Both of these inputs have higher values than in the
students’ assignment, which is done in order to amplify the problems and make
solutions more obvious, as well as to prevent these being copied by the students.
The second source, to mitigate the future demand increase, is located in the dis-
trict CAMPUS (area D).
Upon completion of the exercise, the student should be able to:

• perform computer-aided hydraulic calculations using EPANET software and

• predict the consequences of demand growth on the hydraulic performance of
a particular water transport and distribution system;
• analyse the implications of various operational modes of pumping stations
and
• evaluate the investment and operational costs for the selected network layout
and supply scheme;
• propose a preliminary design for a water distribution network, including the
pumping station and the balancing storage, which can satisfy the prescribed
service level in a cost-effective manner.

4.2 Case introduction – Nametown

NAMETOWN is a small university town of approximately 35,000 inhabitants,
which is located in the hilly area of NAME valley. A rapid expansion of the area
around the town is expected over the coming years because of the growth in the
number of students at the university. In addition, a hotel is going to be built in the
new residential district of the town (called NEW TOWN).
The existing gravity water distribution network, shown in Figure 4.1, pres-
ently covers approximately 32,000 consumers, or 91% of the total population. An
additional 3000 inhabitants of the SUBURBS district, who currently use private
wells, are also to be connected to the network to avoid the risk of pollution caused
by improper sanitation.
The network combines loops and branches and is composed of mixed pipe
materials and mixed age: 60-year-old cast iron (CI), galvanized steel (GS) of
between 25 and 50 years of age, and polyethylene (PE) and ductile iron (DI) of
between 15 and 25 years. The network rehabilitation and expansion is planned
to meet the demand forecast. An international loan has been approved for this
purpose.
244 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.1 Layout of the NAMETOWN gravity network

4.2.1 Topography
The network stretches throughout the valley, in an area with ground elevations
ranging between 9.66 and 82.48 meters above sea level (msl), which is shown in
Figure 4.2. The five districts, A to E, have been developed at different elevations.
 Network rehabilitation exercise 245

Figure 4.2 NAMETOWN node elevations (msl)

The elevation differences within the district range between 11.88 m, in the case of
the HOSTELS district, and up to 54.14 m for OLD TOWN.

4.2.2 Supply source and distribution system

The source of supply, located at Source 1, is groundwater stored after simple
treatment in a reservoir from where it is supplied by gravity. The fixed water
246 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

surface level in the reservoir is assumed at 110 msl, as indicated in Figure 4.2. To
maintain the groundwater levels, the maximum production capacity of the source
is estimated at 90 l/s. To increase the network reliability, the second source can be
activated at the location New Source (based on the individual data!).
The distribution system is composed of loops and branches with pipe diameters
ranging between 25 and 300 mm, as shown in Figure 4.3. The pipe lengths vary
between 85 and 727 m, while the absolute roughness coefficient (k) has values

Figure 4.3 NAMETOWN pipe diameters (mm)

 Network rehabilitation exercise 247

between 0.5 and 2.0 mm, mostly based on the age of the pipes. The overall infor-
mation about the pipes is given in Table 4.1. The connection between the new hotel
and the system is planned to be in node b12 located in the NEW TOWN district.
Regarding the local situation (soil conditions, local manufacturing), polyethyl-
ene (PE) is chosen as the pipe material for the network rehabilitation. Because of
this selection, it is assumed that the roughness of the new pipes will remain low
throughout the design period. The accepted higher k value of 0.25 mm also com-
pensates for the impact of local losses in the network.

Table 4.1 Pipe data

NAMETOWN – current situation

Pipe Material age Node Node Diameter Length k value

name from to (mm) (m) (mm)

p01 CI-60 S1 a01 300 220 2.0

p02 CI-60 a01 a02 300 657 2.0
p03 PE-15 a02 a03 80 380 0.5
p04 CI-60 a02 a04 300 371 2.0
p05 PE-15 a03 a05 80 325 0.5
p06 CI-60 a04 a06 300 180 2.0
p07 PE-15 a06 a05 80 249 0.5
p08 CI-60 a06 a07 300 125 2.0
p09 GS-50 a07 a08 100 256 2.0
p10 GS-50 a08 a09 100 200 2.0
p11 PE-15 a08 a10 80 111 0.5
p12 PE-15 a09 a11 80 106 0.5
p13 PE-15 a10 a11 80 215 0.5
p14 PE-15 a10 a12 50 369 0.5
p15 PE-15 a11 a13 50 386 0.5
p16 PE-15 a13 a12 25 168 0.5
p17 CI-60 a07 a14 300 390 2.0
p18 GS-50 a09 a15 100 420 2.0
p19 GS-50 a14 a15 100 459 2.0
p20 DI-25 a14 a16 300 153 1.0
p21 PE-25 a16 a17 100 168 1.0
p22 PE-15 a17 a18 80 291 0.5
p23 DI-25 a16 a19 250 295 1.0
p24 PE-15 a17 a20 80 255 0.5
p25 PE-15 a18 a21 50 206 0.5
p26 PE-25 a19 a20 100 202 1.0
p27 PE-15 a20 a21 80 289 0.5
p28 DI-25 a19 b01 250 372 1.0
p29 GS-25 b01 b02 150 376 1.0
p30 GS-25 b02 b03 150 248 1.0
p31 PE-15 b03 b04 100 278 0.5
p32 PE-15 b04 b05 50 270 0.5
p33 PE-15 b06 b07 80 106 0.5
p34 PE-15 b07 b08 50 290 0.5
p35 PE-15 b10 b11 80 439 0.5

(Continued )
248 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 4.1 (Continued)

NAMETOWN – current situation

Pipe Material age Node Node Diameter Length k value

name from to (mm) (m) (mm)

p36 PE-15 b11 b12 50 269 0.5

p37 PE-15 b08 b05 50 333 0.5
p38 PE-15 b05 b12 25 380 0.5
p39 PE-25 b03 b06 125 380 1.0
p40 PE-25 b03 b09 125 289 1.0
p41 PE-25 b09 b10 125 112 1.0
p42 DI-15 b01 c01 200 727 0.5
p43 PE-15 c01 c02 125 184 0.5
p44 PE-15 c02 d01 100 201 0.5
p45 PE-15 d01 d02 25 214 0.5
p46 PE-15 d01 d03 100 195 0.5
p47 PE-15 d03 d05 80 136 0.5
p48 PE-15 d03 d04 80 461 0.5
p49 PE-15 d04 d07 25 148 0.5
p50 PE-15 d05 d06 80 85 0.5
p51 PE-15 d06 d07 50 368 0.5
p52 PE-15 d06 d08 50 256 0.5
p53 PE-15 c02 c03 100 177 0.5
p54 PE-15 c03 c04 80 177 0.5
p55 PE-15 c04 c07 80 159 0.5
p56 PE-15 c06 c07 100 349 0.5
p57 PE-15 c05 c06 125 108 0.5
p58 DI-15 c01 e01 200 168 0.5
p59 PE-15 e01 e02 125 361 0.5
p60 PE-15 e02 e03 80 289 0.5
p61 PE-15 e03 e04 80 277 0.5
p62 PE-15 e04 e05 50 266 0.5
p63 PE-15 e02 e06 50 354 0.5
p64 PE-15 e03 e07 50 325 0.5
p65 PE-15 e04 e08 50 272 0.5
p66 PE-15 e06 e07 25 280 0.5
p67 PE-15 e07 e08 25 282 0.5
p68 DI-15 e01 c05 150 366 0.5
p69 PE-15 c05 f01 125 452 0.5

4.2.3 Water demand and leakage

The water consumption in the area consists of three categories: mostly domestic
but different at the university campus and at the student accommodation (hostels).
In addition, variable leakage percentages apply: from 12 to 25 %, which is mostly
attributable to the age of the network. The structure of the average (i.e. base) node
demand/leakage and allocation of demand patterns is given in Table 4.2, which
also shows the number of consumers supplied from each node at the average spe-
cific demand of 100 l/c/d.
The total average demand is currently 45.727 l/s. This demand has
to be increased by a multiplier of Individual number (IN), based on the
 Network rehabilitation exercise 249

individual data, which includes the effects of seasonal variations i.e. reflects
the demand on the maximum consumption day. Furthermore, it is expected
that the population in the districts will grow exponentially each year of
the design period, as shown in Table 4.3. In addition, the uniform specific

Table 4.2 Structure of the base node demand and leakage

Node Elevation Demand District NAMETOWN – current situation

name (msl) pattern
Population q Qc Leaks Ql Qd
(l/c/d) (l/s) (%) (l/s) (l/s)

a01 82.48 Domestic Old town 0 0 0.000 0 0.000 0.000

a02 68.48 Domestic Old town 868 100 1.005 25 0.335 1.340
a03 65.77 Domestic Old town 768 100 0.889 25 0.296 1.185
a04 48.90 Domestic Old town 960 100 1.111 25 0.370 1.481
a05 48.81 Domestic Old town 656 100 0.759 25 0.253 1.012
a06 42.95 Domestic Old town 320 100 0.370 25 0.123 0.494
a07 42.07 Domestic Old town 704 100 0.815 25 0.272 1.086
a08 41.51 Domestic Old town 368 100 0.426 25 0.142 0.568
a09 41.21 Domestic Old town 544 100 0.630 25 0.210 0.840
a10 43.83 Domestic Old town 208 100 0.241 25 0.080 0.321
a11 59.47 Domestic Old town 304 100 0.352 25 0.117 0.469
a12 56.74 Domestic Old town 416 100 0.481 25 0.160 0.642
a13 57.12 Domestic Old town 288 100 0.333 25 0.111 0.444
a14 38.33 Domestic Old town 976 100 1.130 25 0.377 1.506
a15 40.85 Domestic Old town 1216 100 1.407 25 0.469 1.877
a16 35.17 Domestic Old town 704 100 0.815 25 0.272 1.086
a17 30.42 Domestic Old town 496 100 0.574 25 0.191 0.765
a18 40.40 Domestic Old town 592 100 0.685 25 0.228 0.914
a19 28.34 Domestic Old town 1024 100 1.185 25 0.395 1.580
a20 29.91 Domestic Old town 304 100 0.352 25 0.117 0.469
a21 45.60 Domestic Old town 528 100 0.611 25 0.204 0.815
b01 24.82 Domestic New town 960 100 1.111 12 0.152 1.263
b02 27.10 Domestic New town 544 100 0.630 12 0.086 0.715
b03 28.16 Domestic New town 1200 100 1.389 12 0.189 1.578
b04 32.41 Domestic New town 752 100 0.870 12 0.119 0.989
b05 37.71 Domestic New town 480 100 0.556 12 0.076 0.631
b06 41.81 Domestic New town 912 100 1.056 12 0.144 1.199
b07 41.78 Domestic New town 672 100 0.778 12 0.106 0.884
b08 46.80 Domestic New town 592 100 0.685 12 0.093 0.779
b09 24.71 Domestic New town 96 100 0.111 12 0.015 0.126
b10 23.74 Domestic New town 96 100 0.111 12 0.015 0.126
b11 33.35 Domestic New town 832 100 0.963 12 0.131 1.094
b12 42.72 Domestic New town 1424 100 1.648 12 0.225 1.873
c01 19.06 Hostels Hostels 448 100 0.519 15 0.092 0.610
c02 21.47 Hostels Hostels 112 100 0.130 15 0.023 0.153
c03 20.35 Hostels Hostels 112 100 0.130 15 0.023 0.153
c04 24.38 Hostels Hostels 176 100 0.204 15 0.036 0.240
c05 12.50 Hostels Hostels 272 100 0.315 15 0.056 0.370
c06 13.04 Hostels Hostels 640 100 0.741 15 0.131 0.871
c07 21.88 Hostels Hostels 336 100 0.389 15 0.069 0.458
d01 36.06 Campus Campus 176 100 0.204 15 0.036 0.240
d02 26.27 Campus Campus 160 100 0.185 15 0.033 0.218
(Continued )
250 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 4.1 (Continued)

Node Elevation Demand District NAMETOWN – current situation

name (msl) pattern
Population q Qc Leaks Ql Qd
(l/c/d) (l/s) (%) (l/s) (l/s)
d03 28.55 Campus Campus 288 100 0.333 15 0.059 0.392
d04 54.35 Campus Campus 560 100 0.648 15 0.114 0.763
d05 30.01 Campus Campus 336 100 0.389 15 0.069 0.458
d06 35.63 Campus Campus 336 100 0.389 15 0.069 0.458
d07 64.33 Campus Campus 240 100 0.278 15 0.049 0.327
d08 40.20 Campus Campus 768 100 0.889 15 0.157 1.046
e01 17.91 Domestic Suburbs 256 100 0.296 20 0.074 0.370
e02 17.77 Domestic Suburbs 160 100 0.185 20 0.046 0.231
e03 22.99 Domestic Suburbs 192 100 0.222 20 0.056 0.278
e04 30.10 Domestic Suburbs 336 100 0.389 20 0.097 0.486
e05 38.88 Domestic Suburbs 528 100 0.611 20 0.153 0.764
e06 16.13 Domestic Suburbs 224 100 0.259 20 0.065 0.324
e07 22.96 Domestic Suburbs 256 100 0.296 20 0.074 0.370
e08 35.39 Domestic Suburbs 144 100 0.167 20 0.042 0.208
f01 9.66 Domestic Village 4000 100 4.630 20 1.157 5.787
TOTAL: 31,860 36.875 8.852 45.727

Table 4.3 Annual population growth in the districts of NAMETOWN

District A B C D E F
Old town New town Hostels Campus Suburbs Village

Annual population growth (%) 1.3 2.0 1.6 1.8 1.5 3.0

consumption of currently 100 l/c/d will grow for another 46–20IN1 l/c/d. As
a result of the network rehabilitation, the current leakage percentages are
expected to have stabilized at a uniform value of 17 % in each node, by the
end of the design period.
The diurnal patterns for the consumption categories are shown in figures 4.4
to 4.8 and in Table 4.4, which includes the new hotel. The leakage variation
described by the leakage peak factors simulates its relation to the pressure (nor-
mally higher overnight than during the day).
Finally, the new hotel is going to be built for the capacity of 400–100IN2 beds
and specific consumption of 300 litres per bed per day. No seasonal variations
apply in this case.

1 The text in italics refers to a formula to be used to diversify the data sets within the group. E.g. for
IN = 1.8, the specific consumption by the end of the design period will be 100 + (46–36) = 110 l/c/d.
Equally, for IN = 1.3, the specific consumption becomes 120 l/c/d.
2 In the same way as for the calculation of the specific demand growth, following the above equation,
for IN = 1.8, the total number of hotel beds will be 400–180 = 220. Equally for IN = 1.3, the number
of beds is 270. As a consequence, the node demand in b12 will differ.
 Network rehabilitation exercise 251

Figure 4.4 Domestic consumption pattern

Figure 4.5 Consumption pattern at the university campus

Figure 4.6 Consumption pattern in the student hostels

252 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.7 Consumption pattern at the new hotel

Figure 4.8 Leakage pattern

Table 4.4 Diurnal consumption patterns, including leakage variation

NAMETOWN – diurnal patterns

Hours Domestic Campus Hostels Hotel Leakage

1 0.28 0.30 1.10 0.30 1.05

2 0.32 0.25 0.80 0.28 1.03
3 0.41 0.27 0.56 0.33 1.03
4 0.50 0.30 0.40 0.45 1.02
5 0.83 0.53 0.64 0.69 1.00
6 1.54 0.70 1.00 0.99 0.99
7 1.98 1.20 1.60 1.70 0.98
8 1.75 1.45 1.50 1.65 0.95
9 1.22 1.48 1.23 1.45 0.96
10 1.08 1.35 0.70 1.23 0.99
 Network rehabilitation exercise 253

NAMETOWN – diurnal patterns

Hours Domestic Campus Hostels Hotel Leakage

11 0.96 1.30 0.65 1.12 1.00

12 0.85 1.32 0.45 0.89 1.01
13 0.95 1.65 1.01 1.34 1.01
14 1.21 1.53 0.95 1.28 1.00
15 1.35 1.37 0.65 1.00 1.01
16 1.65 1.32 0.45 0.88 0.99
17 1.88 1.25 0.88 0.65 0.99
18 1.75 1.20 1.65 1.20 0.96
19 1.20 1.15 1.44 1.43 0.96
20 0.86 1.04 1.38 1.33 0.97
21 0.53 1.01 1.28 1.26 1.00
22 0.33 0.85 1.25 1.08 1.01
23 0.28 0.66 1.20 0.87 1.03
24 0.29 0.43 1.15 0.70 1.04

Table 4.5 Investment costs for the equipment, in Euros (EUR)

No. Component EUR Per

1.1 Laying PE pipe D = 50 mm 45.00 m

1.2 Laying PE pipe D = 80 mm 72.00 m
1.3 Laying PE pipe D = 100 mm 90.00 m
1.4 Laying PE pipe D = 150 mm 135.00 m
1.5 Laying PE pipe D = 200 mm 180.00 m
1.6 Laying PE pipe D = 250 mm 225.00 m
1.7 Laying PE pipe D = 300 mm 270.00 m
1.8 Laying PE pipe D = 400 mm 360.00 m
1.9 Laying PE pipe D = 500 mm 450.00 m
1.10 Laying PE pipe D = 600 mm 540.00 m
2. Pumping station 5000×Q0.8 Q = Qmax m3 /h
3. Reservoir 300,000+150×V V = Vtot m3
4. Support structure for H m elevated tank 3×H×V V = Vtot m3
5. Pressure-reducing valve (PRV) 1000+30×D D = D PRV mm

4.2.4 Financial considerations

An international loan has been requested and approved with a payback period of
20 years and interest rate of 8 %. The loan is intended only for construction of the
distribution part of the network, which does not include the tertiary network or
service connections.
The equipment will be procured according to the prices listed in Table 4.5.
For laying pipes in parallel, a double price as indicated under 1.1–1.10 should be
considered.
254 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 4.6 Annual operation and maintenance costs

No. Component % of investment

1. Distribution pipes 0.5

2. Pumping station 2.0
3. Storage 0.8

The preliminary cost of the pumping station takes the maximum installed
capacity into consideration, while the cost of the tanks will be based on the total
volume. Elevated tanks will have an approximated additional cost of the support-
ing structure proportional to the height and the volume. Finally, the preliminary
cost of the PRV is based on the selected diameter.
Annual operation and maintenance costs (O&M) are determined as a per-
centage of the investment costs, as shown in Table 4.6. For the current layout,
before any renovation takes place, the annual O&M costs can be assumed at
EUR 100,000, which will increase by another EUR 30,000 by the end of the
design period.
As all cost calculations are to be done in Euros, the effects of local inflation
may be neglected.

4.3 Design steps and corresponding questions

4.3.1 Current demand scenario

3.1.1 Connect 3000 new consumers in the district SUBURBS to the network,
assuming an average specific consumption of 100 l/c/d. Assume a homo-
geneous population distribution of the new consumers and the same diur-
nal demand pattern within the district. Adapt the base demand and average
leakage (flow) of nodes e01 to e08 accordingly. What will the percentage
of increase in the average demand in the SUBURBS district be after these
actions?
3.1.2 Based on the assigned IN value, calculate the total number of beds in the
new hotel and attach it to node b12. Adapt the calculated base demand of
the hotel to negate the effect of seasonal variations during the simulations.
Also, neglect the increase of leakage in node b12 as a result of the demand
increase caused by the hotel. What will the percentage of increase in the
average demand in NEW TOWN be after these actions?
3.1.3 Use your own IN value and adjust the general demand multiplier; run
the 24-hour extended period simulation (EPS) for the scenario of the
maximum consumption day, with a time interval of one hour. Plot the
24-hour diagram of the demand variation for the entire system. What will
be the demand in the maximum consumption hour and at what time will
it appear? Equally, what will be the demand in the minimum consumption
hour and at what time will it appear?
 Network rehabilitation exercise 255

3.1.4 Based on the results of the simulation under 3.1.3, plot the network layout
showing the values of the pressures and hydraulic gradients (‘Unit Head-
loss’ in EPANET), in the maximum consumption hour; use two separate
figures, respectively. Analyse these values and identify the list of critical
nodes and pipes in the network. What will be the most affected district of
the NAMETOWN and what will the degree of service interruption be (low
and/or negative pressures)?
3.1.5 Based on the conclusions drawn under 3.1.4, make a pipe rehabilitation
plan and adapt the network model so that the bottlenecks can be removed
and the pressures maintained above a threshold of 25 mwc at all times.
Make a list of the new pipe diameters, run the EPS and plot the layout
of the modified network showing the values of the pressures and hydrau-
lic gradients in the maximum consumption hour. Furthermore, plot the
24-hour pressure diagram of the two nodes with the lowest and the high-
est pressure in the network, respectively. Finally, plot the 24-hour velocity
diagram of the two pipes with the lowest and the highest velocity in the
network, respectively. What will the range of pressures and velocities in
the network be during the maximum consumption day?
3.1.6 Using the diagram produced under 3.1.3, calculate the balancing volume of
the reservoir at source S1. Assume constant production/inflow over 24 hours.
What will the total volume be if the emergency provision of three hours of
average flow on the maximum consumption day has been planned in addition
to the balancing volume (neglecting the other provisions)? Size the reservoir
cross-section area and height, and model the source S1 as a set-up of a sup-
ply node connected to the balancing tank with a dummy pipe (instead of the
existing reservoir). Run the hydraulic simulation and plot the 24-hour dia-
gram showing the tank depth variation. What is the depth of the water (the
volume percentage) at the beginning/end of the day (at midnight)?
3.1.7 Analyse the (higher) pressures in the lower parts of the system, and pro-
vide one pressure-reducing valve (PRV) that will minimise the down-
stream pressures, however not below the threshold. Run the EPS and plot
the network layout showing the valve operation. What will be the most
suitable current location and setting of the PRV?

NOTE: The EPANET files used in questions 3.1.3, 3.1.5 and 3.1.7 have to be
saved and submitted (electronically) with the final report. Use a uniform filename
pattern by replacing NAMETOWN.NET with your own name or a name of your
choice, and the question number. E.g. TRITOWN313.NET, etc.

4.3.2 Future demand scenario

3.2.1 Using your own IN value, calculate the demand of NAMETOWN at the
end of the design period, by taking into consideration the annual popula-
tion increase per district (indicated in Table 4.3), the growth of unit con-
sumption per capita and the leakage percentages, as specified above. What
will the percentage increase in average demand in the NAMETOWN be
compared to the current situation?
256 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

3.2.2 Adapt the network model for the demand scenario at the end of the design
period and run EPS. Based on the simulation results, plot the network
layout showing the values of the pressures and hydraulic gradients in the
maximum consumption hour. Analyse these values and identify the list
of critical nodes and pipes in the network. How severe is the degree of
service interruption (low and/or negative pressures)?
3.2.3 Connect the second source reservoir (S2) to the network. The bottom
elevation of the reservoir should be estimated based on the elevations of
the neighbouring nodes. Set the diameter of the new PE pipe connection
at 150 mm and estimate its length proportional to the length of the other
pipes. Run another EPS. Based on the simulation results, plot the network
layout showing the values of the pressures and hydraulic gradients in the
maximum consumption hour. How much has the situation improved after
connecting the second source?
3.2.4 Based on the conclusions from 3.2.2 and 3.2.3, propose the most suit-
able location for the pumping station in the network. Select the duty
flow(s) and head(s), the number of pump units and their scheduling so
that the available choice of KSB ETANORM pumps shown in Figure 4.9
can be fitted later. Due to their age, it is also planned to replace all the
remaining CI pipes, regardless of their hydraulic performance. In case of
severe problems, combine the best possible choice of the pumps with an
extended plan of renovation. This can include: (1) additional pipe replace-
ment, (2) changes to the PRV settings and/or position, (3) a balancing
tank at a suitable location in the network, or (4) a combination of these
measures. Adapt the network model accordingly, so that the bottlenecks
can be removed and the pressures maintained above the threshold of 20
mwc throughout the maximum consumption day. Following the balance
of supply between the two sources, calculate the volume and dimensions
of the reservoir in S2. Then model the second source which is also a tank
(such as in the case of S1) and run the EPS. Plot the layout of the modified
network showing the values of the pressures and hydraulic gradients in
the maximum consumption hour. Furthermore, plot the 24-hour diagram
showing the depth variation in both source tanks. What will be the range
of minimum and maximum depth, and the balance of supply between the
two sources? What is the range of pressures and velocities in the network
during the maximum consumption day?

NOTE: The EPANET files used in questions 3.2.2, 3.2.3 and 3.2.4 have to be
saved and submitted (electronically) with the final report.

4.3.3 Pumping station design

3.3.1 Based on the results under 3.2.4, select the required pump type, impel-
ler size, and the number of units that can supply the daily demand varia-
tion in the network. The specifications for the selected KSB ETANORM
pump units are available in Annex 1. Adapt the model by replacing the
duty flow(s) and head(s) with the exact pair of points from the selected
 Network rehabilitation exercise
257

Figure 4.9 The KSB ETANORM pump range (n = 1450 rpm)

258 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

diagrams and verify the choice by running another EPS. Plot a 24-hour
pressure diagram of the two nodes with the lowest and the highest pres-
sures in the network, respectively. Furthermore, plot a 24-hour diagram
of the two pipes with the lowest and the highest velocity in the network,
respectively. Finally, plot a 24-hour diagram of the flows for all the pumps
in the pumping station. What will be the total energy consumption for the
pumping station on the maximum consumption day?
3.3.2 Calculate the required power for the pumps and driving devices. Based
on this result, select the motor size (available from the pump specifica-
tion details in the original KSB catalogue) that is to be used with each
pump unit. Using the pump specification details, determine the pump inlet
and outlet diameters along with the required dimensions of the foundation
plate. Estimate the minimum surface area that is needed to accommodate
the pump unit and the motor, allowing sufficient space around the pumps
to enable installation and routine maintenance.
3.3.3 It is assumed that electricity will be used for the pump operation. Size a
transformer for this purpose. In addition, decide on the type and number
of stand-by units, and size the diesel-driven generator that is to be used in
irregular situations.
3.3.4 Based on the type and number of the selected pumps, draw a schematic
layout of the pump arrangement, indicating the pipe lengths, the position
of the pump units, and the major valves and fittings. An example for a
station with three pumps is shown in Figure 4.10. Determine tentative

Figure 4.10 Schematic layout of the pumping station

 Network rehabilitation exercise 259

diameters of the main pipes shown in the figure and calculate the total
friction loss for the worst-case scenario. Assume the length of the feeder
main is 20 m, and the length of the discharge header between this pump
and the exit point of the pumping station is 15 m. The pipe lengths between
the pumps on the suction and the pressure side should be estimated based
on the space determined under 3.3.2. Assume the absolute roughness, k, of
all pipes to be 0.25 mm.
3.3.5 Observe the locations where the major local losses occur and calculate
these (tank inlet, major bends, branches, valves, reducers and enlargers)
under the worst-case scenario. Add 20% provision to account for the local
losses omitted in this calculation (other bends, measuring equipment, pipe
joints, etc.). What will the total head loss be in the pumping station?
3.3.6 Enlarge the pipe diameters where necessary in order to ensure that the
total head loss is within an acceptable range (for this exercise, assume
maximum 1.0 mwc). Check the required NPSH for the selected pumps and
determine the maximum allowed elevation of the pump axis that satisfies
this requirement.

NOTE: Each pipe in the layout should be listed with its length, diameter, and the
maximum velocity. All points where the local losses have been calculated should
be shown with the head loss value. Furthermore, the EPANET file used in Ques-
tion 3.3.1 must be saved and submitted (electronically) with the final report.

4.3.4 Cost calculations

4.3.1 Summarising all the interventions in the network proposed under 3.1.7
and 3.3.1, calculate the total investment cost. Calculate the present worth
of the investment and capital recovery factor (annuity). For this, assume
that the investments to improve the current situation are made immedi-
ately, while the investments that should provide a satisfactory level of
service at the end of the design period are made after 10 years.
4.3.2 Calculate the costs of operation and maintenance at the beginning (after
the initial renovation has taken place), and at the end of the design period.
Assume the pumping energy costs by applying a uniform electricity tariff
of 0.15 EUR/kWh (at the end of the design period).
4.3.3 With production costs of EUR 0.45 per m3 at the beginning, and EUR
0.60 per m3 at the end of the design period (tax included in both cases),
calculate the total cost of water at the beginning and the end of the design
period, including operation, maintenance and the loan repayment of the
distribution network.

4.4 The layout of the design report

The text of the final report should be concise, yet include discussions and justi-
fication for the selected approach in the network design. The case introduction
should be limited only to the summary of the input data based on the individual
data set.
260 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Make sure that you answer all the questions and include all the diagrams and
electronic versions of the EPANET files requested in the previous section, not
more, not less. The checklist of the figures to be enclosed is:

Current demand scenario – the beginning of the design period (Session 1)

1. a 24-hour diagram of the demand variation for the entire system on the maxi-
mum consumption day. (3.1.3)
2. the layout of the network showing the values of the pressures in the maxi-
mum consumption hour. (3.1.4)
3. the layout of the network showing the values of the hydraulic gradients (‘Unit
Headloss’ in EPANET) in the maximum consumption hour. (3.1.4)
4. a 24-hour pressure diagram of the two nodes with the lowest and the highest
pressures in the network on the maximum consumption day, respectively.
(3.1.5)
5. a 24-hour velocity diagram of the two pipes with the lowest and the highest
velocities in the network, respectively. (3.1.5)
6. a 24-hour diagram showing the volume/depth variation of the source reser-
voir in S1. (3.1.6)
7. the layout of the network pressures showing the PRV operation on the maxi-
mum consumption day. (3.1.7)

Future demand scenario – the end of the design period (Session 2)

8. the layout of the network showing the values of the pressures in the maxi-
mum consumption hour. (3.2.2)
9. the layout of the network showing the values of the hydraulic gradients in the
maximum consumption hour. (3.2.2)
10. the layout of the network showing the values of the pressures in the maxi-
mum consumption hour. (3.2.3)
11. the layout of the network showing the values of the hydraulic gradients in the
maximum consumption hour. (3.2.3)
12. the layout of the network showing the values of the pressures in the maxi-
mum consumption hour. (3.2.4)
13. the layout of the network showing the values of the hydraulic gradients in the
maximum consumption hour. (3.2.4)
14. a 24-hour diagram showing the depth variation in both source tanks. (3.2.4)

Pumping station design – the end of the design period (Session 3)

15. a 24-hour pressure diagram of the two nodes with the lowest and the highest
pressures in the network, respectively. (3.3.1)
16. a 24-hour velocity diagram of the two pipes with the lowest and the highest
velocities in the network, respectively. (3.3.1)
17. a 24-hour diagram of flows for all the pumps in the pumping station. (3.3.1)
18. a schematic layout of the pump arrangement, indicating the pipe lengths, the
position of the pump units, and the major valves and fittings; each pipe in
the layout should be indicated with its length, diameter, and the maximum
velocity; all the points where the local losses have been calculated should be
shown with the head loss value. (3.3.4)
 Network rehabilitation exercise 261

Figure 4.11 Example of the EPANET results for a time series

NOTE: All the figures except no. 18 can be produced as direct output from EPA-
NET by the ‘Edit>>Copy to . . . ‘ menu option. If the diagrams are saved as
files, the ‘Metafile’ format will consume less memory than the ‘Bitmap’. One
example of the direct transfer of results from EPANET to MS Word is shown in
Figure 4.11. 24-hour diagrams can also be produced by exporting the results in
tabular format to MS Excel, and making the diagrams there (after pasting the data
from Clipboard). Furthermore, figure no. 18 can be pasted from Spreadsheet Les-
son 6–6 together with the corresponding table showing the results of head-loss
calculations.
Finally, the electronic versions of seven EPANET files (NET format) related
to the following questions are to be submitted with the final report: 3.1.3, 3.1.5,
3.1.7, 3.2.2, 3.2.3, 3.2.4, and 3.3.1. Make sure that each file is given a unique
name that clearly indicates the question and the author of the solution, as sug-
gested above.

4.5 The tutorial

The example solved in this section is based on IN = 2.0 while the number of
consumers connected to the network in the SUBURBS district is 3700. The sec-
ond source, to mitigate the future demand increase, is located in the CAMPUS
district (area D). All other data are used as specified in the case introduction in
Section 4.2.

4.5.1 Base demand modelling (Question 3.1.1)

The SUBURBS district currently has 2096 consumers supplied from the distribu-
tion system, which results in a total base demand of 3.032 l/s including the leak-
age, as can be seen in Table 4.7.
262 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 4.7 Structure of the current base demand in the SUBURBS district

Node Elevation Demand District NAMETOWN – current situation

name (msl) pattern
Population q Qc Leaks Ql Qd
(l/c/d) (l/s) (%) (l/s) (l/s)

e01 17.91 Domestic Suburbs 256 100 0.296 20 0.074 0.370

e02 17.77 Domestic Suburbs 160 100 0.185 20 0.046 0.231
e03 22.99 Domestic Suburbs 192 100 0.222 20 0.056 0.278
e04 30.10 Domestic Suburbs 336 100 0.389 20 0.097 0.486
e05 38.88 Domestic Suburbs 528 100 0.611 20 0.153 0.764
e06 16.13 Domestic Suburbs 224 100 0.259 20 0.065 0.324
e07 22.96 Domestic Suburbs 256 100 0.296 20 0.074 0.370
e08 35.39 Domestic Suburbs 144 100 0.167 20 0.042 0.208
TOTAL: 2096 2.426 0.606 3.032

Figure 4.12 Population distribution (example calculation)

To connect additional consumers in the SUBURBS district, the simplified process

of the node demand modelling is described in Volume 1, Section 4.3.4. In com-
bination of loops and branches, the assumption of uniform distribution of house
connections alongside the pipes can be expected, as illustrated in Figure 4.12.

The arbitrary distribution of 3700 inhabitants as shown in the figure will lead to
the calculation of the number of consumers supplied in nodes e01 to e08, based
on the following assumptions:

• 500 consumers supplied from pipes p62 and p65;

• 1000 consumers supplied from pipes p65, p61, p64 and p67;
• 200 consumers supplied from pipe p67 (located outside the loop);
• 1000 consumers supplied from pipes p64, p60, p63 and p66;
• 800 consumers supplied from pipe p59.

The number/length of pipes involved that share the total number of consumers
outside the loops will depend on the knowledge about the situation in the field.
 Network rehabilitation exercise 263

The distribution in the above figure, proportional to the related pipe lengths,
would look as follows:

• 247 consumers out of 500 are supplied by p62 and 253 by p65; consequently,
123.5 consumers will be allocated to node e05, 123.5 + 126.5 to node e04 and
126.5 to node e08;
• 235 consumers out of 1000 are supplied by p65, 240 by p61, 281 by p64 and
244 by p67; consequently, 117.5 consumers will each be allocated to nodes
e08 and e04, 120 to nodes e04 and e03, 140.5 to nodes e03 and e07 and 122
to e07 and e08;
• an additional 100 consumers will each be allocated to nodes e07 and e08;
• 313 consumers out of 1200 are supplied by p64, 278 by p60, 340 by p63 and
269 by p66; consequently, 156.5 consumers will each be allocated to nodes
e07 and e03, 139 to nodes e03 and e02, 170 to nodes e02 and e06 and 134.5
to e06 and e07;
• an additional 400 consumers will be allocated to node e02 and 400 to node e01.

Finally, the allocation of 3700 consumers to nodes e01 to e08 looks as follows:
e01–400, e02–709, e03–556, e04–487, e05–124, e06–305, e07–653, and e08–466.
Assuming the same specific demand for the additional consumers, the total
demand in the district after their connection to the centralised supply will be
8.385 l/s, as shown in Table 4.8. This results in a demand increase of (8.385–
3.032)/3.032/0.01 = 176.6% i.e. more than twice.

Clarifications:
• The above demands have been calculated using the spreadsheets available
with this exercise. The spreadsheet named ‘SUBURBS-population growth’
allocates the population numbers randomly spread over the area, as demon-
strated in Figure 4.12, to the nodes e01 to e08. Based on the allocated popula-
tion in each node, the second spreadsheet named ‘NAMETOWN-nodes and
pipes’ calculates the nodal consumption, leakage and demand, for selected

Table 4.8 Structure of the base demand in the SUBURBS district after connecting 3700
consumers

Node Elevation Demand District NAMETOWN – current situation

name (msl) pattern
Population q Qc Leaks Ql Qd
(l/c/d) (l/s) (%) (l/s) (l/s)

e01 17.91 Domestic Suburbs 656 100 0.759 20 0.190 0.949

e02 17.77 Domestic Suburbs 869 100 1.006 20 0.251 1.257
e03 22.99 Domestic Suburbs 748 100 0.866 20 0.216 1.082
e04 30.10 Domestic Suburbs 823 100 0.953 20 0.238 1.191
e05 38.88 Domestic Suburbs 652 100 0.755 20 0.189 0.943
e06 16.13 Domestic Suburbs 529 100 0.612 20 0.153 0.765
e07 22.96 Domestic Suburbs 909 100 1.052 20 0.263 1.315
e08 35.39 Domestic Suburbs 610 100 0.706 20 0.177 0.883
TOTAL: 5796 6.708 1.677 8.385
264 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

specific consumption and leakage percentages. This spreadsheet is also used

to determine the values shown in tables 4.1 and 4.2.
• Minor deviations in the total values shown in tables 4.7 and 4.8 originate
from the rounding of individual values.

Conclusions:
• Because of the uniform values of specific demand and leakage percentage,
the demand growth percentage is equivalent to the population growth per-
centage in this case, which usually is not the situation when varied demand
categories are supplied from the same network.
• A sharp increase in the demand in the SUBURBS district, after connecting
3700 consumers, is also very likely to have an impact on a few other districts,
demanding more significant network renovation to mitigate the pressure
losses in the network.

Comment:
• The presented demand modelling approach offers a good starting point in the
model building process. More detailed water demand analyses are needed at
a later stage because the simplifications introduced in this step may still result
in an insufficiently accurate demand distribution in the model.

Reading:
Volume 1, Section 4.3.4: ‘Nodal demands’.

4.5.2 Modelling of hotel demand (Question 3.1.2)

The hotel is planned in node b12 in the NEW TOWN district. This district currently
has 8560 consumers supplied from the distribution system, which results in a total
base demand of 11.258 l/s including the leakage, as can be seen in Table 4.9.

Table 4.9 Structure of the current base demand in the NEW TOWN district

Node Elevation Demand District NAMETOWN – current situation

name (msl) pattern
Population q Qc Leaks Ql Qd
(l/c/d) (l/s) (%) (l/s) (l/s)

b01 24.82 Domestic New town 960 100 1.111 12 0.152 1.263
b02 27.10 Domestic New town 544 100 0.630 12 0.086 0.715
b03 28.16 Domestic New town 1200 100 1.389 12 0.189 1.578
b04 32.41 Domestic New town 752 100 0.870 12 0.119 0.989
b05 37.71 Domestic New town 480 100 0.556 12 0.076 0.631
b06 41.81 Domestic New town 912 100 1.056 12 0.144 1.199
b07 41.78 Domestic New town 672 100 0.778 12 0.106 0.884
b08 46.80 Domestic New town 592 100 0.685 12 0.093 0.779
b09 24.71 Domestic New town 96 100 0.111 12 0.015 0.126
b10 23.74 Domestic New town 96 100 0.111 12 0.015 0.126
b11 33.35 Domestic New town 832 100 0.963 12 0.131 1.094
b12 42.72 Domestic New town 1424 100 1.648 12 0.225 1.873
TOTAL: 8560 9.907 1.351 11.258
 Network rehabilitation exercise 265

The hotel capacity for IN = 2.0 will be 400–100×2.0 = 200 beds, which at an average
consumption of 300 l/d per bed increases the base demand for 200×300/24/3600
= 0.694 l/s. Because of the multiplication of all the nodes by the general demand
multiplier, that multiplication can be annulled by dividing the base demand of
the hotel by the same multiplier; the seasonal variations do not apply in this case,
as mentioned in the introduction to the assignment. Thus, the base demand of
the hotel is then modelled in EPANET as 0.694/2.0 = 0.347 l/s. Yet, on the aver-
age day and with a fully occupied hotel, the base demand in the NEW TOWN
increases from 11.258 l/s to 11.952 l/s, which is a growth of 6.2 %. The base
demand of node b12 will then grow from 1.873 l/s to 2.567 l/s, or for 37 %.

Clarification:
• Because the seasonal demand variations do not apply in the case of the hotel,
the growth percentages would be reduced if the total demand on the maxi-
mum consumption day is analysed. The hotel baseline demand of 0.347 l/s
that is corrected by the general demand multiplier is used in this case, result-
ing in the growth percentages of ((11.258 + 0.347)/11.258–1) ×100 = 3.1 %
and 18.5 %, respectively.

Conclusion:
• Hotel construction in the NEW TOWN district moderately affects the demand
in this area and the rest of the network. Localised pressure drops are therefore
expected, requiring the renovation mostly in the vicinity of node b12.

4.5.3 The range of network demand in the current

scenario (Question 3.1.3)
In this exercise, the general demand multiplier that represents the seasonal
demand variations i.e. the scenario of maximum consumption day is introduced
in EPANET by the ‘Project>>Analysis Options . . . >>Demand Multiplier‘
menu option. This will display the corresponding property editor that looks as
shown in Figure 4.10a (left). For the selected IN value of 2.0 and assuming no
impact from the hotel on the leakage increase in the NEW TOWN district, the
property editor of the demand in node b12 will look as in Figure 4.10b (right).
It opens after double-clicking on the node, and right-clicking again in the cell
Demand Categories.
The diurnal time pattern is to be created for the hotel from the consumption
peak factors shown in Table 4.4, which is done by introducing these values in the
EPANET Data Browser. Following this step, the model to run the first simulation
of the current demand scenario has been finalised.
This simulation run (file NT313a) delivers a system flow as shown in Fig-
ure 4.14 (viewed in EPANET by the ‘Report>>Graph . . . >>System Flow‘
menu option).
The same result can be observed in tabular form, looking at the time series for
the source node (S1) or the link (p01) that connects the source with the network
(menu option ‘Report>>Table . . . >> Time Series for Node/Link‘). The results
266 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.13 The general demand multiplier (a) left, and the demand in node b12 (b) right,
for IN = 2.0

Figure 4.14 NT313a: the demand variation of NAMETOWN on the maximum consump-
tion day

for S1 will show the negative demand, which depicts the source supply. In either
of these cases, the simulation shows the range of the demands between 48.21 l/s
at 00:00/24:00 hours, and 176.61 l/s at 06:00 hours.

Clarifications:
• The shape of the curve in Figure 4.14 reflects the mixture of all the consump-
tion categories and the leakage patterns. The green curve showing the total
 Network rehabilitation exercise 267

demand overlaps the read curve showing the production because the patterns
are identical.
• Nodal demands in EPANET are calculated as a product of the base demands,
the general demand multiplier (without any exception!) and the hourly peak
factors if the diurnal pattern has been defined and assigned to the node (in the
junction property editor).
• If the effect of the general demand multiplier is to be cancelled in some nodes,
their base demands should always be divided by the same multiplier before
being put in the property editor (as suggested above, in the hotel case).
• The (diurnal) demand pattern is specified in the pattern editor, with peak
factors assigned to the selected time period i.e. the hydraulic time step.
These values represent the hourly values only if the full series of 24 has been
defined, and if the EPS duration has been defined for 24 hours at the hydraulic
time step of one hour, leading to 24 snapshot calculations.
• If the total number of peak factors is smaller than the number of snapshot
calculations, the peak factor series will be restarted from the beginning as
many times as needed to complete the full duration of the EPS.
• EPANET executes the most common EPS of 24 hours at the hydraulic time
step of one hour by showing the results that include 25 values, where the first
one (at 00:00 hours) and the last one (at 24:00 hours) are actually the same.
So, EPANET assigns the first defined peak factor to the snapshot at 00:00
hours (not at 01:00 hours!). The actual consequence is that the maximum
peak demands in EPANET results appear one hour earlier than specified in
figures 4.4–4.8 and Table 4.4. This should be noted but no specific interven-
tion is needed in this exercise (often neglected in general). Yet, the first or the
last value need to be removed when calculating the average flows for the day.
• EPANET applies the default diurnal pattern (‘Domestic’ in this exercise)
even if this has not been specified in the property editor of the newly intro-
duced nodes.

Conclusion:
• A relatively wide range of diurnal flows is likely to result in a wide range of
pressures during the day, also amplified by the wide range of elevations in the
network.

4.5.4 The range of pressures and gradients in the current

scenario (Question 3.1.4)
This question takes into consideration the same simulation as in the previous
question. The snapshot results during the maximum consumption hour (at 06:00)
on the maximum consumption day are shown in Figures 4.15 for the pressures,
and in 4.16 for the hydraulic gradients.

Clarification:
• ‘Unit Headloss’ in EPANET has the same meaning as the hydraulic gradient
being expressed in m/km. Hydraulic gradients are commonly expressed with-
out dimensions. In this case the unit headloss of, say, 10 m/km is equivalent
to S = 0.010.
268 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.15 NT313a: pressures at 06:00 hours (mwc)

Conclusions:
• Figure 4.15 shows that the network is considerably under-designed for the
given demand scenario, barely having nodes with positive pressure, let alone
above the required minimum of 20 mwc. None of the nodes actually satisfies
this pressure criterion during the maximum consumption hour.
 Network rehabilitation exercise 269

Figure 4.16 NT313a: hydraulic gradients at 06:00 hours (m/km)

• The most critical situation is in the SUBURBS district, with the minimum
pressure of -196.00 mwc, which is a logical consequence of connecting
3700 consumers without increasing the conveying capacity of the network.
The pressure in node b12, where the hotel is planned for construction, is
-148.67 mwc.
270 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

• The low pressures in general originate from too small pipes generating
high friction losses, which is reflected in very high values of hydraulic
gradients, as shown in Figure 4.16. The figure shows just a few periph-
eral pipes having gradients below 10 m/km, which could be considered
acceptable, given their small diameters and low flows they are carrying.
The highest value of the hydraulic gradient of 307.72 m/km is registered
in pipe p66 in the SUBURBS district. The hydraulic gradients in the pipes
connecting the hotel in node b12 are also extremely high (p36–249.00 m/
km, p38–105.84 m/km).

Comments:
• Low pressures and high hydraulic gradients complement each other and are
two sides of the same problem, which is the low conveying capacity of the
network caused by too small pipe diameters for the given demand scenario.
Raising the heads by pumping will improve the pressures but with extreme
hydraulic gradients the cost of that pumping will be too high. Enlarging the
pipes in order to mitigate the hydraulic scenario shown in figures 4.15 and
4.16 is a far more viable option.
• The overview of the critical nodes and pipes can be made using the menu option
‘View>>Query . . . , which opens the editor to filter the results based on the
specified criteria. Figure 4.17 shows the nodes with negative pressure (left) and
the pipes with a hydraulic gradient above 10 m/km (right), both shown in red.

Figure 4.17 NT313a: fltering of the results at 06:00 hours

 Network rehabilitation exercise 271

4.5.5 Renovation plan in the current demand scenario

(Question 3.1.5)
High demand in the network demands a radical renovation plan already in place
at the beginning of the design period. Just to check the effect of dealing with the
most important route going through the middle of the network (p01-p02-p04-
p06-p08-p17-p20-p23-p28-p42-p58-p68-p69), these 13 pipes have been enlarged
with the first available larger diameter in Table 4.5. Consequently, the first seven
pipes along the route were enlarged from 300 to 400 mm, the following two from
250 to 300 mm, the following two from 200 to 250 mm, and the final two from
150 to 200 mm and from 100 to 150 mm, respectively. The results of hydraulic
simulation based on this modification (file NT315a) show significant improve-
ment, as can be seen in Figure 4.18, but the critical parts of the network are still
significantly underserved; actually, without water.

Conclusions:
• The intervention shown in Figure 4.18 has reduced the number of nodes
with negative pressure from 42 in the original network to 9 (out of a total of
57 nodes). At the same time, the number of pipes with a hydraulic gradient
above 10 m/km was reduced from 53 to 37 (out of a total of 69 pipes).
• Despite these improvements, the network is still largely under-designed with
significant problems in the SUBURBS and NEW TOWN districts.

Figure 4.18 NT315a: enlargement of the main route: the results at 06:00 hours
272 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

• Any further plans for renovation should focus on the remaining pipes in these
areas, starting from the upstream side. A diameter increase that lowers the
hydraulic gradient to below 10 m/km would be considered a good starting
point in arriving at the final list of pipes.

After running several trials, the final list of pipes that are enlarged in the network
is shown in Table 4.10 and Figure 4.19 (illustrated in red). All the new pipes are
modelled with a uniform k value of 0.25 mm, which is used to easily identify the
enlarged pipes. The EPANET file with this scenario is named NT315b.
The results of the hydraulic simulations for this renovation plan are shown in
the figures 4.20 to 4.23.

Table 4.10 Pipe renovation list (material PE, k = 0.25 mm)

NAMETOWN – renovated pipes for the current demand scenario

Pipe Node Node New D Length Old D

name from to (mm) (m) (mm)

p01 S1 a01 400 220 300

p02 a01 a02 400 657 300
p04 a02 a04 400 371 300
p06 a04 a06 400 180 300
p08 a06 a07 400 125 300
p14 a10 a12 80 369 50
p15 a11 a13 80 386 50
p17 a07 a14 400 390 300
p20 a14 a16 400 153 300
p23 a16 a19 300 295 250
p28 a19 b01 300 372 250
p29 b01 b02 200 376 150
p30 b02 b03 200 248 150
p31 b03 b04 150 278 100
p32 b04 b05 100 270 50
p38 b05 b12 80 380 50
p42 b01 c01 250 727 200
p43 c01 c02 150 184 125
p44 c02 d01 150 201 100
p45 d01 d02 50 214 25
p46 d01 d03 150 195 100
p47 d03 d05 100 136 80
p49 d04 d07 50 148 25
p50 d05 d06 100 85 80
p52 d06 d08 80 256 50
p58 c01 e01 250 168 200
p59 e01 e02 150 361 125
p60 e02 e03 150 289 80
p61 e03 e04 100 277 80
p62 e04 e05 80 266 50
p63 e02 e06 100 354 50
p64 e03 e07 100 325 50
p65 e04 e08 80 272 50
p66 e06 e07 50 280 25
p67 e07 e08 50 282 25
 Network rehabilitation exercise 273

Figure 4.19 NT313a: plan of the renovation (left) with new pipe diameters (right)

Conclusions:
• In total 35 out of 69 pipes have been replaced with a larger diameter. The
length of the new pipes is 10,090 m, which equals 52.5 % of the total network
length of 19,224 m. This implicates a major renovation in the gravity sup-
plied network in order to mitigate the huge pressure problems.
• Resulting from this renovation, the minimum pressure of 21.78 mwc
appears in node d07. Strictly speaking, this value is below the required
minimum of 25 mwc. In that sense, the critical node has an isolated prob-
lem, because it is surrounded by nodes with a much higher pressure; the
origin of such pressures is in the lower elevations of these nodes compared
to d07.
• Further improvement of the pressure in d07 would increase the pressures
in general, which is considered unreasonable for the time being, especially
knowing that the location of the second source will be in the CAMPUS dis-
trict. Thus, the problem is temporary and of limited duration. The critical
value shown in Figure 4.20 appears in the maximum consumption hour of the
maximum consumption day and as such it is the absolute minimum pressure
to be expected throughout the year.
• The highest pressure currently occurs in node e01, which is 71.09 mwc at
06:00 hours and reaches 90 mwc during the night time, as Figure 4.22 shows.
274 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.20 NT315b: pressures at 06:00 hours (mwc)

Hence, the network operates with a pressure range of nearly 50 mwc through-
out the day, which originates from the fixed topography in the area and the
gravity supply.
• Thus, the situation in Figure 4.20 shows generally high pressures. This is the
main reason to postpone the replacement of some pipes with high hydraulic
gradients until the demand grows more significantly. The implication of this
 Network rehabilitation exercise 275

decision is that the velocities in some pipes will be rather high. Figure 4.23
shows the maximum velocity reaching nearly 1.7 m/s (pipe p69).

Comments:
• Higher velocities in gravity systems, in the absence of pumping costs, may
be seen as positive from the perspective of water quality (better conveyance,

Figure 4.21 NT315b: hydraulic gradients at 06:00 hours (m/km)

276 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

reducing the sediment accumulation in the pipes). Care should be however

taken when expanding these networks where pipes with higher velocities/
friction losses become serious bottlenecks.
• Starting from the recommended range of the design criteria discussed in Vol-
ume 1, Section 4.2.1, it should be obvious that it is impossible to satisfy
these criteria unanimously in all the nodes and pipes. This is clearly to be
seen in figures 4.22 and 4.23. These design criteria therefore serve more as
guidelines than as rules; some compromise will constantly be needed. It is
therefore most important to be consistent in the further development phases
of the network.

Figure 4.22 NT315b: pressure range on the maximum consumption day

Figure 4.23 NT315b: velocity range on the maximum consumption day

 Network rehabilitation exercise 277

4.5.6 The balancing volume of the source tank

(Question 3.1.6)
S1 is currently the only source in the network, and it supplies the entire
demand by gravity. The reservoir S1 is therefore a balancing tank fed by the
average flow for 24 hours. The balancing volume of this tank serves to cal-
culate the total volume and the tank dimensions. Based on the overall system
flow shown in Figure 4.14, shown for the answer to Question 3.1.3, the cal-
culation follows the theory discussed in Volume 1, Section 4.2.3. The cor-
responding Spreadsheet Lesson 8–10 (see Appendix 7) can be used as an aid,
with the time series results for pipe p01 that connects the tank. Furthermore,
other tank provisions apart from the balancing and emergency volumes can be
neglected in this exercise. As required, the emergency volume is planned at
three hours of average flow supply. The results of the spreadsheet calculation
are shown in Figure 4.24.

Clarifications:
• The input data in the ‘Tank Out’ column of the spreadsheet are taken from the
tabular results for the flow in pipe p01. The flow rate at 00:00 hours has been
removed from the analysis because it is identical to the value at 24:00. The
flow values originally presented in l/s in EPANET are converted into m3/h in
the spreadsheet (the conversion factor is 3.6).
• The average flow calculated from the demand variation has been thereafter
filled in the ‘Tank In’ column and was also used for the calculation of the
emergency provision.

Figure 4.24 A balancing volume calculation in S1 (Spreadsheet Lesson 8–10)

278 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Conclusions:
• The spreadsheet results show an average demand of 370.10 m3/h = 102.81 l/s.
This value is higher than the maximum of the source in S1, which is 90 l/s,
the reason being the extraordinarily high value of IN = 2.0 (the students work
with the maximum IN value of 1.8).
• Assuming that this average flow can be delivered, the balancing volume is
calculated at Vbal = 1469.64 m3. With an emergency volume of 1110.31 m3,
the total volume of the tank will be VS1 = 2579.95 ≈ 2580 m3.
• The initial volume of the tank at the beginning of the day is 1994.90 ≈ 1995
m3, which is approximately 77 % of the total volume.
• The emergency volume takes 43 % of the total volume of the tank. This
volume is reached at 19:00 hours. The rest of the day, the volume will be
recovered up to the same level as at the beginning of the day.

Comments:
• Calculating the balancing volume for the demand on the maximum consump-
tion day will create additional emergency provision on any other day.
• In reality, the demand follows less precise patterns from one day to another,
and also the initial levels at 00:00 and 24:00 hours will rarely be identi-
cal. The target is to make them similar by adapting operational parameters.
Gravity systems in this respect offer less flexibility than the pumped sup-
ply schemes; the valves will normally be used to balance the demand and
supply.

Reading:
Volume 1, Section 4.2.3: ‘Storage design’.

With properly selected tank dimensions, the same volume variation pattern can be
simulated in the computer model. The source reservoir S1 should be remodelled
as EPANET ‘Tanks’, with the actual diameter (assumed to be a round bottom) and
specified minimum, maximum and initial depths, based on the above calculations
using the spreadsheet. The bottom level of the tank can be adjusted by deducting
the maximum depth from the fixed reservoir level which is set at 110 msl. The
tank should be further fed with a constant3 flow from a node with negative base
demand simulating the average supply. The friction loss of the connecting dummy
pipe is irrelevant; this pipe only provides the feed to the tank, and should be there-
fore taken out of the cost calculations. Equally, the elevation and the pressure of
the supply node make no difference for the overall hydraulic performance of the
network that is only influenced by the water level in the tank. The only important
aspect there is to ensure that the base negative demand combined with the demand
pattern and the general multiplier reflects the actual average demand in the net-
work. This technique has been applied and the results for the depth variation of
the tank in S1 are shown in Figure 4.25 (EPANET file NT316a).

3 A separate demand pattern needs to be introduced, simulating constant flow; for instance, with the
name ‘Source’. To simulate constant supply, the ‘Source’ pattern can be defined by a single peak
factor, which EPANET executes repetitively throughout the entire period of the simulation.
 Network rehabilitation exercise 279

Figure 4.25 NT316a: source tank volume variation (S1)

Figure 4.26 NT316a: source tank modelling (S1)

Clarifications:
• For the bottom elevation of the tank specified as the elevation above the ref-
erence level (usually in msl), the pressure in the y axis of the tank diagram
shows the actual tank depth.
• Clicking the right mouse button on the graph opens the editor, which allows
the fonts and the scale of the axes to be adapted.
• The tank has been modelled with a diameter of 25 m and a maximum depth of
5.5 m, leading to the total volume of VS1 = 2699.81 ≈ 2670 m3; thus, slightly
bigger than the one calculated by the Spreadsheet Lesson 8–10.
280 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

• The bottom elevation of the tank was set at 105 msl, while the minimum level
was set at 2.0 m.
• At the beginning of the simulation the initial depth was 3.5 m, showing 64
% of the volume (lower than in the spreadsheet, but this assumes the value at
00:00/24:00, and in a slightly bigger tank in the model).
• The modelling parameters indicated above are shown in Figure 4.26.

Conclusions:
• The tank reaches exactly the same initial level of 3.50 m, at the end of the
simulation, at 24:00 hours.
• The maximum water depth of 5.09 m is reached at 05:00 hours, while
the minimum depth of 2.10 m is reached at 19:00 hours. Both points in
time coincide with the balancing pattern shown in the spreadsheet in
Figure 4.24.

Comments:
• When the tank balancing volume is well designed it normally assumes that
the tank is full before the morning peak hour, and is at the emergency volume
after the afternoon peak demand hour. Both can be observed in figures 4.24
and 4.25.
• When modelling the source as a ‘Tank’ in EPANET, the pressure in the
network will be influenced by the actual level of water in the tank at
every hour. In many cases, this pressure variation will not be significant
compared to the modelling of the source as a ‘Reservoir’; the range is set
by the decision on the tank minimum and maximum levels. The pressure
range with S1 modelled as a ‘Tank’, shown in Figure 4.27, can be com-
pared with the situation shown in Figure 4.22 where S1 was modelled as
a ‘Reservoir’.

Figure 4.27 NT316a: pressure range on the maximum consumption day (S1 = ‘Tank’)
 Network rehabilitation exercise 281

4.5.7 Preliminary location of the pressure-reducing valve

(Question 3.1.7)
A pressure-reducing valve (PRV) is planned in the network in an attempt to
reduce the pressures, especially in the lower part of the network where they are
relatively high, also during the maximum consumption hour. Given the topog-
raphy in the area and the network configuration, the highest impact should be
reached by positioning the PRV somewhere along the main pipe route (p01-
p02-p04-p06-p08-p17-p20-p23-p28-p42-p58-p68-p69) and not too close to the
source.
PRVs are typically installed to control the downstream pressures of a network
zone at a certain pre-set value, which is the downstream setting of the valve.
When the upstream pressure is below this setting, the valve is fully opened; other-
wise it reduces the downstream pressure to the setting. In the event of the down-
stream pressure building up and consequently reversing the flow direction, the
PRV operates as a non-return valve (NRV) or check valve (CV) i.e. it will shut
off. Taking all this into consideration makes little sense to place a PRV on a loop
of pipes because the upstream and the downstream sides of the valve will not be
hydraulically separated (as illustrated in details in Appendix 3).
It is thus very important to clearly define the upstream and the downstream
nodes of the valve in the modelling process. Secondly, any valve in EPANET
is a link with a virtual length; thus, it generates no friction losses. Therefore
replacing an ordinary pipe between two nodes with any type of valve means
neglecting the pipe friction losses over potentially considerable length, which
is incorrect. To avoid this, a dummy node can be introduced on the downstream
side of the valve, having the same elevation as the upstream node of the pipe
where the valve is installed. This dummy node (named here PRVds) is then
connected with the downstream node of the pipe, fully maintaining its physical
properties.
Modelling of the PRV has been tested in four different locations: (1) at node
b01 of pipe p42 (file NT317a), (2) at node c01 of pipe p58 (file NT317b), (3)
at node a14 of pipe p20 (file NT317c), and (4) at node a19 of pipe p28 (file
NT317d). In all these cases, a dummy node was introduced (PRVds) that was
connected to the downstream node of these pipes (c01, e01, a16, and b01,
respectively). The PRV diameters have been reduced to the first lower value in
Table 4.5, compared to the diameter of the pipe in which they are installed. The
initial PRV settings in all cases were 60 mwc. All four locations are indicated
in Figure 4.28. The results of the hydraulic simulations are shown in figures
4.29–4.37

Clarifications:
• Because the model is in the demand-driven mode, the reduction of the pres-
sure by the PRV has no impact whatsoever on the demands in the network.
Consequently, the demand as well as the balancing curve of the tank in the
source will always be the same regardless of the location or the setting of the
PRV. The same will be with the pressures upstream of the PRV that are higher
than i.e. not influenced by the valve setting.
282 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

• The PRV operation in the ‘Time Series’ graph can be illustrated by show-
ing the PRV flow, which replicates the total downstream demand, after the
valve, or by ‘Unit Headloss’, which shows the pressure difference between
the upstream and downstream nodes of the PRV. In that sense the unit m/km
is wrong because the PRV has no length; the result represents the PRV local
loss of energy, in mwc.
• Figures 4.29 and 4.30 show the summary of the PRV flows and head losses
for the EPANET simulation runs conducted for the four PRV positions indi-
cated in Figure 4.28.

Figure 4.28 Four alternative PRV locations (fles NT317a-d)

 Network rehabilitation exercise 283

Figure 4.29 Four alternative PRV fows (fles NT317a-d)

Figure 4.30 Four alternative PRV head losses (fles NT317a-d)

Conclusion (figures 4.29 and 4.30):

• Not surprisingly, the most upstream PRV (file NT317c) controls the largest
portion of the network demand but with the lowest PRV head loss, compared
to the most downstream PRV (file NT317b) controlling the smallest area but
with the largest PRV head loss. This is the direct consequence of the selected
PRV settings that are limited by the topography and the location of the most
critical pressure point in the CAMPUS district (at node d07). Further elabora-
tion is in figures 4.31 to 4.37.
284 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.31 PRV starting in node b01, at 06:00 hours (fle NT317a)

Conclusions (PRV location a):

• The PRV starting in node b01 controls the downstream areas C, D, E and F (file
NT317a, Figure 4.31). Before the PRV with a setting of 60 mwc was placed, the
pressure in node c01 was 70.75 mwc, while the pressure in the most critical node
d07 was 21.78 mwc (from Figure 4.20); modelling the source as a balancing
tank instead of the reservoir would yield the values 70.58 mwc and 21.60 mwc,
respectively (obtained by running the hydraulic simulations of file NT316a).
• The PRV starting level of 60 mwc reduces the pressure in node c01 to 59.86
mwc, while the pressure in the most critical node d07 becomes 10.89 mwc;
the latter is considered to be too low. Hence, with this location for the PRV
the possibilities for pressure reduction are limited due to the location of the
most critical point.

Conclusions (PRV location b):

• The PRV starting in node c01 controls the downstream areas C, E and F (file
NT317b) i.e. it is located downstream of the CAMPUS district and the most
critical pressure in node d07 should be therefore less dependent on the PRV
setting. This is visible in the results shown in Figure 4.32 where the pressure
in d07 equals 21.27 mwc. However, further increase of the pipe diameters in
the SUBURBS district needs to be implemented because of the consequent
pressure drop in this area.
• Nevertheless, this PRV is located on a loop, and the effect of the setting is
therefore not fully utilised in the downstream part of the network.
 Network rehabilitation exercise 285

Figure 4.32 PRV starting in node c01, at 06:00 hours (fle NT317b)

Figure 4.33 PRV starting in node c01, at 06:00 hours, link c02-c03 closed (fle NT317b)
286 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Conclusion (PRV location b, closed link):

• An improvement can be reached by closing the link between nodes c02 and
c03. The positive effect on lowering the downstream pressures can be seen in
Figure 4.33, without affecting the pressure in d07. This also allows for further
reduction of the pressure by lowering the setting to 50 mwc, which is to be
seen in the results in Figure 4.34.

Conclusion (PRV location c):

• In the location furthest upstream, the PRV also controls the NEW TOWN
district where the hotel in b12 is located (file NT317c). The results in Figure
4.35 show the same problem as in Figure 4.31, namely the limitation of the
PRV setting because of its influence in node d07. This can be partly mitigated
by connecting nodes b01 and d08, if the routing of the pipe was possible. The
results shown in Figure 4.36 indicate pressures after installing a pipe of 370
m length, 100 mm diameter, and a k value of 0.25 mm. Moreover, a further
increase in the pipe diameters in the NEW TOWN district needs to be imple-
mented to maintain the pressures in this area.

Conclusion (PRV location d):

• The final PRV location was tested starting in node a19 (file NT317d) and with
the setting of 60 mwc. The pressures at 06:00 for these conditions are shown
in Figure 4.37. It is to be noted that next to still existing pressure problem in
node d07, the pressures are also insufficient in the NEW TOWN district; the
situation that clearly originates from too low pressure setting.

Figure 4.34 PRV starting in node c01, link c02-c03 closed, PRV setting = 50 mwc (fle
NT317b)
 Network rehabilitation exercise 287

Figure 4.35 PRV starting in node a14, at 06:00 hours (fle NT317c)

Figure 4.36 PRV starting in node a14, at 06:00 hours, added link b01-d08 (fle NT317c)
288 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.37 PRV starting in node a19, at 06:00 hours (fle NT317d)

Comment:
• Despite the pressure problems, the PRV location shown in Figure 4.37 has
been adopted for the analyses of the future demand conditions, with the set-
ting increased to 70 mwc, also taking into consideration the fact that the sec-
ond source is located in the CAMPUS district. Keeping the PRV upstream of
this district gives options to control the contributions from the two sources,
which is further elaborated in the questions dealing with the pump modelling/
design. Furthermore, the plan for current renovation with this position for the
PRV remains the same as shown in Table 4.10.

Reading:
Appendix 8: ‘EPANET – Version 2’ (information on valve modelling)

4.5.8 Future demand growth (Question 3.2.1)

The network layout from the EPANET file NT317d has been carried forward for
the analyses of the future demand situation at the end of the design period, which
is after 20 years. The average demand after connecting 3700 consumers in the
SUBURBS district is shown in Table 4.11. Applying the annual growth percent-
ages per district, as shown in Table 4.3, with the specific demand increased from
100 to 106 l/c/d, and the uniform leakage demand percentage of 17 %, the average
demand after 20 years will be as shown in Table 4.12.
 Network rehabilitation exercise 289

Table 4.11 Structure of the base node demand and leakage – present situation

Node Elevation Demand District NAMETOWN – current situation

name (msl) pattern
Population q Qc Leaks Ql Qd
(l/c/d) (l/s) (%) (l/s) (l/s)

a01 82.48 Domestic Old town 0 0 0.000 0 0.000 0.000

a02 68.48 Domestic Old town 868 100 1.005 25 0.335 1.340
a03 65.77 Domestic Old town 768 100 0.889 25 0.296 1.185
a04 48.90 Domestic Old town 960 100 1.111 25 0.370 1.481
a05 48.81 Domestic Old town 656 100 0.759 25 0.253 1.012
a06 42.95 Domestic Old town 320 100 0.370 25 0.123 0.494
a07 42.07 Domestic Old town 704 100 0.815 25 0.272 1.086
a08 41.51 Domestic Old town 368 100 0.426 25 0.142 0.568
a09 41.21 Domestic Old town 544 100 0.630 25 0.210 0.840
a10 43.83 Domestic Old town 208 100 0.241 25 0.080 0.321
a11 59.47 Domestic Old town 304 100 0.352 25 0.117 0.469
a12 56.74 Domestic Old town 416 100 0.481 25 0.160 0.642
a13 57.12 Domestic Old town 288 100 0.333 25 0.111 0.444
a14 38.33 Domestic Old town 976 100 1.130 25 0.377 1.506
a15 40.85 Domestic Old town 1216 100 1.407 25 0.469 1.877
a16 35.17 Domestic Old town 704 100 0.815 25 0.272 1.086
a17 30.42 Domestic Old town 496 100 0.574 25 0.191 0.765
a18 40.40 Domestic Old town 592 100 0.685 25 0.228 0.914
a19 28.34 Domestic Old town 1024 100 1.185 25 0.395 1.580
a20 29.91 Domestic Old town 304 100 0.352 25 0.117 0.469
a21 45.60 Domestic Old town 528 100 0.611 25 0.204 0.815
b01 24.82 Domestic New town 960 100 1.111 12 0.152 1.263
b02 27.10 Domestic New town 544 100 0.630 12 0.086 0.715
b03 28.16 Domestic New town 1200 100 1.389 12 0.189 1.578
b04 32.41 Domestic New town 752 100 0.870 12 0.119 0.989
b05 37.71 Domestic New town 480 100 0.556 12 0.076 0.631
b06 41.81 Domestic New town 912 100 1.056 12 0.144 1.199
b07 41.78 Domestic New town 672 100 0.778 12 0.106 0.884
b08 46.80 Domestic New town 592 100 0.685 12 0.093 0.779
b09 24.71 Domestic New town 96 100 0.111 12 0.015 0.126
b10 23.74 Domestic New town 96 100 0.111 12 0.015 0.126
b11 33.35 Domestic New town 832 100 0.963 12 0.131 1.094
b12 42.72 Domestic New town 1424 100 1.648 12 0.225 1.873
c01 19.06 Hostels Hostels 448 100 0.519 15 0.092 0.610
c02 21.47 Hostels Hostels 112 100 0.130 15 0.023 0.153
c03 20.35 Hostels Hostels 112 100 0.130 15 0.023 0.153
c04 24.38 Hostels Hostels 176 100 0.204 15 0.036 0.240
c05 12.50 Hostels Hostels 272 100 0.315 15 0.056 0.370
c06 13.04 Hostels Hostels 640 100 0.741 15 0.131 0.871
c07 21.88 Hostels Hostels 336 100 0.389 15 0.069 0.458
d01 36.06 Campus Campus 176 100 0.204 15 0.036 0.240
d02 26.27 Campus Campus 160 100 0.185 15 0.033 0.218
d03 28.55 Campus Campus 288 100 0.333 15 0.059 0.392
d04 54.35 Campus Campus 560 100 0.648 15 0.114 0.763
d05 30.01 Campus Campus 336 100 0.389 15 0.069 0.458
d06 35.63 Campus Campus 336 100 0.389 15 0.069 0.458
d07 64.33 Campus Campus 240 100 0.278 15 0.049 0.327
d08 40.20 Campus Campus 768 100 0.889 15 0.157 1.046
e01 17.91 Domestic Suburbs 656 100 0.759 20 0.190 0.949
(Continued )
290 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 4.11 (Continued)

Node Elevation Demand District NAMETOWN – current situation

name (msl) pattern
Population q Qc Leaks Ql Qd
(l/c/d) (l/s) (%) (l/s) (l/s)

e02 17.77 Domestic Suburbs 869 100 1.006 20 0.251 1.257

e03 22.99 Domestic Suburbs 748 100 0.866 20 0.216 1.082
e04 30.10 Domestic Suburbs 823 100 0.953 20 0.238 1.191
e05 38.88 Domestic Suburbs 652 100 0.755 20 0.189 0.943
e06 16.13 Domestic Suburbs 529 100 0.612 20 0.153 0.765
e07 22.96 Domestic Suburbs 909 100 1.052 20 0.263 1.315
e08 35.39 Domestic Suburbs 610 100 0.706 20 0.177 0.883
f01 9.66 Domestic Village 4000 100 4.630 20 1.157 5.787
TOTAL: 35,560 42.157 9.922 51.080

Table 4.12 Structure of the base node demand and leakage – forecast after 20 years

Node Elevation Demand District NAMETOWN – future situation after 20 years

name (msl) pattern
Population q Qc Leaks Ql Qd
(l/c/d) (l/s) (%) (l/s) (l/s)

a01 82.48 Domestic Old town 0 0 0.000 0 0.000 0.000

a02 68.48 Domestic Old town 1124 106 1.379 17 0.282 1.661
a03 65.77 Domestic Old town 994 106 1.220 17 0.250 1.470
a04 48.90 Domestic Old town 1243 106 1.525 17 0.312 1.837
a05 48.81 Domestic Old town 849 106 1.042 17 0.213 1.255
a06 42.95 Domestic Old town 414 106 0.508 17 0.104 0.612
a07 42.07 Domestic Old town 912 106 1.118 17 0.229 1.347
a08 41.51 Domestic Old town 476 106 0.585 17 0.120 0.704
a09 41.21 Domestic Old town 704 106 0.864 17 0.177 1.041
a10 43.83 Domestic Old town 269 106 0.330 17 0.068 0.398
a11 59.47 Domestic Old town 394 106 0.483 17 0.099 0.582
a12 56.74 Domestic Old town 539 106 0.661 17 0.135 0.796
a13 57.12 Domestic Old town 373 106 0.457 17 0.094 0.551
a14 38.33 Domestic Old town 1264 106 1.550 17 0.318 1.868
a15 40.85 Domestic Old town 1574 106 1.932 17 0.396 2.327
a16 35.17 Domestic Old town 912 106 1.118 17 0.229 1.347
a17 30.42 Domestic Old town 642 106 0.788 17 0.161 0.949
a18 40.40 Domestic Old town 766 106 0.940 17 0.193 1.133
a19 28.34 Domestic Old town 1326 106 1.627 17 0.333 1.960
a20 29.91 Domestic Old town 394 106 0.483 17 0.099 0.582
a21 45.60 Domestic Old town 684 106 0.839 17 0.172 1.011
b01 24.82 Domestic New town 1427 106 1.750 17 0.358 2.109
b02 27.10 Domestic New town 808 106 0.992 17 0.203 1.195
b03 28.16 Domestic New town 1783 106 2.188 17 0.448 2.636
b04 32.41 Domestic New town 1117 106 1.371 17 0.281 1.652
b05 37.71 Domestic New town 713 106 0.875 17 0.179 1.054
b06 41.81 Domestic New town 1355 106 1.663 17 0.341 2.003
b07 41.78 Domestic New town 999 106 1.225 17 0.251 1.476
b08 46.80 Domestic New town 880 106 1.079 17 0.221 1.300
b09 24.71 Domestic New town 143 106 0.175 17 0.036 0.211
b10 23.74 Domestic New town 143 106 0.175 17 0.036 0.211
b11 33.35 Domestic New town 1236 106 1.517 17 0.311 1.827
 Network rehabilitation exercise 291

Node Elevation Demand District NAMETOWN – future situation after 20 years

name (msl) pattern
Population q Qc Leaks Ql Qd
(l/c/d) (l/s) (%) (l/s) (l/s)

b12 42.72 Domestic New town 2116 106 2.596 17 0.532 3.128
c01 19.06 Hostels Hostels 615 106 0.755 17 0.155 0.910
c02 21.47 Hostels Hostels 154 106 0.189 17 0.039 0.227
c03 20.35 Hostels Hostels 154 106 0.189 17 0.039 0.227
c04 24.38 Hostels Hostels 242 106 0.297 17 0.061 0.357
c05 12.50 Hostels Hostels 374 106 0.458 17 0.094 0.552
c06 13.04 Hostels Hostels 879 106 1.079 17 0.221 1.299
c07 21.88 Hostels Hostels 462 106 0.566 17 0.116 0.682
d01 36.06 Campus Campus 251 106 0.309 17 0.063 0.372
d02 26.27 Campus Campus 229 106 0.280 17 0.057 0.338
d03 28.55 Campus Campus 411 106 0.505 17 0.103 0.608
d04 54.35 Campus Campus 800 106 0.982 17 0.201 1.183
d05 30.01 Campus Campus 480 106 0.589 17 0.121 0.710
d06 35.63 Campus Campus 480 106 0.589 17 0.121 0.710
d07 64.33 Campus Campus 343 106 0.421 17 0.086 0.507
d08 40.20 Campus Campus 1097 106 1.346 17 0.276 1.622
e01 17.91 Domestic Suburbs 884 106 1.084 17 0.222 1.306
e02 17.77 Domestic Suburbs 1170 106 1.436 17 0.294 1.730
e03 22.99 Domestic Suburbs 1007 106 1.236 17 0.253 1.489
e04 30.10 Domestic Suburbs 1108 106 1.360 17 0.279 1.638
e05 38.88 Domestic Suburbs 878 106 1.077 17 0.221 1.298
e06 16.13 Domestic Suburbs 712 106 0.874 17 0.179 1.053
e07 22.96 Domestic Suburbs 1224 106 1.502 17 0.308 1.810
e08 35.39 Domestic Suburbs 822 106 1.008 17 0.206 1.214
f01 9.66 Domestic Village 7224 106 8.863 17 1.815 10.679
TOTAL: 50,575 62.048 12.709 74.756

Clarification:
• The average demand of node b12 shown in both tables does not include the
hotel’s average demand of 0.694 l/s calculated based on the number of hotel
beds. This demand will not grow during the design period because no expan-
sion of the hotel capacity is expected in this period. Hence, the real demand
growth in this node is lower than shown in the table (1.873 + 0.694 = 2.567
l/s at present, against 3.128 + 0.694 = 3.822 l/s after 20 years, which is an
increase of 48.9 %)

Conclusions:
• The total population growth in the town is from 35,560 to 50,575 inhabitants,
which is 42.2 %.
• The total average consumption growth is from 42.157 to 62.048 l/s, which is
an increase of 47.2 %. This percentage is higher than the population growth
percentage, resulting from the specific demand growth.
• The total average leakage growth is from 9.922 to 12.709 l/s, which is an
increase of 28.1 %. This percentage is lower than the consumption growth
percentage, resulting from the lower average leakage percentage after the
network renovation took place.
292 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

• The total average demand growth is from 51.080 to 74.756 l/s, which is an
increase of 46.4 %. This percentage is lower than the consumption growth
percentage, resulting from the lower average leakage percentage.

4.5.9 Future demand modelling (Question 3.2.2)

A new file named NT322a has been created by introducing the average demand
(consumption and leakage) displayed in Table 4.12 to the file NT317d. The hydrau-
lic simulation of this scenario shows the system flow as in Figure 4.38. The results
indicate the range of the demands between 67.68 l/s at 00:00/24:00 hours (48.21
l/s at present; hence, the growth of 40.4 %), and 261.29 l/s at 06:00 hours (176.61
l/s at present; hence, the growth of 47.9 %). The red line in the figure shows the

Figure 4.38 NT322a: the future demand variation on the maximum consumption day

Figure 4.39 NT322a: source tank volume variation for future demand growth (S1)
 Network rehabilitation exercise 293

constant feed of the tank in S1, which originates from the present condition and is
still 102.81 l/s. The average system flow for the future demand scenario is 150.14
l/s; thus 46.0% higher that the source feed in the present conditions.
Obviously, if less water is supplied than is demanded, the network will not
function properly. This can be seen on the volume variation of the tank in S1,
shown in Figure 4.39, where the balancing pattern has completely disappeared.

Clarification:
• In this initial phase of the future demand analyses, the average feed of the
source tank is kept at the present demand level; this also points out the limita-
tion of the source which is at maximum capacity (actually, above it). Thus, to
mitigate any future demand increase, the second source needs to be activated.
• To verify the extent of the problem, the minimum level in the tank has been
reduced to 0.0 m, i.e. the use of the emergency volume is also allowed in what
in fact is not a regular situation. Figure 4.39 shows that this volume is also
utilised very quickly after the morning demand peak is over.
• When the volume reaches the minimum level, EPANET disconnects the tank
from the network. Then follows an interval when the tank is subsequently
filled/connected and immediately emptied/disconnected, which is observed
in the period between 10:00 and 20:00 hours. Later, the demand drops allow-
ing some water to accumulate in the tank, but not enough to start the demand
balancing on the next day.

Comment:
• In the demand-driven mode of calculation, the system is ‘supplied’ even if
there is no water in the tank. This may lead to a confusion while trying to
reconcile the pressures in the network with the volume variation in the tank,
which can reflect deficiencies in the numerical algorithm.

The snapshot results during the maximum consumption hour (at 06:00) on the
maximum consumption day are shown in Figure 4.40 for the pressures, and in
Figure 4.41 for the hydraulic gradients.

Conclusions:
• Figure 4.40 shows that the present network layout is not able to convey the
future demand without further renovation taking place. The extent of the
problem is less than shown in Figure 4.15, but still very serious.
• The most critical situation is in the NEW TOWN district, with a minimum pres-
sure of -26.11 mwc in node b12 (where the hotel is located). Furthermore, nega-
tive pressures also appear in the CAMPUS, SUBURBS and VILLAGE districts.
• As is the case for the present demand scenario, the low pressures in gen-
eral originate from too small pipes generating high friction losses, which is
reflected in very high values of hydraulic gradients shown in Figure 4.41;
again, generally smaller than those shown in Figure 4.16 but still very high.
The highest value of the hydraulic gradient of 116.56 m/km is registered
in pipe p66 in the SUBURBS district. The hydraulic gradients in the NEW
TOWN district are also very high (p38–73.31 m/km, p34–69.30 m/km).
294 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.40 NT322a: pressures at 06:00 hours (mwc)

Comments:
• In modelling approaches where the sources are simulated as tanks, given
their volume variation, the minimum pressure may occur outside the maxi-
mum consumption hour. This is not the case in this example but may be a
consequence of an empty tank.
• Demand-driven simulations may show the peculiar results in the case of irregu-
lar scenarios. This is why they are more efficient for regular demand scenarios.
 Network rehabilitation exercise 295

Figure 4.41 NT322a: hydraulic gradients at 06:00 hours (m/km)

The modelling of extreme scenarios will be more accurately represented by

the pressure-driven demand mode of calculation.

The overview of the critical nodes and pipes in Figure 4.42, as shown for the pres-
ent demand scenario in Figure 4.17, indicates the nodes with negative pressure
(left) and the pipes with a hydraulic gradient above 10 m/km (right), both in red.
296 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.42 NT322a: fltering of the results at 06:00 hours

Conclusion:
• A comparison of figures 4.17 and 4.42 shows 42 nodes with negative pressure in
the first figure, and only 9 in the second figure, which confirms the lower level
of irregularities in the second network. Nevertheless, comparing the hydraulic
gradients, 53 pipes have values above 10 m/km in the first case and 42 in the
second case, which is still quite a lot. As it would not make sense to replace the
same pipes twice in an interval of just 10 years (indicated as the second phase
renovation time scale in Question 4.3.1), these pipes that need to be replaced in
present conditions could immediately be upgraded to the diameter that satisfies
the future demand conditions, or actually their replacement could be postponed
to year 10, assuming that this delay does not significantly negatively affect the
pressure in the network. This decision can also be based on financial constraints;
this is further elaborated in the answers to Question 4.3.1.

4.5.10 Connection of the second source (Question 3.2.3)

An arbitrary location of the second source has been selected in the CAMPUS dis-
trict, and the reservoir with a surface water level of 80 msl was connected to node
d07 with a pipe that is 375 m long and has a 150 mm diameter. The pipe length
and the water elevation in the reservoir have been approximated proportionally to
the lengths of the neighbouring pipes and the nodal elevations in the surrounding
area. This model modification has been named NT323a and the results of hydrau-
lic simulation are shown in Figure 4.43.
 Network rehabilitation exercise 297

Figure 4.43 NT323a: pressures at 06:00 hours (mwc)

Conclusion:
• A comparison of the results in figures 4.40 and 4.43 does not show significant
pressure improvements after connecting the second source. The pressures have
improved in the CAMPUS area but not much outside it because the source in S2
has a much lower elevation than the one in S1 and is therefore unable to supply
more significant demand. This can be concluded after plotting the flow variation
in the connecting pipe, which is shown in Figure 4.44. The results show the
maximum supply from S2 of 6.89 l/s (at 06:00 hours), which is less than 3% of
the total demand during the maximum consumption hour. Therefore, the second
source can be utilised efficiently only with the help of pumping, which will offer
more flexibility in balancing the contributions from two sources.
298 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.44 NT323a: supply from the reservoir in S2.

Table 4.13 Pipe renovation list, areas A and B (material PE, k = 0.25 mm)

NAMETOWN – renovated pipes for future demand scenario

Pipe Node Node New D Length Old D*

name from to (mm) (m) (mm)

p09 a07 a08 150 256 100

p11 a08 a10 100 111 80
p29 b01 b02 250 376 200 (150)
p30 b02 b03 250 248 200 (150)
p31 b03 b04 200 278 150 (100)
p32 b04 b05 150 270 100 (50)
p33 b06 b07 100 106 80
p34 b07 b08 80 290 50
p35 b10 b11 100 439 80
p36 b11 a12 80 269 50
p37 b08 b05 100 333 50
p38 b05 b12 150 380 80 (50)
*Two values in the column ‘Old D’ indicate already renovated pipes; the original diameter is shown
in brackets.

4.5.11 Renovation plan in the future demand scenario

(Question 3.2.4)
Further improvement of the pipe diameters must be analysed before installing the
pumping station in the network. As is the case with the pressures, the hydraulic
gradients shown in Figure 4.41 for layout NT322a will not be significantly differ-
ent in layout NT323a.
For easier monitoring, the plan of renovation is illustrated in two stages. Firstly,
to improve the situation in areas A and B, twelve pipes have been enlarged as
indicated in Table 4.13. Five out of these pipes (p29, p30, p31, p32 and p38) have
 Network rehabilitation exercise 299

Figure 4.45 NT324a: enlargement of the pipes in areas A and B: the results at 06:00 hours.

Table 4.14 Pipe renovation list, areas C – F (material PE, k = 0.25 mm)

NAMETOWN – renovated pipes for future demand scenario

Pipe Node Node New D Length Old D*

name from to (mm) (m) (mm)

p59 e01 e02 200 361 150 (125)

p60 e02 e03 200 289 150 (80)
p61 e03 e04 150 277 100 (80)
p62 e04 e05 100 266 80 (50)
p66 e06 e07 100 280 50 (25)
p67 e07 e08 80 282 50 (25)
p68 e01 c05 200 366 150
p69 c05 f01 150 452 125
*Two values in the column ‘Old D’ indicate already renovated pipes; the original diameter is shown
in brackets.

already been enlarged and the actual renovation plan in their case will be finalised
after forming a complete picture of the final design (the two options are to replace
them immediately with a larger diameter, or after 10 years but maintaining the
original diameter). The PRV setting is still kept at 70 mwc in this case. The extent
of the improvement of this stage is to be seen in Figure 4.45 (layout NT324a).
To improve the situation in the lower part of the network (areas C – F), eight
additional pipes have been enlarged as shown in Table 4.14. Six out of these that
300 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

have already been enlarged (p59, p60, p61, p62, p66 and p67) are added to the
list of the five pipes in Table 4.13, for later reconsideration. In this stage the PRV
setting has been lowered to 60 mwc, for further pressure optimisation in the lower
part of the network. The extent of the improvement of this stage is to be seen in
Figure 4.46 (layout NT324b).

Conclusions:
• The results show a gradual improvement of the situation. Only three nodes still
show the negative pressure in Figure 4.45 (e05, e08 and f01), while there are no
demand nodes with negative pressure in Figure 4.46. However, the minimum
pressure criterion of 20 mwc is not satisfied in four demand nodes (e05, d04,
d07 and d08). This situation will be mitigated after adding the pumping station.
• The situation with the hydraulic gradients is less favourable but not dramatic.
Figure 4.45 shows 30 pipes with a hydraulic gradient above 10 m/km, while
there are 21 pipes in this category, shown in Figure 4.46. Continuing the enlarge-
ment of pipe diameters would improve this situation but the improvement can
also be reached by installing the pumping station, which will change the balance
of supply from the two sources with a positive effect on the distribution of flows/
friction losses in the pipes, and volume variation of the balancing tank(s).

Comment:
• Pipe enlargement has implications for the investment costs while additional
pumping capacity increases the operational costs. The trade-off analysis
between these two requires a more detailed assessment for which optimiza-
tion tools with sophisticated software applications are available nowadays.
This exercise only discusses the hydraulic impact of these two choices.

Figure 4.46 NT324b: enlargement of the pipes in areas C – F: the results at 06:00 hours
 Network rehabilitation exercise 301

Figure 4.47 NT324c: PST in D, Qp/Hp = 30 l/s/15 mwc, PRV = 55 mwc: the results at 06:00 hours
302 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Reading:
Volume 1, Section 4.1: ‘The planning phase’.

Self-study:
Spreadsheet Lesson 1–7 (Appendix 7).

Further considerations include pumping being modelled with a synthetic pumping

curve defined by the duty flow and duty head. Figure 4.47 shows the situation in
which a pump with a duty flow of Qp = 30 l/s and a duty head of Hp = 15 msl is
connected to the second source. For further pressure optimisation in the down-
stream part of the network, the PRV setting has been reduced to 55 mwc.

Clarification:
• The negative unit headloss in the link of the pump (of -14.16 mwc) actually
indicates the pumping head. At 06:00 hours, the pump is therefore operating
still relatively close to the value of the duty head.

Conclusions:
• The pumping curve has been selected to be able to bring sufficient pressure in
the SUBURBS district. This also raises the pressures in the downstream part
of the network in general, which enables the reduction of the PRV setting.
• Because less water is now supplied from the first source, the balancing role of the
tank S1 has been largely restored, which can be seen in Figure 4.48; however, this
has been achieved with a much reduced emergency volume. The lower supply
from S1 has further reduced the friction losses in the upper part of the network, so
that the pressures in the NEW TOWN district are not affected by the lower PRV
setting; they are actually slightly higher than those shown in Figure 4.46.
• As expected, adding a pump of relatively small size has only marginally affected
the hydraulic gradients. The PRV is also not affected by the pump and it is still
open during the entire 24-hour simulation day despite the lowered setting.
• Nevertheless, the balance of supply between S1 and S2 has changed in favour
of the new source, which is shown in Figure 4.49. The results show the maxi-
mum supply from S2 of 32.43 l/s (at 06:00 hours), which is approximately 15
% of the total demand during the maximum consumption hour. This is still
slightly low, making the contribution of the source in S1 too high; the average
feed of the tank in S1 is 122.77 l/s i.e. well above the available maximum of
this source, which is 90 l/s.

In the next iteration, the duty flow and duty head have been increased to 140 l/s
and 80 mwc, respectively. This has been done in order to further increase the con-
tribution from the source in S2 and reduce the contribution in S1. The results of
this simulation are shown in Figure 4.50.

Conclusions:
• The main objective of the intervention has been reached. The balance of sup-
ply between S1 and S2 has significantly changed in favour of the new source,
which is shown in Figure 4.51. The results show the supply from S2 of 53.82
l/s at 06:00 hours, which is approximately 21 % of the total demand during
the maximum consumption hour.
 Network rehabilitation exercise 303

Figure 4.48 NT324c: source tank volume variation in S1 after a small pump is added in S2

Figure 4.49 NT324c: supply from the reservoir in S2

• At the same time, the average feed of the tank in S1 is lowered to 98.76 l/s
i.e. closer to the available maximum of this source, which also gives a further
improved balancing curve of the tank in S1, which can be seen in Figure 4.52.
However, the emergency volume is still significantly depleted compared to
the present demand scenario.
• Nevertheless, the relatively large pump has significantly increased the pres-
sures in the downstream part of the network, and the hydraulic gradients have
also been increased, which can be seen in Figure 4.50. Thus, the additional
pumping energy has been immediately utilized through the high friction
losses, clearly pointing out the limitation caused by the small pipe diameters.
Thus, the selection of the pump may also require additional expansion of the
network in the vicinity of the new source.
304 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.50 NT324d: PST in D, Qp/Hp = 140 l/s/80 mwc, PRV = 55 mwc: the results at
06:00 hours

• Keeping the same setting of 55 mwc, the PRV operation did not change sig-
nificantly by installing the large pump.

Comments:
• An intervention that solves one problem may easily create a new one. It is
therefore important to be aware of all the implications. All the network com-
ponents: storage, pumping, and transmission (including pipes and valves),
operate dependently, continuously impacting each other.
• Putting a (much) larger pump in the network without further pipe enlarge-
ment does not seem to be an efficient plan. The balance of supply from the
two sources therefore needs to be solved differently.
• Adding multiple sources does not mean that all of them reach the maximum
supply during the maximum consumption hour. Figure 4.51 shows the maxi-
mum supply of S2 to be at 12:00 hours (54.91 l/s), while in Figure 4.49, this
happens at 07:00 hours (32.78 l/s).

Because the second source is downstream of the PRV and additional pumping
is needed to reach the minimum pressure in this part of the network, it is interest-
ing to analyse to what extent the location and the setting of the PRV can influence
the balance of supply between the two sources. First of all, we analyse a scenario
in which the PRV has been temporarily removed from the network. In this sce-
nario the average supply from S1 has been reduced to 70 l/s and the pump in S2
 Network rehabilitation exercise 305

Figure 4.51 NT324d: supply from the reservoir in S2

Figure 4.52 NT324d: source tank volume variation in S1 after a large pump is added in S2

is designed with a duty follow and duty head of 15 l/s and 30 mwc, respectively.
Moreover, the pump has been modelled as a booster pump, in series with pipe
p42, to reduce the pressures in the CAMPUS district. The results of this simula-
tion are shown in Figure 4.53.

Clarification:
• The booster pump has been modelled in series with pipe p42 by adding a
dummy node PSTds with the same elevation as node c01. The modelling
approach is the same as in the case of the PRV, in order to keep the hydraulic
performance (i.e. the friction loss) of pipe p42 intact. Simply replacing this
pipe with a booster pump would be wrong.
306 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.53 NT324e: booster PST, Qp/Hp = 15 l/s/30 mwc, no PRV: the results at 06:00
hours

Conclusions:
• In the absence of a PRV, the pressure in the downstream part of the network
increases again. The exception is node d07, where the pressure is below the
minimum of 20 mwc (14.79 mwc). The reason is the low elevation of the
source in S2 because this node is actually supplied by gravity from S2.
• The situation with the hydraulic gradients has improved somewhat but there
are still 19 pipes with gradients above 10 m/km. This is to be further elabo-
rated in the final design layout.
• Hence, the network can operate without the PRV but the pressure optimisa-
tion with the source/booster PST alone will not be an ideal solution, due to
the topography in the network.
• In this scenario, this supply from the two sources becomes more even, which
can be observed from Figure 4.54. The results show the supply from S2 of
124.34 l/s at 06:00 hours, which is approximately 48 % of the total demand
during the maximum consumption hour.
• At the same time, because the average feed of the tank in S1 is lowered to 70
l/s, the emergency volume has been restored, which can be seen in Figure 4.55.

One of the water quality simulation options in EPANET is to check the contribu-
tion of each source to each nodal demand at a particular point in time. This is
called source tracing and gives very useful information about the mixing of water
from different sources as a result of a specific hydraulic operation and the location
 Network rehabilitation exercise 307

Figure 4.54 NT324e: supply from the reservoir in S2

Figure 4.55 NT324e: source tank volume variation in S1 after a large pump is added in S2

of the main network components. In a layout without PRV, Figure 4.56 shows the
results for the second source (S2).

Clarifications:
• The trace option is activated in EPANET by selecting the Quality Options
editor from the browser, as shown in Figure 4.57. The same editor can be
opened in the menu option ‘Project>>Analysis Options . . . ’ assuming that
it is a default (which is normally the editor of Hydraulics Options).
• The only two fields to modify are (1) for Parameter and (2) for Trace Node.
The other fields are related to the calculation of the WQ residuals, which is
not the scope of this exercise. More about this is to be found in the original
EPANET manual.
308 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.56 NT324e: source tracing (S2) at 06:00 hours (%)

• In the EPANET files discussed with this example, the trace option has been
activated in all the files with a source in S2 connected to the network (starting
from NT323a).

Conclusion:
• Not surprisingly, all the nodes upstream of the booster PST are supplied
100% from S2. More interesting, the mixing of the water from S1 and S2
(approximately 30%) takes place in the nodes of the NEW TOWN district,
 Network rehabilitation exercise 309

while the OLD TOWN is supplied entirely from S1 (0% from S2). This situ-
ation is evidently caused by the selected location and the capacity of the PST.

Comments:
• The results shown in Figure 4.56 do not necessarily reflect the correct situ-
ation because they are influenced by the initial values at the beginning of
the simulation, which are always 0% in all the nodes. This is therefore why
the WQ simulations are often run for period longer than 24 hours (48 or 72
hours) to examine more consistent variation patterns. The duration of EPS
can be adjusted in the same browser as shown in Figure 4.57, by selecting the
Times Options editor. Nevertheless, Figure 4.56 is shown to illustrate a useful
WQ feature of EPANET.

Given the positive effects, the concept of the booster pump has been carried for-
ward by reinstalling the PRV in the network for better pressure management. In
view of the location of the booster, which looks good from the perspective of the
pressure distribution in the downstream part of the network, the PRV has been
moved further upstream and installed in series with pipe p08; it has a setting of
45 mwc.
Furthermore, the source in S2 has been modelled in the same way as the one in
S1. The modelling approach used here is the same as explained in Section 4.5.6
related to Question 3.1.6, by using the 24-hour supply pattern from the link con-
nected to S2. This has resulted in a tank with a bottom level at 75 msl, a diameter
of 22 m, a depth of 5 m and an initial depth of 3.5 m. With this, the total volume
of the tank has been designed at approximately 1900 m3. Finally, the booster sta-
tion in the same location as in the previous scenario has been designed with a duty
flow of 12 l/s and a duty head of 15 mwc, resulting in an average feed of the tank
in S1 of 67.32 l/s, and in S2 of 82.76 l/s.

Figure 4.57 Activating the source tracing WQ modelling option (for S2)
310 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.58 NT324f: booster PST, Qp/Hp = 12 l/s/15 mwc, PRV = 45 mwc: the results at
06:00 hours

Figure 4.59 NT324f: source tank volume variation in S1 and S2

Thus, the network has been designed to maintain the function of the tank in S1
without any further renovation, and provide more future supply from the source in
S2. The results of this scenario are shown in figures 4.58 and 4.59.

Conclusions:
• Except for the pressure in node d07, the results show a fairly balanced pres-
sure distribution with the maximum pressure in node b01 (of 60.73 mwc).
 Network rehabilitation exercise 311

The pressure in node d07 will be considered as an isolated case that can be
treated with local pressure boosting. After all, this node is directly connected
to S2 and will therefore have a very reliable supply (by gravity) at a some-
what lower pressure in extreme demand conditions. Being strict on the condi-
tion of min 20 mwc in this case by further improvement of the distribution
network would simply be too costly while the actual benefits are limited.
• Equally, the enlargement of the pipes with hydraulic gradients above 10 m/
km are not seen to be of immediate concern, for the following reasons: (1)
Figure 4.58 shows the situation in the most extreme hour of supply at the end
of the design period; (2) the pipes in question do not significantly affect the
pressures; (3) they carry mostly the gravity supply and as such the friction
losses reflect the loss of pumping energy only to a lesser extent; (4) most of
the pipes form loops with pipes of sufficiently low gradients and therefore
this does not significantly affect the reliability of supply; (5) where the pipes
are branched or at the end, enlargement of the diameter should exclusively be
governed by the pressure criterion because increasing the diameter will not
increase the supply reliability.
• Finally, the tank balancing curves indicate a fairly effective design of both
tanks.

It is interesting to observe in this network layout that if the booster pump is

switched off (for instance, due to an electricity failure), the network will be
hydraulically split into the upstream and the downstream parts. However, the
hydraulic performance will not be significantly affected, provided the balance of
supply is shifted towards S1. The scenario with the PRV setting further reduced to
40 mwc and the supply from S1 close to the maximum capacity i.e. of 85 l/s, and
the feed of S2 adjusted accordingly at 65 l/s, is shown in figures 4.60 and 4.61.
The booster PST is closed.

Conclusion:
• Under regular supply conditions, the presented alternative looks attractive,
having actually two gravity-fed networks from two different sources. How-
ever, if any of the sources needs to be temporarily closed or any of the big-
ger pipes connected to it fails, an emergency supply would be difficult to
arrange. Providing a bypass without any pumping in such a situation would
eliminate the possibility of balancing the supply of S1 and S2 that would be
driven exclusively by the topography i.e. the elevation of the sources. Thus,
pumping is still necessary for more flexible pressure management and bal-
ance of supply.

Comment:
• Switching the booster pump on in this scenario will unexpectedly generate
warning messages as shown in Figure 4.62. The random timing of negative
pressures indicates the numerical instability caused by modelling the sources
S1 and S2 as negative demand nodes. Thus, sometimes it works, but quite
often it does not if the network does not have at least one reservoir (a fixed
head point). Once these warning occur, the simplest way to mitigate the
312 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.60 NT324g: booster PST closed, PRV = 40 mwc; pressures at 06:00 hours (mwc)

problem is to keep modelling one of the sources, in this case S2, as a res-
ervoir, which was applied in the files NT323a and NT324a-e. Based on the
actual feed calculated from S2, the tank volume can be designed with the help
of the Spreadsheet Lesson 8–10, instead of being modelled in EPANET.

4.5.12 Selection of the actual pump units

(Question 3.3.1)
The design layout carried forward for the selection of the actual pump units from the
available KSB ETANORM catalogue is the one presented in the NT324f layout. The
summary of the main components of this layout is given in the following bullets:
 Network rehabilitation exercise 313

Figure 4.61 NT324g: source tank volume variation in S1 and S2 – booster PST closed

Figure 4.62 NT324g: booster PST open, unstable iterative process

• Modelling of the additional 3700 consumers in the SUBURBS district as

elaborated in Section 4.5.1.
• Modelling of the hotel demand with 200 beds in node b12 of the NEW
TOWN district as elaborated in Section 4.5.2.
• Pipe renovation as indicated in Table 4.10 for the current demand scenario.
314 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

• Modelling of the future demand growth as elaborated in Section 4.5.8, in

Table 4.12.
• Pipe renovation as indicated in tables 4.13 and 4.14 for the future demand
scenario.
• PRV located at node a06 of pipe p08, with a setting of 45 mwc.
• Average feed of the tank in source S1 of 67.32 l/s.
• Average feed of the tank in source S2 of 82.76 l/s.
• Tank in S1: bottom elevation at 105 msl, D = 25 m, H = 5.5 m, Hini = 3.5 m,
V ≈ 2580 m3.
• Tank in S2: bottom elevation at 75 msl, D = 22 m, H = 5.0 m, Hini = 3.5 m, V
≈ 1900 m3.
• Synthetic pump curve for the booster pump of the duty flow of Qp = 12 l/s,
and a duty head of Hp = 15 mwc.

As the preferred pump size is based on synthetic curves, the following ETA-
NORM (ETABLOC) fixed speed pumps operating at 1450 rpm and 50 Hz have
been considered in the KSB documentation available with this exercise (model
code/impeller diameter in mm): (1) 40–250/238 (page 49 in the catalogue), (2)
50–200/219 (page 53), (3) 50–250/215 (page 54), (4) 65–200/212 (page 58), and
(5) 65–250/220 (page 59). Two pumps in parallel arrangement have been planned
and a wider range of flows (and heads), indicated in Figure 4.63, tested with the
idea to consider the second pump as a regular one (with smaller pump models), or
as a stand-by unit (with bigger pump models). Moreover, for all the pumps under
consideration, the efficiency curve has also been included in order to calculate
the energy costs for a particular operational mode. The transfer of the pump data
to EPANET was carried out manually, which is illustrated in Figure 4.64 for the
largest selected model (65–250/220).

Clarifications:
• The format of the pumping curve diagrams in the KSB catalogue enables
relatively easy readings of the points where the efficiency intersects with the
efficiency values. In the selected example these are the dots with the efficien-
cies of 58, 68, 73, 74.3, and 73 per cent. The values for Qmin and Qmax (end
of the curve) are extrapolated, based on the standard shape of the efficiency
curve. Other manufacturers may opt for a different presentation of the pump
and efficiency curves.
• The EPANET curve editor allows the entry of a few dozen points, which is
very rarely utilized. Typical pump curves will be accurately described in no
more than 10 sets of points.
• Unlike the case with the synthetic curves, the manufacturer ends the pump
curve at the point where the operational range has been exhausted. The pump
should not be operated beyond the end point because of low efficiency/high
energy and high NPSH i.e. the risks of cavitation.

With the prepared network layout, including the actual pumping and efficiency
curves (NT331a), the simulation was run using the largest pump considered
 Network rehabilitation exercise
315

Figure 4.63 KSB pump selection ETABLOC, 1450 rpm, 50 Hz (www.ksb.com)

316 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.64 Pump data transfer to EPANET, model 65–250, impeller 220 mm

(65–250/220), one unit with the second unit kept closed. The programme returned
the warning messages as shown in Figure 4.65.

Conclusions:
• The warning messages shown in Figure 4.65 signal that the pump opera-
tion is beyond the suitable range for most of the day. This is not difficult to
observe by comparing the pumping curve in Figure 4.64 with the range of
simulated pump flows shown in Figure 4.66. The latter shows the range of
flows between 18.11 and 21.76 l/s (with a single unit in operation), while
 Network rehabilitation exercise 317

Figure 4.65 NT331a: booster PST open but the pump exceeds the maximum fow
318 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

the end point in the pump curve editor indicates the maximum pump flow
of 19 l/s. Thus, the maximum pump flow is not exceeded only in the period
between 16:00 and 22:00 hours.
• Switching the second unit on will not be helpful because the booster starts
pumping even more flow from the source in S2, which will disturb the bal-
ancing patterns of the tanks, as can be seen in Figure 4.67. Hence, selecting
the model 65–250/220 does not seem to be an ideal alternative.

Comment:
• Based on the fact that the synthetic pump curves are utilized over the unlim-
ited range of flows may overlook the fact that the ‘optimal’ pump flows from
the hydraulic perspective may actually be unfavourable from the perspective

Figure 4.66 NT331a: booster PST fow (single unit in operation)

Figure 4.67 NT331a: tank volume variation for both booster pumps switched on
 Network rehabilitation exercise 319

of the pump efficiency/energy consumption and NPSH requirements. It is

therefore important to model the pump operation with a synthetic curve as
close as possible to the selected values of the duty flow and duty head. This
can also be achieved by increasing/reducing the number of pump units in
parallel arrangement.

Figure 4.68 Selected pump, model 50–200, impeller 219 mm (www.ksb.com)

320 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

After going through further investigations by using other proposed pump models,
the final choice in this design has been the model 50–200/219. The full informa-
tion on this one is given in Figure 4.68. The data for the pump and efficiency curve
have been captured in EPANET in the same way as shown in Figure 4.64.
Under regular operation, both pumps are switched on and the results of the
computer simulation are shown in figures 4.69–4.73. Minor adaptation in this
final scenario is the rounding of the tank feeds to 68 l/s in S1, and 82 l/s in S2 and
the increase of the PRV setting to 50 mwc.

Conclusions:
• Under regular operation, Figure 4.70 shows a range of flows between 5.71
l/s and 10.84 l/s per each pump. Comparing this with the curve of the impel-
ler of 219 mm in Figure 4.68 yields the operation with a range of pump
efficiencies between 65 % and 74 %, the latter being the maximum possible.
This is further converted into an average efficiency of 69.73 % and an aver-
age energy consumption of 1.87 kWh, or a total of 89.76 kWh/day for both
pumps. This information is available in EPANET by running the menu option
‘Report>>Energy’.
• The pressures in the network have grown somewhat. This results from the higher
PRV setting and facilitates the balancing tank operation favourably, which can
be seen in Figure 4.69. It is quite possible that by keeping the lower PRV setting
while choosing the smaller impeller diameter, say 209 mm, a further pressure
optimisation could take place without affecting the tanks. This has however not
been done and the design is completed with some additional potential reliability
provision in mind. Moreover, both pumps operate full time, while switching
them off occasionally could also help in further pressure and energy optimisa-
tion. Hence, this final design is still not necessarily the optimum one.

Comment:
• All the illustrated hydraulic simulations show a certain optimum for the
selected layout, operation and demand scenario on the maximum consump-
tion day. In reality however, only the layout stays more or less the same,
while it is the subject of a much wider range of operation and demand sce-
narios during the year/the design period. It is therefore impossible to have a
network that will satisfy all the criteria on such a wide horizon. Optimisation
algorithms available in state-of-the-art network modelling software can help
but the final decision is always taken by the design engineers.

4.5.13 Pump motor selection (Question 3.3.2)

The analysis of the operating regimes under Question 3.2.4, using EPANET syn-
thetic pump curves defined by one specified point reflecting the preferred duty
flow and duty head, leads to a choice of a number of real pumps that should oper-
ate in parallel arrangement and with high efficiency. The primary objective is to
enable pump operation in an optimal range of flows/heads and with this reduce the
required energy for pumping. This was verified in Question 3.3.1 and the choice
was made for the ETANORM model 50–200 with an impeller diameter of 219
 Network rehabilitation exercise 321

Figure 4.69 NT331b: 2 pump units 500–200/219, PRV = 50 mwc: pressures at 06:00 hours
(mwc)
322 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 4.70 NT331b: booster PST fow (single unit operation with both pumps switched on)

Figure 4.71 NT331b: tank volume variation for both booster pumps switched on

Figure 4.72 NT331b: the range of nodal pressures in the network (only demand nodes)
 Network rehabilitation exercise 323

Figure 4.73 NT331b: the range of pipe velocities in the network (dummy pipes excluded)

mm, operating at a fixed speed of 1450 rpm and at 50 Hz. Two pumps were simu-
lated in regular operation and by adding a stand-by unit, the booster station will be
designed with three equal units connected in parallel arrangement.
Under regular supply conditions, all pumps except the stand-by unit will be
in operation during the maximum consumption hour. In the worst-case scenario,
the working point of the pump may be shifted to the end of the pump curve as
specified by the manufacturer, resulting from the sudden demand increase. The
consequence will be an operation at lower efficiency and higher NPSH in which
case the pump should be (automatically) switched off beyond this working point.
This working point is therefore assumed to reflect the most extreme operating
conditions, and the selection of the pump motor logically takes this point into
consideration. For the model 50–200/219, the pump curve has been introduced in
EPANET reading the maximum pump flow of 16.1 l/s (57.96 m3/h) from the KSB
catalogue, which is providing a minimum pump head of 10.4 mwc. The pump effi-
ciency for this operational point has been assumed at 61%. During the emergency
situations, all three pumps can be used for a while, resulting in a maximum flow
of 48.3 l/s (173.88 m3/h).
The selection of the pump motor is based on the calculation of the pump power.
To calculate the required power for the pumps, an allowance of 10% has to be
made for unexpected deviation in the pump design. The standard formula is used,
as discussed in Volume 1, Section 3.7.3, leading to the following results:
˜ gQH 1000×9.81×57.96×10.4
N= = = 2.99 kW , for the single unit.
0.9° 0.9× 0.61×3600

The required capacity of the motor is determined by the efficiency of the motor,
usually between 0.92 and 0.95. Assuming the motor efficiency is 95 %:

2.99
Nm = = 3.25 kW , for the single unit.
0.92
324 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

The KSB documentation specifies similar although somewhat lower values. The
maximum power input for the model 50–200/219 shown in Figure 4.68 is approx-
imately 2.62 kW, while the selection of motor for this model (the pdf file Pump
and motor selection, page 11) specifies a maximum motor size of 3.0 kW (for
1450 rpm). Further design is therefore based on this motor. The table on the same
page gives the following pump details:

• the inlet diameter, DN1 (at the suction side of the pump) = 65 mm,
• the outlet diameter, DN2 (at the pressure side of the pump) = 50 mm,
• the maximum size of foundation plate, l1 = 1150 mm and b1 = 450 mm.

The DN dimensions are needed for planning reducers and enlargers (i.e. the deter-
mination of the local losses) later when the pipe diameters of the suction and
the pressure pipe will be determined. The dimension of the foundation plate will
be used as a guideline for estimation of the space between the two neighbour-
ing pumps. The maximum values have been selected without deeper analyses of
the specific characteristics of KSB pumps. Other manufacturers can obviously
produce different pumps and present their characteristics in different catalogue
formats.

4.5.14 Transformer and diesel generator capacity

(Question 3.3.3)
If pumps of different size are used in the same pumping station, the motor selec-
tion will also differ. The power to be delivered by the transformer is conse-
quently determined by the capacity of the most critical situation, which also
includes supply of other electrical installations. The capacity of the transformer
is further adjusted by the power factor (cos θ) that normally takes a value of
approximately 0.7 but can be increased to 0.8 using condensers, as discussed in
Volume 1, Section 4.2.4.
The transformer capacity, in the above example, can be calculated as follows,
assuming conservatively cos q = 0.7:

• motors, 3Nm/cos θ = (3 x 3.0) / 0.7 = 12.86 kVA

• lighting, 2.0 kW/cos θ = 2.0 / 0.7 = 2.86 kVA
• welding corner, 7.0 kW/cos θ = 7.0 / 0.7 = 10.0 kVA

Therefore, the total required is 25.72 kVA.

For this exercise, the power required to start a pump can be assumed to be
twice the amount required for normal operation. With pumps of different size,
sufficient power must be available to start the largest pump unit when other units
are in operation.
The required power of the diesel engine can be calculated as follows:

• motors, N = (1 + 3) x 3.0 = 12.0 kW

• lighting, N = 2.0 kW
 Network rehabilitation exercise 325

If the efficiency of the diesel engine ηd is assumed to be 0.95, the total power
requirement Nd can be calculated as:

Nd = (12.0 + 2.0) / 0.95 = 14.74 kW

The power factor of the generator (cos θ) is assumed to be 0.7, thus the capacity
of the generator, Ng = 14.74/0.7 = 21.05 kVA.

4.5.15 Pumping station layout (Question 3.3.4)

For a simplified assessment of the hydraulic losses and NPSH requirements, the
layout of the pumping station has been taken from the Spreadsheet Lesson 6–6,
which is shown in Figure 4.74, where:

• all x components compose the feeder main,

• all y components compose the discharge header,
• all a components indicate the suction pipes,
• all c/g components indicate the gate/butterfly valves,
• all f components indicate the non-return valves,
• all the remaining components (b/d/e/h) indicate reducers/enlargers.

Figure 4.74 Simplifed pumping station layout (Spreadsheet Lesson 6–6)

326 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

4.5.16 Piping and head losses (Question 3.3.5)

The diameter of the internal pumping station pipe should be calculated based on
a recommended range of velocities. For this exercise, the following guideline has
been used:

• feeder main (upstream of the pumps), v = 0.6–0.8 m/s

• suction pipe (using a single pump), v = 0.8–1.2 m/s
• pressure pipe (using a single pump), v = 1.5–2.0 m/s
• discharge header (downstream of the pumps) v = 1.2–1.7 m/s

The inlet and outlet diameter of a pump, as detailed in the manufacturer’s speci-
fications (DN1 and DN2), are normally lower than the suction and discharge sta-
tion pipe diameters, as higher velocities are required in the pump. Therefore,
pipe reducers and enlargers are required at the inlet and outlet of the pump. For
example, the inlet and outlet diameters and velocities for the selected ETANORM
50–200 pump unit operating at Qmax of 57.96 m3/h will be:

• inlet diameter, DN1 = 65 mm, v = 4.85 m/s,

• outlet diameter, DN2 = 50 mm, v = 8.20 m/s,

The pumping station head loss caused by friction and fittings needs to be calculated
from the exit of the suction storage tank (for source pumping stations) to the start of
the delivery pumping main. This total loss should be within acceptable limits (nor-
mally less than 1.0 m). Here, in the absence of a reservoir on the suction side, the
starting point is the upstream head at the entrance to the booster pumping station.
For local loss factors, reference is made to Appendix 5 of this book. Local
losses should include entry to the suction pipe, all major bends, branches, valves,
reducers and enlargers that connect to the pump unit. A complete technical draw-
ing of the pumping station will include a more detailed layout with additional
valves, bends, and metering equipment.
The calculation of the total head loss is given in Table 4.15 for the friction
losses, and in Table 4.16 for the minor losses. Both tables shows the flows/veloci-
ties in each component assuming extreme conditions: all three pumps operating
at maximum capacity. Furthermore, the downstream velocities have been applied
in the calculation of minor losses for all the valves and fittings shown in Table
4.16. In Figure 4.74, xin and yout indicate the entry and the exit minor loss; the
first appearing at the connection to the reservoir, and the second if the discharge
takes place into the atmosphere. These conditions are not met in this case and both
losses have been neglected in the case of the booster station.
The total head loss can be observed along the route of any of the three pumps,
namely:

• route P1: x1-x2-x3-a1-b1-c1-d1-P1-e1-f1-g1-h1-i1-y1-y2-y3-y4-y5-y6-y7-y8-y9,

• route P2: x1-x2-x3-x4-x5-x6-a2-b2-c2-d2-P2-e2-f2-g2-h2-i2-y3-y4-y5-y6-y7-y8-y9,
and
• route P3: x1-x2-x3-x4-x5-x6-x7-x8-a3-b3-c3-d3-P3-e3-f3-g3-h3-i3-y6-y7-y8-y9.
 Network rehabilitation exercise 327

Summarising the head losses from tables 4.15 and 4.16 to compose the total
head loss from the inlet to the outlet of the pumping station, the values per each of
the three routes are given in Table 4.17.

Clarifications:
• The selection of minor loss factors is based on the information given in
Appendix 5. The coefficients for the bends have been taken from Table 5.1,
the values for the reducers/enlargers from Table 5.3, those for the T branches
from Table 5.4 and those for the valves from the table shown in Figure 5.9.
• In the absence of a more complete and more detailed layout description some
approximations have been introduced, such as in the case of the angle α,
in the case of enlargers. Also in the case of T branches the minor loss was
calculated only for the diverted flow Q2 (coefficient ζ1), neglecting the minor

Table 4.15 Friction loss calculation, 3 pumps in operation at Qmax (16.1 l/s, each)

Section Location L (m) D (mm) k (mm) v range (m/s) v (m/s) hf (mwc)

x1 Feeder main 6 300 0.1 0.6–0.8 0.68 0.009

x2 Feeder main 4 300 0.1 0.6–0.8 0.68 0.006
x5 Feeder main 4 250 0.1 0.6–0.8 0.66 0.007
a1,2,3 Suction pipe, P1,2,3 3 150 0.1 0.8–1.2 0.91 0.018
i1,2,3 Pressure pipe, P1,2,3 3 100 0.1 1.5–2.0 2.05 0.138
y3 Discharge header 4 125 0.1 1.2–1.7 1.31 0.059
y6 Discharge header 4 175 0.1 1.2–1.7 1.34 0.041
y9 Discharge header 6 200 0.1 1.2–1.7 1.54 0.068

Table 4.16 Minor loss calculation, 3 pumps in operation at Qmax (16.1 l/s, each)

Section Component d/D ζ (-) v (m/s) hm (mwc)

x3 T branch, Q2 /Q3 = 0.33 (see Table 5.4) – 0.89 0.91 0.038

x4 Reducer 300/250 mm (Table 5.3) 0.83 0.02 0.66 0.000
x6 T branch, Q2 /Q3 = 0.50 – 0.92 0.91 0.039
x7 Reducer 250/150 mm 0.60 0.10 0.91 0.004
x8 Pipe bend 90 0, 150 mm, R = 300 mm (Table 5.1) – 0.15 0.91 0.006
b1,2,3 Reducer 150/125 mm 0.83 0.02 1.31 0.002
c1,2,3 Flat gate valve 125 mm (Figure 5.9) – 0.30 1.31 0.026
d1,2,3 Reducer 125/65 mm 0.52 0.20 4.85 0.240
e1,2,3 Enlarger 50/80 mm 0.63 0.10 3.20 0.052
f1,2,3 Non-return (foot) valve 80 mm – 0.80 3.20 0.418
g1,2,3 Flat gate valve 80 mm – 0.35 3.20 0.183
h1,2,3 Enlarger 80/100 mm 0.80 0.03 2.05 0.006
y1 Pipe bend 90 0, 100 mm, R = 300 mm – 0.12 2.05 0.026
y2 Enlarger 100/125 mm 0.80 0.03 1.31 0.003
y4 T branch, Q2 /Q3 = 0.50 – 0.28 1.31 0.025
y5 Enlarger 125/175 mm 0.71 0.07 1.34 0.006
y7 T branch, Q2 /Q3 = 0.33 – 0.02 1.34 0.002
y8 Enlarger 175/200 mm 0.88 0.01 1.54 0.001
328 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 4.17 Total head loss per route (mwc)

Inlet to P1 Inlet to P2 Inlet to P3

0.338 0.384 0.395
P1 to outlet P2 to outlet P3 to outlet
1.026 0.998 0.910
Inlet to outlet, P1 Inlet to outlet, P2 Inlet to outlet, P3
1.364 1.382 1.305

loss caused by the coefficient that, as Table 5.4 shows, occasionally takes a
negative value.
• All the results shown in tables 4.15–4.17 are derived from Spreadsheet Les-
son 6–6. The velocities in the tables are automatically calculated taking the
continuity equation for the specified flows and the selected pipe diameters
into consideration.

Conclusions:
• The routes from the inlet to each pump and further to the outlet show different
values in a logical trend. The head loss upstream of the pump gradually grows
from P1 to P3 because the route to P3 is the longest and most complex of all
three. Equally, the head loss downstream of the pump gradually reduces from
P1 to P3 because the route from P3 is the shortest and least complex of all three.
• Following the integrity of the hydraulic grade lines, the sum of the upstream
and downstream head losses should yield the same total head loss from the
inlet to the outlet of the pumping station, regardless of the selected route.
However, as can be seen in Table 4.17, this is not the case and minor devia-
tions apply, mostly due to a still inconsistent selection of the minor loss fac-
tors. Nonetheless, the differences are not detrimental and the largest values
with some rounding can be taken for further consideration.
• The total head loss for the maximum flow and all three pumps in operation
can be assumed at 1.4 mwc. This is above the guideline of 1.0 mwc but is
still considered acceptable in view of the fact that this operational scenario is
reserved for extreme i.e. rare events. Additional considerations using Spread-
sheet Lesson 6–6 will show the drop of the total head loss to approximately
1.2 mwc if the standby pump is switched off (two others still working at
16.1 l/s), and further to approximately 0.6 mwc when two pumps operate at
the maximum flow on the maximum consumption day (regular operation of
10.84 l/s per pump registered in the simulation of NT331b, total 21.68 l/s).

Comments:
• The calculations clearly illustrate that the friction losses are far smaller com-
pared to the minor losses in the design of pumping station layouts. This is
not a surprise given the use of relatively short pipe lengths, and smooth pipe
materials (mostly steel).
• Despite fairly elaborate consideration of each location/component, the minor
loss calculation is still provisional owing to the empirical character of the
 Network rehabilitation exercise 329

minor loss factors available in the literature. It is therefore essential to follow

the recommendations of the manufacturers of pumps and accessories when
analysing the head losses in pumping stations. Making assumptions and sim-
plifications does not necessarily lead to significant errors.
• As is the case in distribution networks, the recommended range of veloc-
ity is difficult to satisfy in all demand scenarios and will also depend on the
selected pipe diameters available in the market.

Reading:
Volume 1, Section 3.2.2: ‘Minor losses’,
Volume 1, Section 3.7.3: ‘Pumped systems’,
Volume 1, Section 4.2.4: ‘Pumping station design’,
Appendix 5: ‘Minor Loss Factors’,
Appendix 7: ‘Spreadsheet Hydraulic Lessons – Overview’.

4.5.17 NPSH calculation (Question 3.3.6)

The head loss from the pump inlet needs to be calculated and the pump located
at a sufficient elevation, to ensure the available NPSH is greater than the required
NPSH of the pump specified by the manufacturer. The NPSH available can be
calculated using the formula elaborated in Volume 1, Chapter 4 (Equation 4.14):

NPSH available = hatm − hvp −˝H ± ˝Z − fs

Following the information in tables 4.4 and 4.5, the difference in atmospheric
pressure, hatm, and the vapour pressure, hvp, can be assumed at 10 mwc in view of
the fact that the network is located at an altitude of up to 100 msl and the assump-
tion of the water temperature of 10–12 ˚C is reasonable; in this respect, Equation
4.13 is also applicable.
The total head loss, ΔH, between the inlet and the pump will be taken from Table
4.17 for route P3 that is the most critical from the NPSH perspective because of
the largest value (0.395 mwc), which is rounded at 0.4 mwc.
The elevation difference, ΔZ, is the static head between the pump axis and the
minimum suction level (m) at the inlet; the value becomes negative if the pump
axis is located above the suction level. In the case of source pumping stations, the
minimum suction level is in fact the minimum water level of the source reservoir.
In the case of booster stations, the minimum head at the inlet of the pumping
station needs to be taken into consideration. This value depends on the overall
hydraulic picture in the vicinity of the pumping station.
In EPANET file NT331b, the upstream and downstream node of the booster
station are set at 19.06 msl. A fair assumption can therefore be made with the
pump axis located at 20 msl. The simulation of this demand scenario shows the
maximum pump flow at 03:00 hours (10.84 l/s per pump) at the upstream head in
node c01 of 78.57 msl. Thus at 03:00 hours, ΔZ of 78.57–20 ≈ 60 m. The mini-
mum head of 74.95 m appears in node c01 at 17:00 hours. Based on this scenario,
it is unlikely to expect that in any extreme scenario, the static head would become
lower than 40–50 m.
330 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

From the pump specification curves shown in Figure 4.68, it can be seen that
the required NPSH for the unit ETANORM 50–200/219 at the flow Qmax of 58
m3/h is approximately 2.85 mwc. The NPSH available must be greater than the
NPSH required to avoid cavitation, as specified by the manufacturer. This there-
fore specifically requires a maximum allowed value of the static head, as shown
in Equation 4.15 in Volume 1, Chapter 4:

˜Z = hatm − hvp −˜H − NPSH required − fs

Using the calculated/adopted values:

ΔZ = 10.20–0.12–0.4–2.85–1.5 = 5.33 mwc

This means that the maximum allowed elevation of the pump impeller centreline
is 5.33 m above the minimum suction/inlet head (or water level in the reservoir,
if existing). The EPANET simulation shows that the heads in node c01 are clearly
much higher than the pump elevation. Thus, the available NPSH will be in all
circumstances significantly higher than the required one, creating no concerns
about possible cavitation.

Reading:
Volume 1, Section 4.2.4: ‘Pumping station design’,

4.5.18 Cost calculation of investments (Question 4.3.1)

The investment costs include the pipe replacement for the major part, as well as
the construction of the reservoirs, the booster station, and installation of the PRV.
As specified in the assignment introduction, the design period is to be 20 years
with some renovation taking place immediately, and a final layout that will sat-
isfy the demand at the end of the design period constructed halfway through the
design period i.e. after 10 years. Without further simulations (that could possibly
modify this plan), in order to add additional safety to the design, the eleven pipes
that were only to be enlarged twice within 10 years will be immediately enlarged
to the diameter suitable for the demand at the end of the design period (p29, p30,
p31, p32, p38, p59, p60, p61, p62, p66 and p67). The final plan of pipe renova-
tion shown in tables 4.18 and 4.19 has been compiled from tables 4.10, 4.13 and
4.14.
Using the prices indicated in Table 4.5 in the assignment introduction, the
investment costs of the final layouts are summarised in Table 4.20

Clarification:
• The installed capacity of the pumping stations has been assumed with all
three units (including stand-by) in operation. The price is calculated for the
capacities converted from l/s into m3/h.

Assuming that 100% of the investment needed at the beginning of the design
period will be borrowed immediately, and the entire sum for the second phase in
 Network rehabilitation exercise 331

Table 4.18 Pipe renovation list, beginning of the design period

NAMETOWN – renovated pipes for current demand scenario

Pipe Node Node New D Length Old D

name from to (mm) (m) (mm)

p01 S1 a01 400 220 300

p02 a01 a02 400 657 300
p04 a02 a04 400 371 300
p06 a04 a06 400 180 300
p08 a06 a07 400 125 300
p14 a10 a12 80 369 50
p15 a11 a13 80 386 50
p17 a07 a14 400 390 300
p20 a14 a16 400 153 300
p23 a16 a19 300 295 250
p28 a19 b01 300 372 250
p29 b01 b02 250 376 150
p30 b02 b03 250 248 150
p31 b03 b04 200 278 100
p32 b04 b05 150 270 50
p38 b05 b12 150 380 50
p42 b01 c01 250 727 200
p43 c01 c02 150 184 125
p44 c02 d01 150 201 100
p45 d01 d02 50 214 25
p46 d01 d03 150 195 100
p47 d03 d05 100 136 80
p49 d04 d07 50 148 25
p50 d05 d06 100 85 80
p52 d06 d08 80 256 50
p58 c01 e01 250 168 200
p59 e01 e02 200 361 125
p60 e02 e03 200 289 80
p61 e03 e04 150 277 80
p62 e04 e05 100 266 50
p63 e02 e06 100 354 50
p64 e03 e07 100 325 50
p65 e04 e08 80 272 50
p66 e06 e07 100 280 25
p67 e07 e08 80 282 25

Table 4.19 Pipe renovation list, planned in year 10

NAMETOWN – renovated pipes for future demand scenario

Pipe Node Node New D Length Old D

name from to (mm) (m) (mm)

p09 a07 a08 150 256 100

p11 a08 a10 100 111 80
p33 b06 b07 100 106 80
p34 b07 b08 80 290 50
p35 b10 b11 100 439 80
p36 b11 a12 80 269 50
p37 b08 b05 100 333 50
p68 e01 c05 200 366 150
p69 c05 f01 150 452 125
332 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 4.20 Investment costs, rounded in Euros (EUR)

Beginning of the design period Investment at year 10

Pipe diameter Total length (m) Total price Total length (m) Total price
(EUR) (EUR)

D = 50 mm 362 16,290 – –
D = 80 mm 1565 112,680 559 40,248
D = 100 mm 1446 130,140 989 89,010
D = 150 mm 1507 203,445 708 95,590
D = 200 mm 928 167,040 366 65,880
D = 250 mm 1519 341,775 – –
D = 300 mm 667 180,090 – –
D = 400 mm 2096 754,560 – –
D = 500 mm – – – –
D = 600 mm – – – –
Total pipes 10,090 1,906,020 2622 290,728
Pumping stations Installed Total price Installed Total price
capacity (m3 /h) (EUR) capacity (m3 /h) (EUR)
Source 1 – – – –
Source 2 – – 3 × 57.96 ≈ 180 318,558
Total PST – – 180 318,558
Reservoirs Total volume (m3) Total price Total volume (m3) Total price
(EUR) (EUR)
Source 1 2580 687,000 – –
Source 2 – – 1900 585,000
Total reservoirs 2580 687,000 1900 585,000
Valves Diameter (mm) Total price Diameter (mm) Total price
(EUR) (EUR)
PRV 400 13,000 – –
Total investment – 2,606,020 – 1,194,286

year 10 when the extension takes place, the total present value of the investments,
rounded in Euros is (with the loan interest of 8%):

2,606,020 + 1,194,286/1.0810 = EUR 3,159,206

If the re-payment of the loan starts immediately, the annual instalments to be paid
over a period of 20 years are:

3,159,206×(0.08×1.0820)/(1.0820–1) = EUR 321,772

Reading:
• See Volume 1, Section 4.1.2: ‘Economic aspects’.
 Network rehabilitation exercise 333

4.5.19 Cost calculation of operation and maintenance

(Question 4.3.2)
In the assignment description, the annual O&M costs of the existing infrastructure
have been assessed at EUR 100,000 at the beginning of the design period, and
EUR 130,000 at the end of the design period. For the added/replaced infrastruc-
ture, the operation and maintenance costs are calculated as a percentage of the raw
investment costs (Table 4.6). The system operates at the beginning of the design
period still as a gravity system, with the following additional costs, rounded in
Euros:

Distribution system (including PRV): 0.005×1,919,020 = EUR 9595

Pumping stations: 0.020×0 = EUR 0
Reservoirs: 0.008×687,000 = EUR 5496
TOTAL: EUR 115,091 per year.

The additional O&M costs at the end of the design period are, rounded in Euros:

Distribution system: 0.005×290,728 = EUR 1454

Pumping stations: 0.020×318,558 = EUR 6371
Reservoirs: 0.008×585,000 = EUR 4680
TOTAL: EUR 12,505 per year.

On top of this, the cost of pumping energy is EUR 13.45 per day (EPANET simu-
lation of NT331b), which on an annual basis is rounded at EUR 4909 at the end
of the design period. Hence, the total O&M costs amount to 115,091 + 30,000 +
12,505 + 4909 = EUR 162,505.

4.5.20 Calculation of total costs (Question 4.3.3)

At the beginning of the design period, source S1 supplies the average flow of Qavg
= 102.81 l/s on the maximum consumption day (EPANET simulation of NT317d).
Assuming that this consumption equals two times the consumption on the average
consumption day (selected IN = 2.0), the total annual production of water at the
beginning of the design period can be assessed at:

102.81×3.6×24×365/2.0 = 1,621,108 m3 per year.

The production cost of this water is specified at EUR 0.45 per m3. Evenly dis-
tributing the annual O&M costs of EUR 115,091 and the loan repayment of EUR
321,772 adds an additional EUR 0.16 per m3 to the cost, making it EUR 0.61
per m3. The total annual price of water supplied is then 1,621,108×0.61 = EUR
988,876.
At the end of the design period, sources S1 and S2 supply the average flows
of Qavg = 68 and 82 l/s, respectively; both on the maximum consumption day
334 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

(EPANET simulation of NT331b). With the same assumption of the higher con-
sumption compared to the average consumption day, the total annual production
of water at the end of the design period can be assessed at:

(68 + 82)×3.6×24×365/2.0 = 2,365,200 m3 per year.

The production cost of this water is specified at EUR 0.60 per m3. Evenly dis-
tributing the annual O&M costs of EUR 162,505 and the loan repayment of EUR
321,772 adds an additional EUR 0.12 to the cost per m3, making it EUR 0.72 per
m3. The total annual price of water supplied in this case is then 2,365,200×0.72 =
EUR 1,702,944.

Comments:
• The presented case is simplified in many aspects and is only one possible
(‘good enough’) solution; there could be more.
• This shows very clearly that satisfying the design criteria for multiple demand
scenarios is virtually impossible. All decisions are therefore made taking into
consideration an average situation. Distribution networks live their (design)
life just as humans: they grow and develop, but they also age.
• More computer simulations could have been run to test the demand and pres-
sures around the point of renovation in year 10 to verify the plan shown in
tables 4.18 and 4.19. This has been avoided due to repetitive work of the
same nature that does not necessarily contribute to the educational value of
the exercise.
• Further considerations could include the reliability assessment. It is clear that
the network in its main structure still largely has a branched configuration,
which may create concerns in the case of the failure of any of the main pipes.
This is deliberately left out of the scope, being part of the advanced pro-
gramme on water transport and distribution. For the same reason, the water
quality simulations, except for the source tracing, have not been included in
the assessment of the network performance.
Appendix 5

Minor loss factors

The general minor loss formula is:

8˜ ˜
hm = 2 4
Q2 = 4
Q2
° gD 12.1D

where:
hm = Minor loss (mwc).
Q = Pipe flow (m3/s).
ξ = Minor loss factor (-)
g = Gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2
D = Pipe diameter (m). D is the downstream diameter if the cross-section
changes, unless stated differently.

5.1 Bends and elbows

By coupling two 90°-bends or elbows together, the ξ-value for a single bend/
elbow should not be doubled but multiplied by the value shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.1 Geometry of bends and elbows (Table 5.1)

336 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 5.1 Minor loss factors for bends and elbows

Defection angle, α (°) 15 30 45 60 90

Bends, R/D = 1 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.16 0.21

Bends, R/D = 2 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.15
Bends, R/D = 3 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.09 0.12
Bends, R/D = 4 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.09

Elbows 0.06 0.13 0.25 0.50 1.20

Figure 5.2 Multipliers for coupled 90°-bends

5.2 Enlargements and reducers

The minor loss factor is calculated as:
2
˛A ˆ
˜ = C ˙˙˙ 2 −1˘˘˘
˙˝ A1 ˘ˇ

where:
C = Factor dependant on the deflection angle α.
A1(2) = Cross-section area up or down-stream of the obstruction.

Figure 5.3 Geometry of pipe enlargements and reducers (Table 5.2)

Table 5.2 Minor loss factor C at a gradual change of the cross section

Defection angle α (°) 10 20 30 40 50 60 90

C-factor 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1

 Minor loss factors 337

For the same shapes, KSB1 (1990) recommends the following straightforward
ξ-values (see Figure 5.4):

Figure 5.4 Geometry of pipe enlargements and reducers (Table 5.3)

Table 5.3 Minor loss factor ξ, at a gradual change of the cross section (KSB, 1990)

Type d/D = 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Enlarger 1 0.56 0.41 0.26 0.13 0.04

Enlarger 2, α = 8° 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01
Enlarger 2, α =15° 0.15 0.11 0.07 0.03 0.01
Enlarger 2, α =20° 0.23 0.17 0.11 0.05 0.02
Reducer 3 4.80 2.01 0.88 0.34 0.11
Reducer 4, 20° < α < 40° 0.21 0.10 0.05 0.02 0.01

5.3 Branches
The recommended values for ξ are shown in Figure 5.5 and Table 5.3 (KSB, 1990).

Figure 5.5 Minor loss factors for various types of branches

1 KSB. 1990. Centrifugal Pump Design. KSB.

338 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 5.6 Various types of branches (Table 5.4)

Table 5.4 Minor loss factor ξ, at various T-branches (KSB, 1990)

Type Q2/Q3 = 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

A ξ2 ≈ –0.4 0.08 0.47 0.72 0.91

ξ1 ≈ 0.17 0.30 0.41 0.51 –
B ξ2 ≈ 0.88 0.89 0.95 1.10 1.28
ξ1 ≈ –0.08 –0.05 0.07 0.21 –
C ξ2 ≈ –0.38 0 0.22 0.37 0.37
ξ1 ≈ 0.17 0.19 0.09 –0.17 –
D ξ2 ≈ 0.68 0.50 0.38 0.35 0.48
ξ1 ≈ 0.06 0.04 0.07 0.20 –

5.4 Inlets and outlets

The recommended values for ξ are shown in Figure 5.7 (KSB, 1990).

Figure 5.7 Minor loss factors for various types of inlets and outlets
 Minor loss factors 339

ξ = 1 for downstream of a straight pipe with an approximately uniform velocity

distribution in the outlet cross-section.
ξ = 2 in the case of a very unequal velocity distribution, e.g. immediately down-
stream of an elbow or a valve, etc.

5.5 Flow meters

The recommended ξ-values for the Venturi meters and orifice plates are shown in
Table 5.5 (KSB, 1990).

Figure 5.8 Geometry of Venturi tube and standard orifce plate (Table 5.5)

Table 5.5 Minor loss factor ξ, for Venturi tube and orifce plate (KSB, 1990)

Diameter ratio d/D 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80

Aperture ratio m = (d/D) 2 0.09 0.16 0.25 0.36 0.49 0.64
Short Venturi tube 21 6 2 0.7 0.3 0.2
Standard orifce plate 300 85 30 12 4.5 2

For volumetric water meters ξ ≈ 10, as an approximation.

5.6 Valves
The recommended ξ-values for various types of valves as shown below are dis-
played in Figure 5.9 (KSB, 1990).
 340 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Figure 5.9 Minor loss factors for various types of valves

Minor loss factors 341
 Appendix 6

Hydraulic tables
(Darcy-Weisbach/Colebrook-White)

k(mm) = 0.01 T(°C) = 10

D S = 0.0005 S = 0.001 S = 0.002 S = 0.003
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.11 0.2 0.8 0.17 0.3 1.2 0.25 0.5 1.8 0.31 0.6 2.2
80 0.16 0.8 2.9 0.24 1.2 4.3 0.35 1.8 6.3 0.44 2.2 7.9
100 0.19 1.5 5.3 0.28 2.2 7.8 0.41 3.2 11.5 0.51 4.0 14.5
125 0.22 2.7 9.6 0.32 4.0 14.3 0.48 5.8 21.1 0.60 7.3 26.4
150 0.25 4.4 15.8 0.37 6.5 23.3 0.54 9.5 34.3 0.68 12.0 43.1
200 0.30 9.5 34.2 0.45 14.0 50.4 0.66 20.6 74.2 0.82 25.8 92.9
250 0.35 17.3 62.3 0.52 25.5 91.7 0.76 37.4 134.6 0.95 46.7 168.3
300 0.40 28.2 101.5 0.59 41.4 149.1 0.86 60.7 218.6 1.07 75.9 273.2
350 0.44 42.6 153.3 0.65 62.5 224.9 0.95 91.5 329.4 1.19 114.3 411.3
400 0.48 60.8 218.8 0.71 89.1 320.9 1.04 130.4 469.5 1.30 162.8 585.9
450 0.52 83.2 299.5 0.77 121.9 438.8 1.12 178.2 641.5 1.40 222.3 800.3
500 0.56 110.1 396.5 0.82 161.2 580.4 1.20 235.5 848.0 1.50 293.7 1057.5
600 0.63 178.8 643.6 0.92 261.4 941.1 1.35 381.5 1373.4 1.68 475.4 1711.6
700 0.70 269.1 968.8 1.02 393.1 1415.2 1.49 573.2 2063.4 1.86 714.0 2570.2
800 0.76 383.3 1380.0 1.11 559.5 2014.4 1.62 815.2 2934.7 2.02 1014.9 3653.8
900 0.82 523.5 1884.7 1.20 763.7 2749.3 1.75 1111.9 4002.7 2.18 1383.8 4981.5
1000 0.88 691.7 2490.2 1.28 1008.4 3630.3 1.87 1467.3 5282.3 2.32 1825.5 6571.8
1100 0.94 889.8 3203.2 1.36 1296.5 4667.3 1.98 1885.4 6787.6 2.47 2345.0 8441.9
1200 0.99 1119.5 4030.3 1.44 1630.5 5869.7 2.10 2370.0 8532.1 2.61 2946.9 10608.8
1300 1.04 1382.7 4977.9 1.52 2012.9 7246.6 2.20 2924.7 10529.1 2.74 3635.7 13088.5
1400 1.09 1681.1 6052.0 1.59 2446.3 8806.8 2.31 3553.0 12791.0 2.87 4415.7 15896.5
1500 1.14 2016.3 7258.6 1.66 2933.0 10558.8 2.41 4258.3 15330.0 2.99 5291.1 19048.0
1600 1.19 2389.8 8603.4 1.73 3475.2 12510.8 2.51 5043.9 18158.1 3.12 6266.0 22557.6

D S= 0.004 S= 0.005 S= 0.006 S= 0.007

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.37 0.7 2.6 0.42 0.8 3.0 0.47 0.9 3.3 0.51 1.0 3.6
80 0.52 2.6 9.3 0.59 2.9 10.6 0.65 3.3 11.7 0.71 3.6 12.8
100 0.60 4.7 17.0 0.68 5.4 19.3 0.76 5.9 21.4 0.82 6.5 23.3
125 0.70 8.6 31.0 0.79 9.8 35.1 0.88 10.8 38.8 0.96 11.8 42.3
150 0.79 14.0 50.5 0.90 15.9 57.2 0.99 17.6 63.2 1.08 19.1 68.8
200 0.96 30.2 108.8 1.09 34.2 123.1 1.20 37.8 136.0 1.31 41.1 148.0
250 1.12 54.7 197.1 1.26 61.9 222.7 1.39 68.4 246.1 1.52 74.4 267.8
300 1.26 88.8 319.8 1.42 100.4 361.3 1.57 110.9 399.1 1.71 120.6 434.1
350 1.39 133.7 481.3 1.57 151.0 543.5 1.73 166.7 600.2 1.88 181.3 652.7
400 1.52 190.4 685.4 1.71 215.0 773.8 1.89 237.3 854.3 2.05 258.0 928.8
450 1.63 260.0 935.9 1.85 293.4 1056.4 2.04 323.9 1166.0 2.21 352.1 1267.4
500 1.75 343.4 1236.3 1.97 387.5 1395.1 2.18 427.7 1539.7 2.37 464.8 1673.3
600 1.96 555.6 2000.1 2.22 626.7 2256.3 2.45 691.5 2489.3 2.66 751.3 2704.7
700 2.17 834.0 3002.2 2.44 940.5 3385.8 2.70 1037.4 3734.7 2.93 1126.9 4057.0
800 2.36 1185.2 4266.5 2.66 1336.2 4810.5 2.93 1473.6 5305.1 3.18 1600.5 5761.9
900 2.54 1615.4 5815.4 2.86 1820.9 6555.3 3.16 2007.8 7228.0 3.43 2180.4 7849.3
1000 2.71 2130.5 7669.9 3.06 2401.2 8644.2 3.37 2647.2 9529.8 3.66 2874.3 10347.6
1100 2.88 2736.2 9850.4 3.24 3083.3 11099.9 3.58 3398.7 12235.3 3.88 3689.9 13283.7
1200 3.04 3437.9 12376.4 3.42 3873.4 13944.1 3.77 4269.0 15368.6 4.10 4634.4 16683.7
1300 3.19 4240.7 15266.5 3.60 4777.2 17197.9 3.97 5264.6 18952.6 4.31 5714.6 20572.4
1400 3.35 5149.7 18538.8 3.77 5800.4 20881.5 4.15 6391.6 23009.6 4.51 6937.2 24974.0
1500 3.49 6169.6 22210.7 3.93 6948.5 25014.5 4.33 7655.9 27561.2 4.70 8308.8 29911.7
1600 3.63 7305.4 26299.3 4.09 8226.7 29616.0 4.51 9063.4 32628.2 4.89 9835.6 35408.2
A6.2 Introduction to urban water distribution
344 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

k(mm) = 0.01 T(°C) = 10

D S= 0.008 S= 0.009 S= 0.010 S= 0.012
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.55 1.1 3.9 0.59 1.2 4.1 0.62 1.2 4.4 0.69 1.4 4.9
80 0.76 3.8 13.8 0.81 4.1 14.7 0.86 4.3 15.6 0.95 4.8 17.3
100 0.89 7.0 25.1 0.95 7.4 26.8 1.00 7.9 28.4 1.11 8.7 31.4
125 1.03 12.7 45.5 1.10 13.5 48.6 1.17 14.3 51.5 1.29 15.8 57.0
150 1.16 20.6 74.1 1.24 22.0 79.0 1.32 23.3 83.8 1.46 25.7 92.6
200 1.41 44.2 159.3 1.50 47.2 169.9 1.59 50.0 180.0 1.76 55.2 198.8
250 1.63 80.0 288.0 1.74 85.3 307.1 1.84 90.3 325.2 2.03 99.8 359.1
300 1.83 129.7 466.8 1.96 138.2 497.6 2.07 146.4 526.9 2.29 161.6 581.6
350 2.03 194.9 701.7 2.16 207.8 747.9 2.29 219.9 791.8 2.52 242.7 873.8
400 2.21 277.3 998.4 2.35 295.6 1064.0 2.49 312.9 1126.3 2.75 345.2 1242.7
450 2.38 378.4 1362.2 2.54 403.2 1451.6 2.68 426.8 1536.4 2.96 470.8 1694.8
500 2.54 499.5 1798.3 2.71 532.2 1916.0 2.87 563.3 2027.8 3.16 621.2 2236.4
600 2.86 807.2 2906.0 3.04 859.9 3095.8 3.22 909.9 3275.8 3.55 1003.3 3611.8
700 3.15 1210.6 4358.2 3.35 1289.5 4642.0 3.54 1364.2 4911.3 3.91 1503.8 5413.8
800 3.42 1719.1 6188.8 3.64 1830.8 6590.9 3.85 1936.8 6972.4 4.25 2134.5 7684.2
900 3.68 2341.6 8429.7 3.92 2493.5 8976.5 4.15 2637.5 9495.0 4.57 2906.3 10462.6
1000 3.93 3086.5 11111.4 4.18 3286.4 11831.0 4.43 3475.9 12513.3 4.88 3829.5 13786.2
1100 4.17 3961.9 14262.9 4.44 4218.1 15185.1 4.69 4461.0 16059.5 5.17 4914.1 17690.8
1200 4.40 4975.5 17911.8 4.68 5296.8 19068.5 4.95 5601.4 20165.0 5.46 6169.6 22210.6
1300 4.62 6134.7 22085.0 4.92 6530.4 23509.4 5.20 6905.5 24859.7 5.73 7605.1 27378.3
1400 4.84 7446.7 26808.1 5.15 7926.4 28535.2 5.44 8381.2 30172.3 6.00 9229.4 33225.8
1500 5.05 8918.4 32106.2 5.37 9492.3 34172.4 5.68 10036.4 36131.0 6.25 11051.0 39783.6
1600 5.25 10556.5 38003.4 5.59 11235.2 40446.8 5.91 11878.6 42762.8 6.50 13078.2 47081.7

D S= 0.014 S= 0.016 S= 0.018 S= 0.020

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.75 1.5 5.3 0.81 1.6 5.7 0.87 1.7 6.1 0.92 1.8 6.5
80 1.04 5.2 18.8 1.12 5.6 20.3 1.20 6.0 21.6 1.27 6.4 22.9
100 1.21 9.5 34.2 1.30 10.2 36.8 1.39 10.9 39.3 1.47 11.6 41.6
125 1.40 17.2 62.0 1.51 18.5 66.7 1.61 19.8 71.2 1.71 20.9 75.4
150 1.58 28.0 100.7 1.70 30.1 108.4 1.82 32.1 115.6 1.92 34.0 122.4
200 1.91 60.1 216.2 2.06 64.6 232.5 2.19 68.9 247.9 2.32 72.9 262.5
250 2.21 108.5 390.5 2.38 116.6 419.8 2.53 124.3 447.4 2.68 131.6 473.6
300 2.48 175.6 632.2 2.67 188.7 679.5 2.85 201.1 724.1 3.01 212.9 766.4
350 2.74 263.8 949.6 2.95 283.5 1020.4 3.14 302.0 1087.2 3.32 319.6 1150.5
400 2.98 375.1 1350.2 3.21 403.0 1450.7 3.42 429.3 1545.4 3.61 454.2 1635.2
450 3.22 511.4 1841.1 3.45 549.4 1977.9 3.68 585.2 2106.7 3.89 619.1 2228.9
500 3.44 674.8 2429.2 3.69 724.8 2609.3 3.93 771.9 2778.9 4.16 816.6 2939.8
600 3.85 1089.5 3922.1 4.14 1170.0 4212.0 4.41 1245.8 4485.0 4.66 1317.8 4743.9
700 4.24 1632.7 5877.7 4.56 1753.1 6311.0 4.85 1866.4 6719.1 5.13 1973.9 7105.9
800 4.61 2317.0 8341.3 4.95 2487.5 8954.9 5.27 2648.0 9532.6 5.57 2800.1 10080.3
900 4.96 3154.3 11355.6 5.32 3385.9 12189.3 5.67 3604.0 12974.2 5.99 3810.6 13718.2
1000 5.29 4155.8 14961.0 5.68 4460.4 16057.5 6.04 4747.2 17089.9 6.39 5019.0 18068.3
1100 5.61 5332.2 19196.0 6.02 5722.5 20600.9 6.41 6089.8 21923.4 6.77 6438.0 23176.7
1200 5.92 6693.8 24097.8 6.35 7183.1 25859.0 6.76 7643.6 27516.9 7.14 8079.9 29087.8
1300 6.22 8250.5 29701.8 6.67 8852.8 31869.9 7.10 9419.6 33910.6 7.50 9956.8 35844.3
1400 6.50 10011.7 36042.3 6.98 10741.8 38670.4 7.42 11428.8 41143.8 7.85 12079.8 43487.3
1500 6.78 11986.8 43152.6 7.28 12860.0 46295.8 7.74 13681.7 49254.0 8.18 14460.2 52056.6
1600 7.05 14184.7 51064.8 7.57 15216.9 54780.8 8.05 16188.3 58277.8 8.51 17108.5 61590.8
 Hydraulic tables (Darcy Weisbach/Colbrook-White) A6.3
Hydraulic tables 345

k(mm) = 0.05 T(°C) = 10

D S = 0.0005 S = 0.001 S = 0.002 S = 0.003
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.11 0.2 0.8 0.16 0.3 1.2 0.24 0.5 1.7 0.31 0.6 2.2
80 0.16 0.8 2.8 0.23 1.2 4.2 0.34 1.7 6.2 0.43 2.1 7.7
100 0.18 1.4 5.2 0.27 2.1 7.7 0.40 3.1 11.3 0.50 3.9 14.1
125 0.21 2.6 9.5 0.32 3.9 14.0 0.46 5.7 20.5 0.58 7.1 25.6
150 0.24 4.3 15.5 0.36 6.3 22.8 0.53 9.3 33.4 0.66 11.6 41.7
200 0.30 9.3 33.7 0.44 13.7 49.3 0.64 20.0 72.1 0.79 25.0 89.8
250 0.35 17.0 61.2 0.51 24.9 89.5 0.74 36.3 130.6 0.92 45.1 162.5
300 0.39 27.7 99.6 0.57 40.4 145.5 0.83 58.8 211.9 1.04 73.2 263.5
350 0.43 41.7 150.3 0.63 60.9 219.2 0.92 88.5 318.8 1.14 110.0 396.1
400 0.47 59.6 214.4 0.69 86.8 312.5 1.00 126.1 453.8 1.25 156.6 563.6
450 0.51 81.5 293.3 0.75 118.6 427.0 1.08 172.1 619.6 1.34 213.6 769.0
500 0.55 107.8 388.0 0.80 156.8 564.4 1.16 227.3 818.2 1.44 282.0 1015.2
600 0.62 174.8 629.1 0.90 253.9 913.9 1.30 367.5 1323.2 1.61 455.7 1640.4
700 0.68 262.8 946.1 0.99 381.3 1372.8 1.43 551.5 1985.3 1.78 683.3 2459.7
800 0.74 374.0 1346.5 1.08 542.2 1951.9 1.56 783.4 2820.2 1.93 970.1 3492.3
900 0.80 510.4 1837.6 1.16 739.3 2661.5 1.68 1067.3 3842.4 2.08 1321.1 4756.1
1000 0.86 673.9 2426.2 1.24 975.4 3511.4 1.79 1407.2 5065.9 2.22 1741.1 6268.0
1100 0.91 866.3 3118.7 1.32 1253.0 4510.9 1.90 1806.6 6503.8 2.35 2234.5 8044.3
1200 0.96 1089.3 3921.6 1.39 1574.7 5668.8 2.01 2269.1 8168.9 2.48 2805.7 10100.7
1300 1.01 1344.7 4840.8 1.46 1942.7 6993.8 2.11 2798.1 10073.2 2.61 3458.9 12451.9
1400 1.06 1633.9 5882.1 1.53 2359.5 8494.2 2.21 3396.8 12228.6 2.73 4197.9 15112.6
1500 1.11 1958.7 7051.2 1.60 2827.2 10178.0 2.30 4068.5 14646.5 2.84 5026.8 18096.5
1600 1.15 2320.4 8353.5 1.67 3348.0 12052.9 2.40 4816.1 17337.9 2.96 5949.3 21417.4

D S= 0.004 S= 0.005 S= 0.006 S= 0.007

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.36 0.7 2.6 0.41 0.8 2.9 0.45 0.9 3.2 0.49 1.0 3.5
80 0.50 2.5 9.1 0.57 2.8 10.3 0.63 3.1 11.3 0.68 3.4 12.3
100 0.58 4.6 16.5 0.66 5.2 18.7 0.73 5.7 20.6 0.79 6.2 22.4
125 0.68 8.3 30.0 0.77 9.4 33.9 0.85 10.4 37.4 0.92 11.3 40.7
150 0.77 13.6 48.8 0.87 15.3 55.1 0.96 16.9 60.8 1.04 18.3 66.0
200 0.93 29.1 104.9 1.05 32.9 118.3 1.15 36.2 130.5 1.25 39.4 141.7
250 1.07 52.7 189.7 1.21 59.4 213.7 1.33 65.4 235.5 1.45 71.0 255.7
300 1.21 85.4 307.3 1.36 96.1 346.1 1.50 105.9 381.3 1.63 114.9 413.8
350 1.33 128.3 461.8 1.50 144.4 519.9 1.65 159.1 572.6 1.79 172.6 621.2
400 1.45 182.4 656.8 1.63 205.3 739.2 1.80 226.1 814.0 1.95 245.2 882.9
450 1.56 248.8 895.8 1.76 280.0 1008.0 1.94 308.2 1109.7 2.10 334.3 1203.4
500 1.67 328.4 1182.2 1.88 369.4 1329.9 2.07 406.6 1463.7 2.25 440.9 1587.1
600 1.88 530.3 1909.2 2.11 596.4 2146.9 2.32 656.2 2362.3 2.52 711.3 2560.7
700 2.07 794.9 2861.7 2.32 893.6 3216.9 2.55 983.0 3538.7 2.77 1065.3 3835.1
800 2.24 1128.2 4061.5 2.52 1267.9 4564.4 2.77 1394.4 5020.0 3.01 1511.0 5439.6
900 2.41 1536.0 5529.5 2.71 1725.8 6212.8 2.98 1897.7 6831.7 3.23 2056.0 7401.6
1000 2.58 2023.7 7285.4 2.89 2273.3 8184.1 3.18 2499.4 8997.9 3.45 2707.6 9747.3
1100 2.73 2596.7 9347.9 3.07 2916.4 10499.2 3.37 3206.0 11541.6 3.65 3472.6 12501.5
1200 2.88 3259.7 11735.1 3.24 3660.6 13178.2 3.56 4023.6 14485.0 3.85 4357.8 15688.0
1300 3.03 4017.8 14464.1 3.40 4511.3 16240.6 3.74 4958.1 17849.0 4.05 5369.4 19329.8
1400 3.17 4875.5 17551.7 3.56 5473.6 19704.9 3.91 6015.1 21654.4 4.23 6513.6 23448.9
1500 3.30 5837.2 21014.0 3.71 6552.6 23589.3 4.07 7200.2 25920.7 4.41 7796.3 28066.7
1600 3.44 6907.4 24866.7 3.86 7753.1 27911.3 4.24 8518.7 30667.3 4.59 9223.3 33204.0
A6.4 Introduction to urban water distribution
346 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

k(mm) = 0.05 T(°C) = 10

D S= 0.008 S= 0.009 S= 0.010 S= 0.012
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.53 1.0 3.8 0.57 1.1 4.0 0.60 1.2 4.2 0.66 1.3 4.7
80 0.73 3.7 13.3 0.78 3.9 14.2 0.83 4.2 15.0 0.91 4.6 16.5
100 0.85 6.7 24.1 0.91 7.1 25.7 0.96 7.6 27.2 1.06 8.3 30.0
125 0.99 12.1 43.7 1.05 12.9 46.5 1.12 13.7 49.3 1.23 15.1 54.3
150 1.12 19.7 70.9 1.19 21.0 75.6 1.26 22.2 80.0 1.39 24.5 88.1
200 1.35 42.3 152.1 1.43 45.0 162.0 1.51 47.6 171.3 1.67 52.4 188.7
250 1.55 76.2 274.5 1.65 81.2 292.2 1.75 85.8 308.9 1.92 94.5 340.1
300 1.75 123.4 444.1 1.86 131.3 472.6 1.96 138.8 499.6 2.16 152.7 549.9
350 1.92 185.1 666.5 2.05 197.0 709.2 2.16 208.2 749.6 2.38 229.1 824.8
400 2.09 263.1 947.1 2.23 279.9 1007.6 2.35 295.8 1064.8 2.59 325.4 1171.4
450 2.25 358.5 1290.8 2.40 381.4 1373.0 2.53 403.0 1450.8 2.79 443.3 1595.7
500 2.41 472.8 1702.1 2.56 502.9 1810.3 2.71 531.3 1912.7 2.98 584.3 2103.5
600 2.70 762.7 2745.7 2.87 811.0 2919.6 3.03 856.7 3084.3 3.33 941.9 3390.9
700 2.97 1142.1 4111.4 3.16 1214.2 4371.2 3.33 1282.5 4617.1 3.66 1409.7 5075.0
800 3.22 1619.6 5830.6 3.43 1721.7 6198.2 3.62 1818.4 6546.2 3.98 1998.3 7194.0
900 3.46 2203.5 7932.7 3.68 2342.2 8431.9 3.89 2473.5 8904.4 4.27 2717.8 9784.1
1000 3.69 2901.5 10445.5 3.93 3083.9 11101.9 4.15 3256.4 11723.1 4.56 3577.6 12879.4
1100 3.92 3721.0 13395.8 4.16 3954.5 14236.3 4.39 4175.5 15031.8 4.83 4586.8 16512.5
1200 4.13 4669.1 16808.8 4.39 4961.7 17862.2 4.63 5238.7 18859.2 5.09 5754.1 20714.7
1300 4.33 5752.6 20709.2 4.61 6112.7 22005.6 4.86 6453.5 23232.5 5.34 7087.8 25515.9
1400 4.53 6977.9 25120.5 4.82 7414.3 26691.6 5.08 7827.3 28178.3 5.58 8595.9 30945.2
1500 4.73 8351.6 30065.7 5.02 8873.4 31944.4 5.30 9367.3 33722.1 5.82 10286.3 37030.5
1600 4.91 9879.7 35566.9 5.22 10496.5 37787.5 5.51 11080.2 39888.7 6.05 12166.4 43799.1

D S= 0.014 S= 0.016 S= 0.018 S= 0.020

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.72 1.4 5.1 0.78 1.5 5.5 0.83 1.6 5.9 0.88 1.7 6.2
80 0.99 5.0 18.0 1.07 5.4 19.3 1.14 5.7 20.6 1.20 6.1 21.8
100 1.15 9.1 32.6 1.24 9.7 35.0 1.32 10.4 37.3 1.40 11.0 39.5
125 1.34 16.4 59.0 1.43 17.6 63.3 1.53 18.7 67.4 1.61 19.8 71.3
150 1.50 26.6 95.7 1.61 28.5 102.7 1.72 30.4 109.3 1.82 32.1 115.6
200 1.81 56.9 204.8 1.94 61.0 219.7 2.07 64.9 233.8 2.19 68.6 247.1
250 2.09 102.5 368.9 2.24 109.9 395.7 2.38 116.9 421.0 2.52 123.6 444.9
300 2.34 165.6 596.2 2.51 177.6 639.4 2.67 188.9 680.0 2.82 199.6 718.5
350 2.58 248.4 894.1 2.77 266.3 958.7 2.94 283.2 1019.5 3.11 299.2 1077.0
400 2.81 352.7 1269.6 3.01 378.1 1361.1 3.20 402.0 1447.2 3.38 424.6 1528.6
450 3.02 480.3 1729.2 3.24 514.9 1853.6 3.44 547.4 1970.6 3.64 578.1 2081.3
500 3.22 633.1 2279.1 3.46 678.6 2442.8 3.67 721.3 2596.6 3.88 761.7 2742.3
600 3.61 1020.3 3673.2 3.87 1093.4 3936.2 4.11 1162.1 4183.5 4.34 1227.1 4417.4
700 3.97 1526.8 5496.5 4.25 1635.9 5889.1 4.52 1738.4 6258.2 4.77 1835.4 6607.4
800 4.31 2164.0 7790.3 4.61 2318.3 8345.8 4.90 2463.3 8867.8 5.17 2600.5 9361.8
900 4.63 2942.7 10593.7 4.95 3152.2 11347.8 5.26 3349.0 12056.5 5.56 3535.3 12727.1
1000 4.93 3873.2 13943.6 5.28 4148.6 14934.8 5.61 4407.3 15866.3 5.92 4652.1 16747.6
1100 5.22 4965.3 17875.2 5.60 5317.9 19144.4 5.94 5649.2 20337.0 6.27 5962.6 21465.4
1200 5.51 6228.4 22422.3 5.90 6670.2 24012.6 6.26 7085.2 25506.9 6.61 7478.0 26920.7
1300 5.78 7671.4 27617.2 6.19 8215.0 29574.1 6.57 8725.8 31412.7 6.94 9209.0 33152.4
1400 6.04 9303.1 33491.3 6.47 9961.8 35862.3 6.87 10580.6 38090.1 7.25 11166.1 40197.9
1500 6.30 11131.9 40074.8 6.74 11919.4 42909.7 7.16 12659.2 45573.3 7.56 13359.3 48093.3
1600 6.55 13165.9 47397.1 7.01 14096.6 50747.6 7.45 14971.0 53895.6 7.86 15798.3 56873.8
 Hydraulic tables (Darcy Weisbach/Colbrook-White) A6.5
Hydraulic tables 347

k(mm) = 0.1 T(°C) = 10

D S = 0.0005 S = 0.001 S = 0.002 S = 0.003
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.11 0.2 0.8 0.16 0.3 1.1 0.24 0.5 1.7 0.30 0.6 2.1
80 0.15 0.8 2.8 0.23 1.1 4.1 0.33 1.7 6.0 0.42 2.1 7.5
100 0.18 1.4 5.1 0.27 2.1 7.5 0.39 3.1 11.0 0.48 3.8 13.7
125 0.21 2.6 9.3 0.31 3.8 13.7 0.45 5.6 20.0 0.56 6.9 24.9
150 0.24 4.2 15.3 0.35 6.2 22.3 0.51 9.0 32.5 0.64 11.2 40.5
200 0.29 9.2 33.0 0.43 13.4 48.2 0.62 19.5 70.0 0.77 24.2 87.0
250 0.34 16.7 60.0 0.49 24.3 87.4 0.72 35.2 126.7 0.89 43.7 157.2
300 0.38 27.1 97.6 0.56 39.4 141.9 0.81 57.1 205.4 1.00 70.7 254.6
350 0.42 40.9 147.2 0.62 59.3 213.6 0.89 85.8 308.8 1.10 106.2 382.5
400 0.46 58.3 209.9 0.67 84.5 304.3 0.97 122.1 439.4 1.20 151.1 543.9
450 0.50 79.7 286.9 0.73 115.4 415.5 1.05 166.5 599.6 1.30 206.0 741.8
500 0.54 105.4 379.3 0.78 152.5 548.9 1.12 219.8 791.5 1.38 271.9 978.7
600 0.60 170.7 614.6 0.87 246.7 888.1 1.26 355.2 1278.8 1.55 439.0 1580.3
700 0.67 256.5 923.5 0.96 370.3 1333.1 1.38 532.6 1917.5 1.71 657.8 2368.2
800 0.73 364.9 1313.6 1.05 526.2 1894.3 1.50 756.2 2722.3 1.86 933.5 3360.6
900 0.78 497.7 1791.7 1.13 717.1 2581.5 1.62 1029.8 3707.2 2.00 1270.7 4574.7
1000 0.84 656.8 2364.4 1.20 945.6 3404.3 1.73 1357.1 4885.6 2.13 1674.1 6026.7
1100 0.89 843.9 3037.9 1.28 1214.3 4371.4 1.83 1741.7 6269.9 2.26 2147.8 7732.1
1200 0.94 1060.7 3818.5 1.35 1525.4 5491.4 1.93 2186.8 7872.5 2.38 2696.1 9705.9
1300 0.99 1308.8 4711.7 1.42 1881.3 6772.6 2.03 2695.8 9704.8 2.50 3322.8 11962.2
1400 1.03 1589.8 5723.3 1.48 2284.1 8222.9 2.13 3271.7 11778.3 2.62 4031.9 14514.8
1500 1.08 1905.2 6858.7 1.55 2736.1 9849.9 2.22 3917.7 14103.6 2.73 4827.0 17377.2
1600 1.12 2256.4 8123.0 1.61 3239.2 11661.3 2.31 4636.5 16691.5 2.84 5711.7 20562.2

D S= 0.004 S= 0.005 S= 0.006 S= 0.007

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.35 0.7 2.5 0.40 0.8 2.8 0.44 0.9 3.1 0.48 0.9 3.4
80 0.49 2.4 8.8 0.55 2.8 9.9 0.61 3.0 11.0 0.66 3.3 11.9
100 0.57 4.4 16.0 0.64 5.0 18.0 0.70 5.5 19.9 0.76 6.0 21.6
125 0.66 8.1 29.0 0.74 9.1 32.7 0.82 10.0 36.1 0.89 10.9 39.1
150 0.74 13.1 47.2 0.84 14.8 53.2 0.92 16.3 58.6 1.00 17.6 63.5
200 0.90 28.1 101.3 1.01 31.7 114.0 1.11 34.9 125.5 1.20 37.8 136.1
250 1.04 50.8 183.0 1.16 57.2 205.8 1.28 62.9 226.4 1.39 68.2 245.5
300 1.16 82.3 296.2 1.31 92.5 333.0 1.44 101.7 366.3 1.56 110.3 397.0
350 1.28 123.6 444.8 1.44 138.8 499.9 1.59 152.7 549.7 1.72 165.4 595.6
400 1.40 175.6 632.3 1.57 197.3 710.4 1.73 217.0 781.0 1.87 235.0 846.1
450 1.51 239.5 862.0 1.69 268.9 968.2 1.86 295.6 1064.3 2.01 320.2 1152.8
500 1.61 315.9 1137.1 1.81 354.7 1276.9 1.99 389.8 1403.4 2.15 422.2 1519.9
600 1.80 509.8 1835.1 2.02 572.2 2060.0 2.22 628.8 2263.6 2.41 680.8 2450.9
700 1.98 763.6 2749.1 2.23 857.0 3085.1 2.45 941.5 3389.3 2.65 1019.2 3669.2
800 2.16 1083.3 3899.9 2.42 1215.5 4375.7 2.66 1335.1 4806.2 2.87 1445.1 5202.4
900 2.32 1474.3 5307.5 2.60 1653.8 5953.9 2.86 1816.3 6538.7 3.09 1965.8 7076.9
1000 2.47 1941.8 6990.5 2.77 2178.0 7840.6 3.05 2391.6 8609.8 3.30 2588.2 9317.5
1100 2.62 2490.8 8967.0 2.94 2793.3 10056.1 3.23 3067.0 11041.3 3.49 3318.9 11947.9
1200 2.76 3126.1 11254.0 3.10 3505.4 12619.3 3.40 3848.5 13854.4 3.68 4164.1 14990.8
1300 2.90 3852.3 13868.1 3.25 4319.1 15548.8 3.57 4741.5 17069.3 3.86 5130.0 18468.0
1400 3.04 4673.7 16825.2 3.40 5239.6 18862.5 3.74 5751.5 20705.3 4.04 6222.4 22400.7
1500 3.17 5594.6 20140.7 3.55 6271.5 22577.4 3.90 6883.8 24781.6 4.21 7447.0 26809.3
1600 3.29 6619.3 23829.6 3.69 7419.6 26710.4 4.05 8143.4 29316.2 4.38 8809.3 31713.4
A6.6 Introduction to urban water distribution
348 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

k(mm) = 0.1 T(°C) = 10

D S= 0.008 S= 0.009 S= 0.010 S= 0.012
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.51 1.0 3.6 0.55 1.1 3.9 0.58 1.1 4.1 0.64 1.3 4.5
80 0.71 3.6 12.8 0.75 3.8 13.6 0.80 4.0 14.4 0.88 4.4 15.9
100 0.82 6.4 23.2 0.87 6.9 24.7 0.92 7.3 26.1 1.02 8.0 28.8
125 0.95 11.7 42.0 1.01 12.4 44.7 1.07 13.1 47.3 1.18 14.5 52.0
150 1.07 18.9 68.2 1.14 20.1 72.5 1.21 21.3 76.7 1.33 23.4 84.4
200 1.29 40.6 146.0 1.37 43.1 155.3 1.45 45.6 164.1 1.60 50.1 180.5
250 1.49 73.1 263.2 1.58 77.7 279.9 1.67 82.1 295.7 1.84 90.3 325.0
300 1.67 118.2 425.5 1.78 125.7 452.4 1.88 132.7 477.8 2.06 145.9 525.2
350 1.84 177.3 638.4 1.96 188.5 678.6 2.07 199.1 716.6 2.27 218.7 787.5
400 2.00 251.9 906.7 2.13 267.7 963.7 2.25 282.7 1017.6 2.47 310.5 1118.0
450 2.16 343.1 1235.3 2.29 364.6 1312.7 2.42 385.0 1386.0 2.66 422.9 1522.5
500 2.30 452.3 1628.4 2.45 480.7 1730.4 2.58 507.5 1826.9 2.84 557.3 2006.4
600 2.58 729.3 2625.4 2.74 774.8 2789.4 2.89 817.9 2944.6 3.18 898.1 3233.3
700 2.84 1091.6 3929.8 3.01 1159.7 4174.8 3.18 1224.0 4406.5 3.49 1343.8 4837.7
800 3.08 1547.6 5571.3 3.27 1643.9 5918.0 3.45 1735.0 6246.0 3.79 1904.5 6856.2
900 3.31 2105.0 7578.0 3.51 2235.8 8048.9 3.71 2359.5 8494.4 4.07 2589.8 9323.2
1000 3.53 2771.2 9976.5 3.75 2943.2 10595.6 3.95 3105.9 11181.3 4.34 3408.6 12271.1
1100 3.74 3553.3 12792.0 3.97 3773.6 13585.0 4.19 3982.0 14335.3 4.60 4369.7 15731.1
1200 3.94 4458.0 16048.8 4.19 4734.1 17042.9 4.42 4995.4 17983.3 4.85 5481.3 19732.8
1300 4.14 5491.8 19770.4 4.39 5831.7 20994.0 4.64 6153.2 22151.5 5.09 6751.4 24304.9
1400 4.33 6660.9 23979.3 4.59 7072.8 25462.2 4.85 7462.5 26865.1 5.32 8187.5 29475.0
1500 4.51 7971.4 28697.2 4.79 8464.1 30470.7 5.05 8930.1 32148.5 5.54 9797.2 35269.8
1600 4.69 9429.2 33945.3 4.98 10011.6 36041.9 5.25 10562.6 38025.4 5.76 11587.5 41715.2

D S= 0.014 S= 0.016 S= 0.018 S= 0.020

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.69 1.4 4.9 0.75 1.5 5.3 0.79 1.6 5.6 0.84 1.6 5.9
80 0.95 4.8 17.2 1.02 5.1 18.5 1.09 5.5 19.7 1.15 5.8 20.8
100 1.10 8.7 31.2 1.18 9.3 33.5 1.26 9.9 35.6 1.33 10.5 37.7
125 1.28 15.7 56.4 1.37 16.8 60.5 1.46 17.9 64.4 1.54 18.9 68.0
150 1.44 25.4 91.5 1.54 27.2 98.1 1.64 29.0 104.3 1.73 30.6 110.2
200 1.73 54.3 195.6 1.85 58.2 209.6 1.97 61.9 222.8 2.08 65.4 235.3
250 1.99 97.8 352.1 2.14 104.8 377.3 2.27 111.4 401.0 2.40 117.6 423.4
300 2.24 158.0 568.8 2.39 169.3 609.3 2.54 179.9 647.5 2.69 189.9 683.6
350 2.46 236.8 852.6 2.64 253.7 913.3 2.80 269.5 970.4 2.96 284.5 1024.3
400 2.68 336.2 1210.3 2.87 360.1 1296.3 3.04 382.5 1377.1 3.21 403.8 1453.6
450 2.88 457.8 1648.0 3.08 490.3 1764.9 3.27 520.8 1874.8 3.46 549.6 1978.7
500 3.07 603.2 2171.7 3.29 646.0 2325.5 3.49 686.1 2470.1 3.69 724.1 2606.8
600 3.44 971.9 3498.9 3.68 1040.6 3746.2 3.91 1105.2 3978.6 4.12 1166.2 4198.5
700 3.78 1454.0 5234.4 4.04 1556.6 5603.8 4.30 1653.0 5950.8 4.53 1744.2 6279.1
800 4.10 2060.5 7417.6 4.39 2205.7 7940.3 4.66 2342.1 8431.4 4.92 2471.1 8895.9
900 4.40 2801.6 10085.7 4.71 2998.8 10795.5 5.00 3184.0 11462.4 5.28 3359.2 12093.2
1000 4.69 3687.1 13273.6 5.02 3946.4 14206.9 5.33 4189.9 15083.7 5.63 4420.3 15913.1
1100 4.97 4726.4 17015.1 5.32 5058.5 18210.4 5.65 5370.4 19333.3 5.96 5665.4 20395.6
1200 5.24 5928.4 21342.1 5.61 6344.5 22840.3 5.96 6735.5 24247.7 6.28 7105.3 25579.0
1300 5.50 7301.6 26285.7 5.89 7813.8 28129.7 6.25 8295.0 29861.9 6.59 8750.1 31500.5
1400 5.75 8854.3 31875.6 6.16 9475.1 34110.5 6.53 10058.3 36209.8 6.89 10609.9 38195.5
1500 6.00 10594.6 38140.7 6.42 11337.0 40813.4 6.81 12034.4 43323.9 7.18 12694.1 45698.7
1600 6.23 12530.3 45109.0 6.67 13407.9 48268.4 7.08 14232.3 51236.1 7.47 15012.0 54043.3
 Hydraulic tables (Darcy Weisbach/Colbrook-White) A6.7
Hydraulic tables 349

k(mm) = 0.5 T(°C) = 10

D S = 0.0005 S = 0.001 S = 0.002 S = 0.003
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.10 0.2 0.7 0.15 0.3 1.0 0.21 0.4 1.5 0.26 0.5 1.8
80 0.14 0.7 2.5 0.20 1.0 3.7 0.29 1.5 5.3 0.36 1.8 6.6
100 0.16 1.3 4.6 0.24 1.9 6.7 0.34 2.7 9.7 0.42 3.3 11.9
125 0.19 2.4 8.5 0.28 3.4 12.2 0.40 4.9 17.6 0.49 6.0 21.7
150 0.22 3.8 13.8 0.31 5.5 19.9 0.45 7.9 28.6 0.55 9.8 35.2
200 0.26 8.3 29.9 0.38 11.9 42.9 0.54 17.1 61.4 0.67 21.0 75.7
250 0.31 15.0 54.2 0.44 21.6 77.7 0.63 30.9 111.1 0.77 38.0 136.7
300 0.35 24.4 88.0 0.50 35.0 126.0 0.71 50.0 180.0 0.87 61.5 221.5
350 0.38 36.8 132.5 0.55 52.7 189.6 0.78 75.2 270.5 0.96 92.4 332.7
400 0.42 52.4 188.7 0.60 75.0 269.9 0.85 106.9 384.9 1.05 131.4 473.2
450 0.45 71.6 257.8 0.64 102.3 368.4 0.92 145.9 525.1 1.13 179.3 645.4
500 0.48 94.6 340.6 0.69 135.1 486.4 0.98 192.5 693.0 1.20 236.6 851.7
600 0.54 153.1 551.2 0.77 218.5 786.5 1.10 311.0 1119.7 1.35 382.1 1375.6
700 0.60 229.9 827.5 0.85 327.8 1179.9 1.21 466.4 1679.0 1.49 572.8 2062.1
800 0.65 326.7 1176.0 0.93 465.6 1676.0 1.32 662.2 2383.8 1.62 813.1 2927.2
900 0.70 445.3 1603.0 1.00 634.3 2283.5 1.42 901.9 3246.7 1.74 1107.2 3986.1
1000 0.75 587.3 2114.3 1.06 836.3 3010.6 1.51 1188.7 4279.2 1.86 1459.2 5253.0
1100 0.79 754.3 2715.5 1.13 1073.7 3865.2 1.61 1525.7 5492.5 1.97 1872.7 6741.6
1200 0.84 947.7 3411.8 1.19 1348.6 4855.0 1.69 1915.9 6897.4 2.08 2351.4 8465.1
1300 0.88 1169.1 4208.6 1.25 1663.1 5987.2 1.78 2362.3 8504.2 2.18 2898.9 10436.1
1400 0.92 1419.6 5110.7 1.31 2019.1 7268.8 1.86 2867.4 10322.7 2.29 3518.5 12666.8
1500 0.96 1700.8 6122.9 1.37 2418.5 8706.7 1.94 3434.1 12362.8 2.38 4213.6 15168.9
1600 1.00 2013.9 7250.0 1.42 2863.2 10307.4 2.02 4064.9 14633.6 2.48 4987.2 17954.1

D S= 0.004 S= 0.005 S= 0.006 S= 0.007

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.30 0.6 2.1 0.34 0.7 2.4 0.38 0.7 2.7 0.41 0.8 2.9
80 0.42 2.1 7.6 0.47 2.4 8.6 0.52 2.6 9.4 0.56 2.8 10.2
100 0.49 3.8 13.9 0.55 4.3 15.5 0.60 4.7 17.1 0.65 5.1 18.5
125 0.57 7.0 25.1 0.64 7.8 28.2 0.70 8.6 31.0 0.76 9.3 33.5
150 0.64 11.3 40.8 0.72 12.7 45.8 0.79 14.0 50.3 0.86 15.1 54.4
200 0.78 24.4 87.7 0.87 27.3 98.3 0.95 30.0 107.9 1.03 32.4 116.7
250 0.90 44.0 158.4 1.00 49.3 177.4 1.10 54.1 194.7 1.19 58.5 210.5
300 1.01 71.2 256.4 1.13 79.8 287.2 1.24 87.5 315.1 1.34 94.6 340.7
350 1.11 107.0 385.2 1.25 119.8 431.4 1.37 131.4 473.2 1.48 142.1 511.6
400 1.21 152.1 547.7 1.36 170.4 613.3 1.49 186.9 672.7 1.61 202.0 727.3
450 1.30 207.5 746.9 1.46 232.3 836.3 1.60 254.8 917.2 1.73 275.4 991.5
500 1.39 273.7 985.5 1.56 306.5 1103.4 1.71 336.1 1210.0 1.85 363.3 1308.0
600 1.56 442.0 1591.4 1.75 494.9 1781.5 1.92 542.6 1953.4 2.07 586.5 2111.5
700 1.72 662.6 2385.2 1.93 741.6 2669.9 2.11 813.1 2927.3 2.28 878.9 3164.0
800 1.87 940.4 3385.4 2.09 1052.5 3789.2 2.30 1153.9 4154.2 2.48 1247.2 4489.9
900 2.01 1280.4 4609.5 2.25 1433.0 5158.9 2.47 1571.0 5655.6 2.67 1697.9 6112.3
1000 2.15 1687.2 6074.1 2.40 1888.2 6797.5 2.64 2069.9 7451.6 2.85 2237.0 8053.2
1100 2.28 2165.2 7794.8 2.55 2423.0 8722.8 2.79 2656.1 9561.8 3.02 2870.4 10333.4
1200 2.40 2718.6 9786.9 2.69 3042.1 10951.6 2.95 3334.6 12004.6 3.19 3603.6 12972.9
1300 2.52 3351.4 12065.0 2.83 3750.1 13500.2 3.10 4110.5 14797.8 3.35 4442.0 15991.1
1400 2.64 4067.5 14643.1 2.96 4551.2 16384.4 3.24 4988.5 17958.8 3.50 5390.7 19406.6
1500 2.76 4870.8 17534.9 3.08 5449.9 19619.5 3.38 5973.4 21504.2 3.65 6454.8 23237.4
1600 2.87 5764.9 20753.6 3.21 6450.1 23220.2 3.52 7069.5 25450.2 3.80 7639.2 27501.0
A6.8 Introduction to urban water distribution
350 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

k(mm) = 0.5 T(°C) = 10

D S= 0.008 S= 0.009 S= 0.010 S= 0.012
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.44 0.9 3.1 0.46 0.9 3.3 0.49 1.0 3.5 0.54 1.1 3.8
80 0.60 3.0 10.9 0.64 3.2 11.6 0.68 3.4 12.2 0.74 3.7 13.4
100 0.70 5.5 19.8 0.74 5.8 21.0 0.78 6.2 22.2 0.86 6.8 24.4
125 0.81 10.0 35.9 0.86 10.6 38.1 0.91 11.2 40.2 1.00 12.3 44.1
150 0.92 16.2 58.2 0.97 17.2 61.8 1.03 18.1 65.2 1.13 19.9 71.6
200 1.10 34.7 124.9 1.17 36.8 132.6 1.24 38.8 139.8 1.36 42.6 153.4
250 1.27 62.6 225.3 1.35 66.4 239.2 1.43 70.1 252.3 1.57 76.9 276.7
300 1.43 101.3 364.6 1.52 107.5 387.0 1.60 113.4 408.2 1.76 124.3 447.6
350 1.58 152.1 547.4 1.68 161.4 581.0 1.77 170.2 612.8 1.94 186.7 672.0
400 1.72 216.1 778.1 1.83 229.4 825.8 1.93 241.9 871.0 2.11 265.3 955.0
450 1.85 294.7 1060.8 1.97 312.7 1125.8 2.07 329.8 1187.3 2.27 361.6 1301.7
500 1.98 388.7 1399.3 2.10 412.5 1485.0 2.22 435.0 1566.1 2.43 476.9 1716.9
600 2.22 627.4 2258.7 2.35 665.8 2396.9 2.48 702.1 2527.6 2.72 769.7 2770.8
700 2.44 940.1 3384.3 2.59 997.6 3591.2 2.73 1051.9 3787.0 3.00 1153.1 4151.1
800 2.65 1334.0 4802.3 2.82 1415.5 5095.8 2.97 1492.6 5373.4 3.25 1636.0 5889.7
900 2.85 1816.0 6537.5 3.03 1926.9 6936.8 3.19 2031.8 7314.5 3.50 2226.9 8017.0
1000 3.05 2392.5 8613.1 3.23 2538.6 9139.0 3.41 2676.8 9636.4 3.74 2933.8 10561.6
1100 3.23 3069.9 11051.5 3.43 3257.2 11726.1 3.61 3434.5 12364.1 3.96 3764.1 13550.7
1200 3.41 3853.9 13874.2 3.62 4089.1 14720.8 3.81 4311.5 15521.5 4.18 4725.2 17010.8
1300 3.58 4750.5 17101.8 3.80 5040.3 18145.0 4.00 5314.4 19131.7 4.39 5824.2 20967.0
1400 3.75 5765.0 20754.2 3.97 6116.6 22019.9 4.19 6449.2 23217.0 4.59 7067.7 25443.7
1500 3.91 6903.0 24850.6 4.14 7323.8 26365.8 4.37 7721.9 27799.0 4.79 8462.4 30464.6
1600 4.06 8169.4 29409.9 4.31 8667.4 31202.8 4.55 9138.5 32898.5 4.98 10014.6 36052.5

D S= 0.014 S= 0.016 S= 0.018 S= 0.020

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.58 1.1 4.1 0.62 1.2 4.4 0.66 1.3 4.7 0.70 1.4 5.0
80 0.80 4.0 14.5 0.86 4.3 15.6 0.91 4.6 16.5 0.96 4.8 17.4
100 0.93 7.3 26.3 1.00 7.8 28.2 1.06 8.3 29.9 1.12 8.8 31.6
125 1.08 13.3 47.7 1.16 14.2 51.1 1.23 15.1 54.2 1.29 15.9 57.2
150 1.22 21.5 77.4 1.30 23.0 82.8 1.38 24.4 87.9 1.46 25.8 92.8
200 1.47 46.1 165.9 1.57 49.3 177.5 1.67 52.3 188.4 1.76 55.2 198.7
250 1.69 83.1 299.1 1.81 88.9 320.0 1.92 94.3 339.6 2.03 99.5 358.2
300 1.90 134.4 483.9 2.03 143.8 517.7 2.16 152.6 549.4 2.28 160.9 579.3
350 2.10 201.8 726.3 2.24 215.8 777.0 2.38 229.0 824.5 2.51 241.5 869.5
400 2.28 286.7 1032.2 2.44 306.7 1104.1 2.59 325.4 1171.6 2.73 343.2 1235.4
450 2.46 390.8 1406.9 2.63 418.0 1504.8 2.79 443.5 1596.8 2.94 467.7 1683.8
500 2.63 515.4 1855.6 2.81 551.3 1984.7 2.98 585.0 2105.9 3.14 616.8 2220.6
600 2.94 831.8 2994.4 3.15 889.6 3202.6 3.34 943.9 3398.1 3.52 995.3 3583.0
700 3.24 1246.1 4485.9 3.46 1332.6 4797.5 3.67 1414.0 5090.2 3.87 1490.9 5367.1
800 3.52 1767.9 6364.5 3.76 1890.7 6806.5 3.99 2006.0 7221.6 4.21 2115.1 7614.2
900 3.78 2406.4 8663.0 4.05 2573.4 9264.4 4.29 2730.3 9829.2 4.53 2878.7 10363.4
1000 4.04 3170.1 11412.3 4.32 3390.1 12204.3 4.58 3596.7 12948.1 4.83 3792.1 13651.6
1100 4.28 4067.2 14642.0 4.58 4349.4 15657.7 4.86 4614.4 16611.8 5.12 4865.0 17514.1
1200 4.51 5105.7 18380.3 4.83 5459.8 19655.1 5.12 5792.3 20852.4 5.40 6106.9 21984.9
1300 4.74 6293.0 22654.7 5.07 6729.3 24225.6 5.38 7139.2 25701.0 5.67 7526.8 27096.5
1400 4.96 7636.5 27491.3 5.30 8165.9 29397.3 5.63 8663.2 31187.4 5.93 9133.5 32880.5
1500 5.17 9143.3 32915.9 5.53 9777.1 35197.5 5.87 10372.4 37340.5 6.19 10935.4 39367.4
1600 5.38 10820.3 38953.0 5.75 11570.2 41652.7 6.10 12274.5 44188.3 6.44 12940.7 46586.6
 Hydraulic tables (Darcy Weisbach/Colbrook-White) A6.9
Hydraulic tables 351

k(mm) = 1 T(°C) = 10
D S = 0.0005 S = 0.001 S = 0.002 S = 0.003
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.09 0.2 0.7 0.13 0.3 0.9 0.19 0.4 1.4 0.24 0.5 1.7
80 0.13 0.7 2.3 0.19 0.9 3.4 0.27 1.3 4.8 0.33 1.7 6.0
100 0.15 1.2 4.3 0.22 1.7 6.2 0.31 2.5 8.8 0.38 3.0 10.9
125 0.18 2.2 7.8 0.25 3.1 11.2 0.36 4.5 16.1 0.45 5.5 19.8
150 0.20 3.6 12.8 0.29 5.1 18.3 0.41 7.3 26.2 0.51 8.9 32.2
200 0.24 7.7 27.7 0.35 11.0 39.6 0.50 15.7 56.4 0.61 19.3 69.3
250 0.28 14.0 50.3 0.41 19.9 71.7 0.58 28.4 102.1 0.71 34.8 125.4
300 0.32 22.7 81.7 0.46 32.3 116.5 0.65 46.0 165.7 0.80 56.5 203.5
350 0.36 34.2 123.1 0.51 48.7 175.3 0.72 69.2 249.3 0.88 85.0 306.0
400 0.39 48.7 175.4 0.55 69.4 249.7 0.78 98.6 354.9 0.96 121.0 435.7
450 0.42 66.6 239.6 0.60 94.7 341.1 0.85 134.6 484.6 1.04 165.2 594.7
500 0.45 88.0 316.7 0.64 125.2 450.6 0.91 177.8 640.0 1.11 218.2 785.4
600 0.50 142.5 512.8 0.72 202.6 729.2 1.02 287.6 1035.3 1.25 352.8 1270.2
700 0.56 214.0 770.4 0.79 304.1 1094.8 1.12 431.6 1553.9 1.38 529.5 1906.2
800 0.61 304.3 1095.4 0.86 432.3 1556.2 1.22 613.4 2208.1 1.50 752.3 2708.5
900 0.65 414.9 1493.8 0.93 589.3 2121.5 1.31 836.0 3009.6 1.61 1025.3 3691.1
1000 0.70 547.5 1971.0 0.99 777.4 2798.6 1.40 1102.6 3969.3 1.72 1352.2 4867.8
1100 0.74 703.4 2532.3 1.05 998.6 3594.8 1.49 1416.1 5097.8 1.83 1736.5 6251.3
1200 0.78 884.1 3182.7 1.11 1254.8 4517.3 1.57 1779.2 6405.2 1.93 2181.6 7853.9
1300 0.82 1090.9 3927.2 1.17 1548.1 5573.1 1.65 2194.8 7901.1 2.03 2691.0 9687.7
1400 0.86 1325.1 4770.4 1.22 1880.2 6768.6 1.73 2665.3 9595.1 2.12 3267.8 11764.1
1500 0.90 1588.0 5716.8 1.27 2252.9 8110.4 1.81 3193.4 11496.1 2.22 3915.1 14094.2
1600 0.94 1880.8 6770.8 1.33 2668.0 9604.7 1.88 3781.4 13613.0 2.31 4635.8 16688.9

D S= 0.004 S= 0.005 S= 0.006 S= 0.007

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.27 0.5 1.9 0.31 0.6 2.2 0.34 0.7 2.4 0.37 0.7 2.6
80 0.38 1.9 6.9 0.43 2.2 7.7 0.47 2.4 8.5 0.51 2.6 9.2
100 0.45 3.5 12.6 0.50 3.9 14.1 0.55 4.3 15.5 0.59 4.7 16.7
125 0.52 6.4 22.9 0.58 7.1 25.6 0.64 7.8 28.1 0.69 8.5 30.4
150 0.59 10.4 37.3 0.66 11.6 41.7 0.72 12.7 45.8 0.78 13.7 49.5
200 0.71 22.3 80.2 0.79 24.9 89.8 0.87 27.4 98.5 0.94 29.6 106.5
250 0.82 40.3 145.1 0.92 45.1 162.4 1.01 49.5 178.1 1.09 53.5 192.5
300 0.92 65.4 235.3 1.04 73.2 263.4 1.13 80.2 288.8 1.23 86.7 312.1
350 1.02 98.3 353.9 1.14 110.0 396.1 1.25 120.6 434.2 1.35 130.4 469.3
400 1.11 139.9 503.8 1.25 156.6 563.8 1.37 171.7 618.0 1.48 185.5 667.9
450 1.20 191.0 687.6 1.34 213.7 769.5 1.47 234.3 843.4 1.59 253.2 911.5
500 1.28 252.2 908.0 1.44 282.2 1016.0 1.58 309.4 1113.7 1.70 334.3 1203.5
600 1.44 407.9 1468.3 1.61 456.3 1642.8 1.77 500.2 1800.6 1.91 540.5 1945.7
700 1.59 612.0 2203.3 1.78 684.7 2465.0 1.95 750.4 2701.6 2.11 810.9 2919.2
800 1.73 869.5 3130.3 1.94 972.8 3501.9 2.12 1066.1 3837.9 2.29 1151.9 4146.9
900 1.86 1184.9 4265.7 2.08 1325.5 4772.0 2.28 1452.7 5229.7 2.47 1569.6 5650.6
1000 1.99 1562.6 5625.2 2.23 1747.9 6292.6 2.44 1915.5 6896.0 2.64 2069.7 7450.8
1100 2.11 2006.6 7223.7 2.36 2244.6 8080.4 2.59 2459.7 8855.0 2.80 2657.6 9567.3
1200 2.23 2520.9 9075.3 2.49 2819.8 10151.4 2.73 3090.1 11124.3 2.95 3338.6 12018.9
1300 2.34 3109.4 11193.9 2.62 3478.0 12520.9 2.87 3811.3 13720.6 3.10 4117.7 14823.9
1400 2.45 3775.7 13592.7 2.74 4223.3 15203.8 3.01 4627.9 16660.3 3.25 4999.9 17999.8
1500 2.56 4523.5 16284.6 2.86 5059.6 18214.4 3.14 5544.2 19959.1 3.39 5989.9 21563.6
1600 2.66 5356.1 19282.1 2.98 5990.8 21566.8 3.26 6564.5 23632.4 3.53 7092.2 25531.8
A6.10 Introduction to urban water distribution
352 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

k(mm) = 1 T(°C) = 10
D S= 0.008 S= 0.009 S= 0.010 S= 0.012
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.39 0.8 2.8 0.42 0.8 2.9 0.44 0.9 3.1 0.48 0.9 3.4
80 0.54 2.7 9.8 0.58 2.9 10.5 0.61 3.1 11.0 0.67 3.4 12.1
100 0.63 5.0 17.9 0.67 5.3 19.0 0.71 5.6 20.1 0.78 6.1 22.0
125 0.74 9.0 32.6 0.78 9.6 34.6 0.82 10.1 36.4 0.90 11.1 40.0
150 0.83 14.7 53.0 0.88 15.6 56.2 0.93 16.5 59.3 1.02 18.1 65.0
200 1.01 31.6 113.9 1.07 33.6 120.9 1.13 35.4 127.5 1.24 38.8 139.7
250 1.17 57.2 205.9 1.24 60.7 218.5 1.30 64.0 230.4 1.43 70.2 252.6
300 1.31 92.7 333.8 1.39 98.4 354.2 1.47 103.8 373.5 1.61 113.7 409.4
350 1.45 139.4 501.9 1.54 147.9 532.6 1.62 156.0 561.6 1.78 171.0 615.5
400 1.58 198.4 714.3 1.68 210.5 757.9 1.77 222.0 799.2 1.94 243.3 875.9
450 1.70 270.8 974.8 1.81 287.3 1034.3 1.90 302.9 1090.6 2.09 332.0 1195.2
500 1.82 357.5 1287.1 1.93 379.3 1365.6 2.04 400.0 1439.9 2.23 438.3 1578.0
600 2.04 578.0 2080.8 2.17 613.2 2207.6 2.29 646.6 2327.6 2.51 708.5 2550.7
700 2.25 867.1 3121.7 2.39 920.0 3311.9 2.52 970.0 3491.8 2.76 1062.9 3826.5
800 2.45 1231.8 4434.5 2.60 1306.8 4704.6 2.74 1377.8 4960.1 3.00 1509.8 5435.3
900 2.64 1678.4 6042.3 2.80 1780.6 6410.3 2.95 1877.3 6758.3 3.23 2057.1 7405.6
1000 2.82 2213.1 7967.2 2.99 2347.9 8452.3 3.15 2475.3 8911.1 3.45 2712.3 9764.4
1100 2.99 2841.7 10230.3 3.17 3014.7 10853.0 3.34 3178.3 11442.0 3.66 3482.6 12537.4
1200 3.16 3569.9 12851.7 3.35 3787.2 13633.8 3.53 3992.7 14373.5 3.87 4374.8 15749.4
1300 3.32 4403.0 15850.8 3.52 4670.9 16815.3 3.71 4924.3 17727.5 4.07 5395.6 19424.3
1400 3.47 5346.3 19246.5 3.68 5671.5 20417.5 3.88 5979.2 21525.0 4.26 6551.4 23584.9
1500 3.62 6404.7 23057.0 3.84 6794.3 24459.6 4.05 7162.8 25786.2 4.44 7848.2 28253.7
1600 3.77 7583.3 27299.8 4.00 8044.5 28960.4 4.22 8480.8 30531.0 4.62 9292.3 33452.1

D S= 0.014 S= 0.016 S= 0.018 S= 0.020

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.52 1.0 3.7 0.56 1.1 3.9 0.59 1.2 4.2 0.63 1.2 4.4
80 0.72 3.6 13.1 0.77 3.9 14.0 0.82 4.1 14.9 0.87 4.4 15.7
100 0.84 6.6 23.8 0.90 7.1 25.5 0.96 7.5 27.0 1.01 7.9 28.5
125 0.98 12.0 43.2 1.05 12.8 46.2 1.11 13.6 49.0 1.17 14.4 51.7
150 1.10 19.5 70.3 1.18 20.9 75.1 1.25 22.2 79.7 1.32 23.4 84.1
200 1.34 41.9 151.0 1.43 44.9 161.5 1.52 47.6 171.4 1.60 50.2 180.7
250 1.54 75.8 273.0 1.65 81.1 292.0 1.75 86.1 309.8 1.85 90.7 326.6
300 1.74 122.9 442.4 1.86 131.4 473.2 1.97 139.5 502.0 2.08 147.0 529.3
350 1.92 184.8 665.1 2.05 197.6 711.3 2.18 209.6 754.7 2.30 221.0 795.7
400 2.09 262.9 946.4 2.24 281.1 1012.1 2.37 298.3 1073.8 2.50 314.5 1132.1
450 2.26 358.7 1291.4 2.41 383.6 1381.0 2.56 407.0 1465.1 2.70 429.1 1544.7
500 2.41 473.6 1705.0 2.58 506.4 1823.2 2.74 537.3 1934.2 2.88 566.5 2039.3
600 2.71 765.5 2755.9 2.90 818.6 2947.0 3.07 868.4 3126.4 3.24 915.6 3296.0
700 2.98 1148.4 4134.2 3.19 1227.9 4420.6 3.38 1302.7 4689.6 3.57 1373.4 4944.1
800 3.25 1631.2 5872.3 3.47 1744.2 6279.0 3.68 1850.3 6661.0 3.88 1950.6 7022.3
900 3.49 2222.5 8000.8 3.74 2376.4 8554.9 3.96 2520.9 9075.3 4.18 2657.6 9567.4
1000 3.73 2930.3 10549.1 3.99 3133.2 11279.4 4.23 3323.7 11965.4 4.46 3504.0 12614.2
1100 3.96 3762.4 13544.8 4.23 4022.9 14482.4 4.49 4267.5 15363.1 4.73 4498.9 16196.0
1200 4.18 4726.3 17014.7 4.47 5053.4 18192.4 4.74 5360.7 19298.5 5.00 5651.3 20344.7
1300 4.39 5829.0 20984.6 4.70 6232.5 22436.9 4.98 6611.4 23800.9 5.25 6969.7 25091.0
1400 4.60 7077.6 25479.2 4.92 7567.3 27242.4 5.21 8027.3 28898.4 5.50 8462.4 30464.7
1500 4.80 8478.5 30522.7 5.13 9065.2 32634.7 5.44 9616.2 34618.4 5.74 10137.4 36494.5
1600 4.99 10038.5 36138.5 5.34 10733.0 38638.8 5.66 11385.3 40987.2 5.97 12002.3 43208.4
 Hydraulic tables (Darcy Weisbach/Colbrook-White) A6.11
Hydraulic tables 353

k(mm) = 5 T(°C) = 10
D S = 0.0005 S = 0.001 S = 0.002 S = 0.003
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.07 0.1 0.5 0.10 0.2 0.7 0.14 0.3 1.0 0.17 0.3 1.2
80 0.10 0.5 1.8 0.14 0.7 2.5 0.20 1.0 3.6 0.24 1.2 4.4
100 0.12 0.9 3.3 0.16 1.3 4.6 0.23 1.8 6.6 0.28 2.2 8.1
125 0.14 1.7 6.0 0.19 2.4 8.5 0.27 3.4 12.1 0.34 4.1 14.8
150 0.15 2.7 9.9 0.22 3.9 14.0 0.31 5.5 19.8 0.38 6.8 24.3
200 0.19 6.0 21.5 0.27 8.5 30.5 0.38 12.0 43.3 0.47 14.7 53.1
250 0.22 10.9 39.3 0.32 15.5 55.8 0.45 22.0 79.0 0.55 26.9 96.9
300 0.25 17.9 64.3 0.36 25.3 91.1 0.51 35.9 129.1 0.62 44.0 158.2
350 0.28 27.0 97.3 0.40 38.3 137.9 0.56 54.2 195.3 0.69 66.5 239.3
400 0.31 38.7 139.2 0.44 54.8 197.2 0.62 77.6 279.3 0.76 95.1 342.3
450 0.33 53.0 190.8 0.47 75.1 270.3 0.67 106.3 382.8 0.82 130.3 469.1
500 0.36 70.3 252.9 0.51 99.5 358.3 0.72 140.9 507.3 0.88 172.7 621.7
600 0.40 114.3 411.5 0.57 161.9 582.9 0.81 229.2 825.2 0.99 280.9 1011.1
700 0.45 172.4 620.6 0.63 244.1 878.9 0.90 345.6 1244.1 1.10 423.4 1524.4
800 0.49 246.0 885.4 0.69 348.3 1253.8 0.98 493.0 1774.6 1.20 604.0 2174.3
900 0.53 336.4 1210.9 0.75 476.2 1714.5 1.06 674.1 2426.6 1.30 825.8 2973.0
1000 0.57 444.9 1601.8 0.80 629.9 2267.7 1.14 891.5 3209.4 1.39 1092.2 3932.1
1100 0.60 572.9 2062.5 0.85 811.0 2919.8 1.21 1147.8 4132.1 1.48 1406.2 5062.4
1200 0.64 721.5 2597.5 0.90 1021.4 3676.9 1.28 1445.4 5203.4 1.57 1770.8 6374.8
1300 0.67 891.9 3210.8 0.95 1262.5 4544.9 1.35 1786.5 6431.6 1.65 2188.7 7879.3
1400 0.70 1085.2 3906.6 1.00 1536.0 5529.5 1.41 2173.5 7824.7 1.73 2662.7 9585.9
1500 0.74 1302.4 4688.7 1.04 1843.4 6636.3 1.48 2608.5 9390.7 1.81 3195.6 11504.2
1600 0.77 1544.7 5561.0 1.09 2186.3 7870.7 1.54 3093.6 11137.1 1.88 3789.9 13643.5

D S= 0.004 S= 0.005 S= 0.006 S= 0.007

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.19 0.4 1.4 0.22 0.4 1.5 0.24 0.5 1.7 0.26 0.5 1.8
80 0.28 1.4 5.0 0.31 1.6 5.6 0.34 1.7 6.2 0.37 1.9 6.7
100 0.33 2.6 9.3 0.37 2.9 10.4 0.40 3.2 11.4 0.44 3.4 12.3
125 0.39 4.8 17.1 0.43 5.3 19.2 0.48 5.8 21.0 0.51 6.3 22.7
150 0.44 7.8 28.1 0.49 8.7 31.5 0.54 9.6 34.5 0.59 10.3 37.2
200 0.54 17.0 61.3 0.61 19.0 68.6 0.66 20.9 75.1 0.72 22.5 81.2
250 0.63 31.1 111.9 0.71 34.8 125.2 0.78 38.1 137.2 0.84 41.2 148.2
300 0.72 50.8 182.8 0.80 56.8 204.4 0.88 62.2 224.0 0.95 67.2 242.0
350 0.80 76.8 276.5 0.89 85.9 309.2 0.98 94.1 338.8 1.06 101.7 366.0
400 0.87 109.8 395.4 0.98 122.8 442.2 1.07 134.6 484.5 1.16 145.4 523.4
450 0.95 150.5 541.9 1.06 168.3 606.0 1.16 184.4 663.9 1.25 199.2 717.2
500 1.02 199.5 718.1 1.14 223.1 803.0 1.24 244.4 879.8 1.34 264.0 950.4
600 1.15 324.4 1167.9 1.28 362.8 1306.0 1.41 397.5 1430.8 1.52 429.3 1545.6
700 1.27 489.1 1760.7 1.42 546.9 1968.8 1.56 599.2 2157.0 1.68 647.2 2330.1
800 1.39 697.6 2511.3 1.55 780.0 2808.2 1.70 854.6 3076.5 1.84 923.2 3323.3
900 1.50 953.8 3433.7 1.68 1066.5 3839.6 1.84 1168.5 4206.5 1.98 1262.2 4543.9
1000 1.61 1261.5 4541.3 1.80 1410.6 5078.0 1.97 1545.3 5563.2 2.13 1669.3 6009.4
1100 1.71 1624.1 5846.7 1.91 1816.0 6537.6 2.09 1989.5 7162.3 2.26 2149.1 7736.8
1200 1.81 2045.1 7362.3 2.02 2286.7 8232.3 2.22 2505.2 9018.8 2.39 2706.1 9742.1
1300 1.90 2527.7 9099.8 2.13 2826.4 10175.0 2.33 3096.4 11147.1 2.52 3344.7 12041.1
1400 2.00 3075.2 11070.6 2.23 3438.5 12378.7 2.45 3767.0 13561.3 2.64 4069.1 14648.8
1500 2.09 3690.5 13286.0 2.34 4126.6 14855.7 2.56 4520.8 16274.9 2.76 4883.3 17580.0
1600 2.18 4376.8 15756.5 2.43 4893.9 17618.1 2.67 5361.4 19301.1 2.88 5791.3 20848.8
A6.12 Introduction to urban water distribution
354 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

k(mm) = 5 T(°C) = 10
D S= 0.008 S= 0.009 S= 0.010 S= 0.012
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.28 0.5 2.0 0.29 0.6 2.1 0.31 0.6 2.2 0.34 0.7 2.4
80 0.40 2.0 7.2 0.42 2.1 7.6 0.44 2.2 8.0 0.48 2.4 8.8
100 0.47 3.7 13.2 0.49 3.9 14.0 0.52 4.1 14.8 0.57 4.5 16.2
125 0.55 6.7 24.3 0.58 7.1 25.7 0.61 7.5 27.1 0.67 8.3 29.7
150 0.63 11.1 39.8 0.66 11.7 42.2 0.70 12.4 44.5 0.77 13.6 48.8
200 0.77 24.1 86.8 0.81 25.6 92.1 0.86 27.0 97.1 0.94 29.5 106.3
250 0.90 44.0 158.4 0.95 46.7 168.1 1.00 49.2 177.2 1.10 53.9 194.1
300 1.02 71.9 258.7 1.08 76.2 274.4 1.14 80.4 289.3 1.25 88.1 317.0
350 1.13 108.7 391.3 1.20 115.3 415.1 1.26 121.5 437.6 1.38 133.2 479.4
400 1.24 155.4 559.6 1.31 164.9 593.6 1.38 173.8 625.7 1.52 190.4 685.6
450 1.34 213.0 766.8 1.42 225.9 813.4 1.50 238.2 857.5 1.64 261.0 939.4
500 1.44 282.2 1016.1 1.52 299.4 1077.8 1.61 315.6 1136.2 1.76 345.8 1244.8
600 1.62 459.0 1652.5 1.72 486.9 1752.9 1.82 513.3 1847.8 1.99 562.3 2024.4
700 1.80 692.0 2491.2 1.91 734.0 2642.5 2.01 773.8 2785.6 2.20 847.7 3051.7
800 1.96 987.0 3553.1 2.08 1046.9 3768.8 2.20 1103.6 3972.9 2.41 1209.0 4352.5
900 2.12 1349.4 4858.0 2.25 1431.4 5153.0 2.37 1508.9 5432.0 2.60 1653.0 5950.9
1000 2.27 1784.7 6424.8 2.41 1893.0 6814.9 2.54 1995.5 7183.8 2.78 2186.1 7870.0
1100 2.42 2297.6 8271.4 2.56 2437.1 8773.6 2.70 2569.1 9248.6 2.96 2814.5 10132.0
1200 2.56 2893.1 10415.3 2.71 3068.8 11047.7 2.86 3234.9 11645.7 3.13 3543.9 12758.1
1300 2.69 3575.9 12873.2 2.86 3793.0 13654.7 3.01 3998.3 14393.8 3.30 4380.2 15768.6
1400 2.83 4350.3 15661.1 3.00 4614.4 16611.8 3.16 4864.2 17511.0 3.46 5328.7 19183.4
1500 2.95 5220.8 18794.7 3.13 5537.7 19935.6 3.30 5837.4 21014.7 3.62 6394.9 23021.7
1600 3.08 6191.5 22289.4 3.27 6567.3 23642.4 3.44 6922.8 24922.1 3.77 7583.9 27302.2

D S= 0.014 S= 0.016 S= 0.018 S= 0.020

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.37 0.7 2.6 0.39 0.8 2.8 0.41 0.8 2.9 0.44 0.9 3.1
80 0.52 2.6 9.5 0.56 2.8 10.1 0.59 3.0 10.8 0.63 3.1 11.3
100 0.62 4.9 17.5 0.66 5.2 18.7 0.70 5.5 19.8 0.74 5.8 20.9
125 0.73 8.9 32.1 0.78 9.5 34.3 0.82 10.1 36.4 0.87 10.7 38.4
150 0.83 14.6 52.7 0.89 15.7 56.4 0.94 16.6 59.8 0.99 17.5 63.0
200 1.02 31.9 114.9 1.09 34.1 122.8 1.15 36.2 130.3 1.21 38.2 137.4
250 1.19 58.3 209.7 1.27 62.3 224.2 1.35 66.1 237.8 1.42 69.6 250.7
300 1.35 95.1 342.4 1.44 101.7 366.1 1.53 107.9 388.3 1.61 113.7 409.4
350 1.50 143.9 517.9 1.60 153.8 553.7 1.70 163.1 587.3 1.79 172.0 619.1
400 1.64 205.7 740.6 1.75 219.9 791.8 1.86 233.3 839.8 1.96 245.9 885.3
450 1.77 281.9 1014.8 1.89 301.4 1084.9 2.01 319.7 1150.8 2.12 337.0 1213.1
500 1.90 373.5 1344.6 2.03 399.3 1437.6 2.16 423.6 1524.9 2.27 446.5 1607.4
600 2.15 607.4 2186.7 2.30 649.4 2337.9 2.44 688.8 2479.8 2.57 726.1 2614.1
700 2.38 915.7 3296.5 2.54 979.0 3524.3 2.70 1038.4 3738.2 2.84 1094.6 3940.6
800 2.60 1306.0 4701.5 2.78 1396.2 5026.4 2.95 1481.0 5331.5 3.11 1561.1 5620.1
900 2.81 1785.6 6428.1 3.00 1909.0 6872.2 3.18 2024.8 7289.4 3.36 2134.4 7683.9
1000 3.01 2361.4 8501.1 3.21 2524.6 9088.5 3.41 2677.8 9640.1 3.59 2822.8 10161.9
1100 3.20 3040.1 10944.4 3.42 3250.2 11700.6 3.63 3447.4 12410.8 3.82 3634.0 13082.5
1200 3.38 3828.0 13781.0 3.62 4092.5 14733.1 3.84 4340.9 15627.3 4.05 4575.9 16473.1
1300 3.56 4731.3 17032.8 3.81 5058.2 18209.6 4.04 5365.2 19314.8 4.26 5655.6 20360.1
1400 3.74 5755.9 20721.4 4.00 6153.6 22152.9 4.24 6527.1 23497.4 4.47 6880.3 24769.1
1500 3.91 6907.6 24867.4 4.18 7384.8 26585.3 4.43 7833.0 28198.8 4.67 8256.9 29724.8
1600 4.07 8191.9 29491.0 4.36 8757.8 31528.2 4.62 9289.3 33441.6 4.87 9792.1 35251.4
 Hydraulic tables (Darcy Weisbach/Colbrook-White) A6.13
Hydraulic tables 355

k(mm) = 0.01 T(°C) = 20

D S = 0.0005 S = 0.001 S = 0.002 S = 0.003
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.12 0.2 0.8 0.17 0.3 1.2 0.26 0.5 1.8 0.33 0.6 2.3
80 0.16 0.8 3.0 0.24 1.2 4.4 0.36 1.8 6.5 0.45 2.3 8.2
100 0.19 1.5 5.5 0.29 2.2 8.1 0.42 3.3 11.9 0.53 4.2 15.0
125 0.23 2.8 10.0 0.33 4.1 14.7 0.49 6.0 21.7 0.62 7.6 27.2
150 0.26 4.5 16.3 0.38 6.7 24.0 0.56 9.8 35.4 0.70 12.3 44.3
200 0.31 9.8 35.3 0.46 14.4 52.0 0.67 21.2 76.3 0.84 26.5 95.4
250 0.36 17.8 64.2 0.53 26.2 94.3 0.78 38.4 138.2 0.98 48.0 172.6
300 0.41 29.0 104.5 0.60 42.6 153.3 0.88 62.3 224.3 1.10 77.8 280.0
350 0.46 43.8 157.6 0.67 64.2 231.0 0.97 93.8 337.7 1.22 117.0 421.3
400 0.50 62.5 224.9 0.73 91.5 329.3 1.06 133.6 481.0 1.33 166.6 599.7
450 0.54 85.5 307.7 0.79 125.0 450.0 1.15 182.5 656.9 1.43 227.4 818.7
500 0.58 113.1 407.0 0.84 165.3 594.9 1.23 241.1 867.8 1.53 300.3 1081.2
600 0.65 183.4 660.1 0.95 267.7 963.9 1.38 390.1 1404.4 1.72 485.7 1748.5
700 0.72 275.8 993.0 1.05 402.4 1448.5 1.52 585.7 2108.6 1.89 728.9 2623.9
800 0.78 392.7 1413.6 1.14 572.3 2060.4 1.66 832.5 2997.1 2.06 1035.5 3727.9
900 0.84 536.0 1929.6 1.23 780.8 2810.7 1.78 1134.9 4085.8 2.22 1411.1 5080.0
1000 0.90 707.9 2548.4 1.31 1030.5 3709.8 1.91 1497.1 5389.6 2.37 1860.7 6698.7
1100 0.96 910.2 3276.7 1.39 1324.3 4767.6 2.02 1923.0 6922.7 2.51 2389.3 8601.6
1200 1.01 1144.8 4121.4 1.47 1664.9 5993.7 2.14 2416.4 8698.9 2.65 3001.5 10805.5
1300 1.06 1413.5 5088.7 1.55 2054.8 7397.3 2.25 2980.9 10731.4 2.79 3701.9 13326.9
1400 1.12 1718.0 6184.9 1.62 2496.5 8987.3 2.35 3620.2 13032.8 2.92 4494.8 16181.2
1500 1.17 2060.0 7416.0 1.69 2992.3 10772.3 2.45 4337.7 15615.6 3.05 5384.4 19383.8
1600 1.21 2441.0 8787.7 1.76 3544.6 12760.6 2.55 5136.6 18491.7 3.17 6374.8 22949.3

D S= 0.004 S= 0.005 S= 0.006 S= 0.007

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.38 0.8 2.7 0.44 0.9 3.1 0.48 0.9 3.4 0.53 1.0 3.7
80 0.53 2.7 9.6 0.60 3.0 10.9 0.67 3.4 12.1 0.73 3.7 13.2
100 0.62 4.9 17.6 0.70 5.5 19.9 0.78 6.1 22.0 0.85 6.7 24.0
125 0.72 8.9 31.9 0.82 10.0 36.1 0.90 11.1 39.9 0.98 12.1 43.5
150 0.82 14.4 51.9 0.92 16.3 58.7 1.02 18.0 64.9 1.11 19.6 70.7
200 0.99 31.0 111.7 1.12 35.1 126.2 1.23 38.7 139.5 1.34 42.1 151.7
250 1.14 56.1 202.1 1.29 63.4 228.2 1.43 70.0 252.0 1.55 76.1 274.1
300 1.29 91.0 327.6 1.45 102.7 369.9 1.60 113.4 408.3 1.74 123.3 443.9
350 1.42 136.8 492.6 1.61 154.4 556.0 1.77 170.5 613.6 1.93 185.3 667.0
400 1.55 194.7 701.0 1.75 219.7 791.0 1.93 242.5 872.9 2.10 263.5 948.5
450 1.67 265.7 956.7 1.88 299.8 1079.2 2.08 330.7 1190.7 2.26 359.3 1293.7
500 1.79 350.9 1263.1 2.02 395.7 1424.6 2.22 436.5 1571.4 2.42 474.2 1707.1
600 2.01 567.2 2041.7 2.26 639.4 2302.0 2.49 705.1 2538.5 2.71 765.8 2757.0
700 2.21 850.8 3062.7 2.49 958.9 3452.0 2.75 1057.2 3805.9 2.98 1147.9 4132.6
800 2.40 1208.3 4349.9 2.71 1361.6 4901.7 2.99 1500.8 5403.0 3.24 1629.4 5865.9
900 2.59 1646.1 5926.0 2.92 1854.5 6676.2 3.21 2043.8 7357.8 3.49 2218.6 7986.9
1000 2.76 2170.1 7812.4 3.11 2444.4 8799.7 3.43 2693.5 9696.5 3.72 2923.4 10524.2
1100 2.93 2786.0 10029.4 3.30 3137.5 11295.0 3.64 3456.8 12444.4 3.95 3751.4 13505.1
1200 3.09 3499.1 12596.8 3.48 3940.1 14184.2 3.84 4340.4 15625.6 4.16 4709.9 16955.6
1300 3.25 4314.8 15533.3 3.66 4857.9 17488.3 4.03 5350.9 19263.2 4.37 5805.8 20900.9
1400 3.40 5238.1 18857.1 3.83 5896.6 21227.7 4.22 6494.4 23379.7 4.58 7045.9 25365.2
1500 3.55 6273.8 22585.8 4.00 7061.7 25422.2 4.40 7776.9 27996.8 4.77 8436.6 30371.8
1600 3.69 7426.8 26736.6 4.16 8358.6 30090.9 4.58 9204.3 33135.4 4.97 9984.3 35943.6
A6.14 Introduction to urban water distribution
356 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

k(mm) = 0.01 T(°C) = 20

D S= 0.008 S= 0.009 S= 0.010 S= 0.012
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.57 1.1 4.0 0.61 1.2 4.3 0.64 1.3 4.5 0.71 1.4 5.0
80 0.78 3.9 14.2 0.84 4.2 15.2 0.89 4.5 16.1 0.98 4.9 17.8
100 0.91 7.2 25.8 0.97 7.6 27.5 1.03 8.1 29.2 1.14 9.0 32.3
125 1.06 13.0 46.8 1.13 13.9 49.9 1.20 14.7 52.9 1.32 16.2 58.4
150 1.19 21.1 76.0 1.27 22.5 81.1 1.35 23.9 85.9 1.49 26.4 94.9
200 1.44 45.3 163.2 1.54 48.3 174.0 1.63 51.2 184.3 1.80 56.5 203.4
250 1.67 81.9 294.7 1.78 87.3 314.1 1.88 92.4 332.6 2.08 102.0 367.0
300 1.88 132.6 477.2 2.00 141.3 508.6 2.12 149.5 538.3 2.33 165.0 593.9
350 2.07 199.1 716.8 2.21 212.2 763.8 2.33 224.5 808.4 2.57 247.7 891.6
400 2.25 283.1 1019.2 2.40 301.6 1085.9 2.54 319.2 1149.1 2.80 352.0 1267.2
450 2.43 386.1 1389.9 2.59 411.3 1480.6 2.74 435.2 1566.6 3.02 479.8 1727.2
500 2.59 509.4 1833.9 2.76 542.6 1953.3 2.92 574.1 2066.6 3.22 632.8 2278.1
600 2.91 822.5 2961.1 3.10 876.0 3153.4 3.28 926.6 3335.8 3.61 1021.1 3676.1
700 3.20 1232.7 4437.8 3.41 1312.6 4725.2 3.61 1388.3 4997.8 3.97 1529.5 5506.3
800 3.48 1749.5 6298.1 3.71 1862.5 6705.2 3.92 1969.8 7091.1 4.32 2169.7 7811.0
900 3.74 2381.7 8574.3 3.99 2535.4 9127.5 4.21 2681.1 9651.8 4.64 2952.7 10629.9
1000 4.00 3138.0 11297.0 4.25 3340.2 12024.6 4.50 3531.7 12714.2 4.95 3889.0 14000.4
1100 4.24 4026.5 14495.3 4.51 4285.4 15427.5 4.77 4530.8 16311.0 5.25 4988.5 17958.6
1200 4.47 5054.8 18197.1 4.76 5379.4 19365.8 5.03 5687.1 20473.5 5.54 6260.7 22538.7
1300 4.69 6230.4 22429.4 5.00 6630.1 23868.2 5.28 7008.8 25231.7 5.81 7714.9 27773.7
1400 4.91 7560.6 27218.0 5.23 8045.0 28962.1 5.52 8504.1 30614.7 6.08 9359.9 33695.6
1500 5.12 9052.2 32588.1 5.45 9631.7 34674.1 5.76 10180.7 36650.7 6.34 11204.2 40335.2
1600 5.33 10712.2 38563.9 5.67 11397.3 41030.1 5.99 12046.3 43366.8 6.59 13256.2 47722.3

D S= 0.014 S= 0.016 S= 0.018 S= 0.020

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.78 1.5 5.5 0.84 1.6 5.9 0.89 1.8 6.3 0.95 1.9 6.7
80 1.07 5.4 19.4 1.15 5.8 20.8 1.23 6.2 22.2 1.30 6.5 23.6
100 1.24 9.8 35.1 1.34 10.5 37.8 1.43 11.2 40.3 1.51 11.9 42.7
125 1.44 17.7 63.6 1.55 19.0 68.4 1.65 20.3 72.9 1.75 21.5 77.3
150 1.62 28.7 103.2 1.74 30.8 111.0 1.86 32.9 118.3 1.97 34.8 125.3
200 1.96 61.4 221.2 2.10 66.0 237.7 2.24 70.4 253.4 2.37 74.5 268.2
250 2.26 110.8 398.9 2.43 119.1 428.7 2.58 126.9 456.7 2.74 134.3 483.3
300 2.54 179.2 645.3 2.72 192.6 693.3 2.90 205.1 738.5 3.07 217.1 781.4
350 2.80 269.0 968.5 3.00 289.0 1040.3 3.20 307.8 1108.0 3.38 325.6 1172.2
400 3.04 382.3 1376.2 3.27 410.6 1478.0 3.48 437.2 1573.9 3.68 462.5 1664.9
450 3.28 521.0 1875.5 3.52 559.4 2014.0 3.75 595.7 2144.4 3.96 630.0 2268.1
500 3.50 687.0 2473.3 3.76 737.7 2655.6 4.00 785.4 2827.3 4.23 830.6 2990.1
600 3.92 1108.4 3990.1 4.21 1189.8 4283.3 4.48 1266.5 4559.4 4.74 1339.2 4821.0
700 4.31 1659.9 5975.5 4.63 1781.5 6413.5 4.93 1896.1 6825.8 5.21 2004.6 7216.5
800 4.68 2354.2 8475.2 5.03 2526.4 9095.0 5.35 2688.5 9678.4 5.65 2842.0 10231.3
900 5.04 3203.3 11532.0 5.40 3437.2 12373.8 5.75 3657.3 13166.1 6.08 3865.8 13916.8
1000 5.37 4218.5 15186.7 5.76 4526.0 16293.4 6.13 4815.3 17335.0 6.48 5089.4 18321.7
1100 5.69 5410.5 19477.9 6.11 5804.3 20895.4 6.50 6174.8 22229.1 6.87 6525.7 23492.7
1200 6.00 6789.7 24443.0 6.44 7283.2 26219.3 6.85 7747.4 27890.8 7.24 8187.2 29474.1
1300 6.30 8366.0 30117.5 6.76 8973.2 32303.6 7.19 9544.6 34360.5 7.60 10085.8 36308.7
1400 6.59 10148.9 36536.0 7.07 10884.7 39185.1 7.52 11577.0 41677.3 7.95 12232.7 44037.9
1500 6.87 12147.7 43731.7 7.37 13027.6 46899.3 7.84 13855.3 49879.2 8.28 14639.3 52701.6
1600 7.15 14371.4 51737.0 7.66 15411.4 55481.0 8.15 16389.7 59002.9 8.61 17316.2 62338.4
 Hydraulic tables (Darcy Weisbach/Colbrook-White) A6.15
Hydraulic tables 357

k(mm) = 0.05 T(°C) = 20

D S = 0.0005 S = 0.001 S = 0.002 S = 0.003
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.11 0.2 0.8 0.17 0.3 1.2 0.25 0.5 1.8 0.32 0.6 2.2
80 0.16 0.8 2.9 0.24 1.2 4.3 0.35 1.8 6.4 0.44 2.2 8.0
100 0.19 1.5 5.4 0.28 2.2 7.9 0.41 3.2 11.6 0.51 4.0 14.5
125 0.22 2.7 9.8 0.33 4.0 14.4 0.48 5.8 21.1 0.59 7.3 26.3
150 0.25 4.4 16.0 0.37 6.5 23.5 0.54 9.5 34.3 0.67 11.9 42.7
200 0.31 9.6 34.6 0.45 14.1 50.6 0.65 20.5 73.7 0.81 25.5 91.7
250 0.36 17.4 62.8 0.52 25.5 91.7 0.75 37.0 133.3 0.94 46.0 165.6
300 0.40 28.4 102.1 0.58 41.3 148.8 0.85 60.0 216.0 1.05 74.5 268.2
350 0.44 42.8 153.9 0.65 62.2 223.9 0.94 90.2 324.7 1.16 111.9 402.9
400 0.49 61.0 219.4 0.71 88.6 318.9 1.02 128.3 462.0 1.27 159.1 572.8
450 0.52 83.3 299.9 0.76 121.0 435.5 1.10 175.1 630.2 1.36 217.0 781.0
500 0.56 110.1 396.5 0.81 159.8 575.2 1.18 231.1 831.8 1.46 286.2 1030.4
600 0.63 178.4 642.2 0.91 258.5 930.5 1.32 373.3 1343.8 1.63 462.1 1663.5
700 0.70 268.0 964.9 1.01 387.9 1396.6 1.45 559.6 2014.7 1.80 692.4 2492.5
800 0.76 381.2 1372.3 1.10 551.2 1984.3 1.58 794.4 2860.0 1.95 982.4 3536.6
900 0.82 519.9 1871.5 1.18 751.1 2704.1 1.70 1081.8 3894.4 2.10 1337.1 4813.7
1000 0.87 686.0 2469.6 1.26 990.5 3565.7 1.82 1425.5 5131.9 2.24 1761.4 6340.9
1100 0.93 881.4 3173.0 1.34 1271.8 4578.5 1.92 1829.3 6585.7 2.38 2259.6 8134.6
1200 0.98 1107.8 3988.1 1.41 1597.6 5751.4 2.03 2296.8 8268.4 2.51 2836.2 10210.2
1300 1.03 1366.9 4920.9 1.48 1970.3 7093.0 2.13 2831.2 10192.3 2.63 3495.2 12582.8
1400 1.08 1660.4 5977.3 1.55 2392.1 8611.7 2.23 3435.9 12369.3 2.75 4240.8 15266.7
1500 1.13 1989.7 7162.9 1.62 2865.4 10315.4 2.33 4114.1 14810.7 2.87 5076.7 18276.1
1600 1.17 2356.5 8483.2 1.69 3392.3 12212.1 2.42 4868.8 17527.5 2.99 6006.8 21624.5

D S= 0.004 S= 0.005 S= 0.006 S= 0.007

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.37 0.7 2.6 0.42 0.8 3.0 0.47 0.9 3.3 0.51 1.0 3.6
80 0.51 2.6 9.3 0.58 2.9 10.5 0.64 3.2 11.6 0.70 3.5 12.6
100 0.60 4.7 16.9 0.68 5.3 19.1 0.75 5.9 21.1 0.81 6.4 22.9
125 0.69 8.5 30.7 0.78 9.6 34.6 0.86 10.6 38.2 0.94 11.5 41.5
150 0.78 13.8 49.8 0.88 15.6 56.2 0.97 17.2 62.0 1.06 18.7 67.3
200 0.95 29.7 107.0 1.07 33.5 120.5 1.17 36.9 132.8 1.27 40.0 144.1
250 1.09 53.6 193.1 1.23 60.4 217.3 1.35 66.5 239.4 1.47 72.1 259.7
300 1.23 86.8 312.4 1.38 97.7 351.6 1.52 107.5 387.1 1.65 116.6 419.8
350 1.35 130.3 469.1 1.52 146.6 527.7 1.68 161.3 580.8 1.82 174.9 629.7
400 1.47 185.2 666.7 1.66 208.3 749.8 1.82 229.2 825.0 1.98 248.4 894.4
450 1.59 252.5 908.8 1.78 283.8 1021.8 1.96 312.2 1124.1 2.13 338.4 1218.3
500 1.70 333.0 1198.7 1.91 374.3 1347.3 2.10 411.7 1482.0 2.27 446.1 1606.0
600 1.90 537.3 1934.1 2.14 603.7 2173.2 2.35 663.8 2389.7 2.54 719.2 2589.1
700 2.09 804.7 2896.8 2.35 903.9 3253.9 2.58 993.7 3577.2 2.80 1076.4 3875.0
800 2.27 1141.4 4108.9 2.55 1281.7 4614.2 2.80 1408.8 5071.8 3.04 1525.8 5493.0
900 2.44 1553.1 5591.1 2.74 1743.7 6277.5 3.01 1916.3 6898.8 3.26 2075.2 7470.8
1000 2.60 2045.4 7363.3 2.92 2296.0 8265.6 3.21 2522.9 9082.5 3.48 2731.8 9834.4
1100 2.76 2623.4 9444.1 3.10 2944.4 10599.8 3.40 3235.0 11645.8 3.69 3502.4 12608.7
1200 2.91 3292.1 11851.6 3.27 3694.4 13300.0 3.59 4058.6 14611.0 3.88 4393.8 15817.5
1300 3.06 4056.4 14603.0 3.43 4551.6 16385.7 3.77 4999.7 17999.1 4.08 5412.2 19483.8
1400 3.20 4920.9 17715.2 3.59 5521.0 19875.6 3.94 6064.1 21830.6 4.26 6563.8 23629.8
1500 3.33 5890.1 21204.3 3.74 6607.7 23787.7 4.11 7257.1 26125.4 4.44 7854.6 28276.7
1600 3.47 6968.3 25085.9 3.89 7816.5 28139.5 4.27 8584.1 30902.7 4.62 9290.4 33445.4
A6.16 Introduction to urban water distribution
358 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

k(mm) = 0.05 T(°C) = 20

D S= 0.008 S= 0.009 S= 0.010 S= 0.012
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.54 1.1 3.9 0.58 1.1 4.1 0.62 1.2 4.4 0.68 1.3 4.8
80 0.75 3.8 13.6 0.80 4.0 14.5 0.85 4.3 15.3 0.93 4.7 16.9
100 0.87 6.8 24.6 0.93 7.3 26.2 0.98 7.7 27.7 1.08 8.5 30.6
125 1.01 12.4 44.5 1.07 13.2 47.4 1.14 13.9 50.2 1.25 15.4 55.3
150 1.14 20.1 72.2 1.21 21.4 76.9 1.28 22.6 81.3 1.41 24.9 89.6
200 1.37 43.0 154.6 1.45 45.7 164.6 1.54 48.3 174.0 1.69 53.2 191.5
250 1.58 77.4 278.6 1.68 82.3 296.4 1.77 87.0 313.3 1.95 95.7 344.7
300 1.77 125.1 450.3 1.88 133.0 479.0 1.99 140.6 506.1 2.19 154.6 556.7
350 1.95 187.6 675.3 2.07 199.5 718.2 2.19 210.8 758.8 2.41 231.8 834.4
400 2.12 266.4 959.0 2.25 283.3 1019.7 2.38 299.2 1077.3 2.62 329.0 1184.4
450 2.28 362.8 1306.2 2.43 385.8 1388.8 2.56 407.5 1466.9 2.82 447.9 1612.5
500 2.44 478.2 1721.6 2.59 508.4 1830.3 2.73 537.0 1933.1 3.01 590.2 2124.6
600 2.73 770.8 2774.8 2.90 819.3 2949.5 3.06 865.2 3114.7 3.36 950.7 3422.4
700 3.00 1153.4 4152.3 3.19 1225.8 4413.0 3.36 1294.4 4659.8 3.69 1422.0 5119.0
800 3.25 1634.8 5885.4 3.46 1737.3 6254.2 3.65 1834.2 6603.3 4.01 2014.7 7252.9
900 3.49 2223.2 8003.6 3.71 2362.3 8504.3 3.92 2493.9 8978.1 4.31 2738.9 9860.0
1000 3.73 2926.3 10534.7 3.96 3109.1 11192.9 4.18 3282.1 11815.7 4.59 3604.1 12974.7
1100 3.95 3751.5 13505.4 4.19 3985.6 14348.2 4.43 4207.1 15145.6 4.86 4619.3 16629.5
1200 4.16 4705.9 16941.2 4.42 4999.2 17997.2 4.67 5276.8 18996.4 5.12 5793.2 20855.7
1300 4.37 5796.3 20866.7 4.64 6157.2 22166.1 4.90 6498.8 23395.5 5.37 7134.3 25683.3
1400 4.57 7029.3 25305.3 4.85 7466.6 26879.8 5.12 7880.4 28369.4 5.62 8650.4 31141.3
1500 4.76 8411.2 30280.2 5.06 8934.1 32162.6 5.34 9428.8 33943.7 5.86 10349.4 37257.8
1600 4.95 9948.1 35813.3 5.26 10566.2 38038.2 5.55 11150.9 40143.2 6.09 12238.8 44059.8

D S= 0.014 S= 0.016 S= 0.018 S= 0.020

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.74 1.5 5.2 0.79 1.6 5.6 0.85 1.7 6.0 0.90 1.8 6.3
80 1.01 5.1 18.3 1.09 5.5 19.7 1.16 5.8 21.0 1.23 6.2 22.2
100 1.17 9.2 33.2 1.26 9.9 35.6 1.34 10.5 37.9 1.42 11.1 40.1
125 1.36 16.7 60.0 1.46 17.9 64.4 1.55 19.0 68.5 1.64 20.1 72.4
150 1.53 27.0 97.2 1.64 29.0 104.3 1.74 30.8 110.9 1.84 32.6 117.2
200 1.84 57.7 207.6 1.97 61.9 222.7 2.09 65.8 236.8 2.21 69.5 250.2
250 2.11 103.8 373.6 2.27 111.3 400.6 2.41 118.3 426.0 2.55 125.0 450.0
300 2.37 167.6 603.3 2.54 179.6 646.7 2.70 191.0 687.5 2.85 201.7 726.1
350 2.61 251.1 904.1 2.80 269.2 969.0 2.97 286.1 1029.9 3.14 302.1 1087.7
400 2.84 356.4 1283.0 3.04 381.9 1374.8 3.23 405.9 1461.2 3.41 428.6 1542.9
450 3.05 485.1 1746.5 3.27 519.8 1871.3 3.47 552.4 1988.7 3.67 583.2 2099.7
500 3.26 639.1 2300.9 3.49 684.7 2465.1 3.71 727.6 2619.4 3.91 768.2 2765.4
600 3.64 1029.3 3705.6 3.90 1102.6 3969.3 4.14 1171.4 4217.2 4.37 1236.6 4451.7
700 4.00 1539.4 5541.7 4.28 1648.7 5935.3 4.55 1751.4 6305.2 4.80 1848.7 6655.2
800 4.34 2180.7 7850.6 4.65 2335.4 8407.4 4.94 2480.7 8930.5 5.21 2618.2 9425.4
900 4.66 2964.3 10671.5 4.99 3174.2 11427.1 5.30 3371.4 12137.2 5.59 3558.0 12808.9
1000 4.97 3900.3 14041.1 5.32 4176.2 15034.2 5.65 4435.3 15967.2 5.96 4680.6 16850.0
1100 5.26 4998.6 17994.8 5.63 5351.7 19266.2 5.98 5683.5 20460.7 6.31 5997.4 21590.7
1200 5.54 6268.4 22566.4 5.93 6710.9 24159.2 6.30 7126.6 25655.7 6.65 7519.9 27071.5
1300 5.82 7718.9 27788.1 6.23 8263.3 29747.9 6.61 8774.8 31589.2 6.98 9258.6 33331.0
1400 6.08 9358.7 33691.4 6.51 10018.3 36065.8 6.91 10637.9 38296.5 7.29 11224.1 40406.8
1500 6.34 11196.3 40306.6 6.78 11984.8 43145.3 7.20 12725.6 45812.1 7.60 13426.4 48335.0
1600 6.58 13239.7 47663.0 7.05 14171.6 51017.7 7.48 15047.0 54169.3 7.90 15875.2 57150.7
 Hydraulic tables (Darcy Weisbach/Colbrook-White) A6.17
Hydraulic tables 359

k(mm) = 0.1 T(°C) = 20

D S = 0.0005 S = 0.001 S = 0.002 S = 0.003
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.11 0.2 0.8 0.17 0.3 1.2 0.25 0.5 1.7 0.31 0.6 2.2
80 0.16 0.8 2.9 0.23 1.2 4.2 0.34 1.7 6.2 0.43 2.1 7.7
100 0.19 1.5 5.3 0.27 2.1 7.7 0.40 3.1 11.2 0.49 3.9 14.0
125 0.22 2.7 9.6 0.32 3.9 14.0 0.46 5.7 20.4 0.57 7.0 25.4
150 0.25 4.4 15.7 0.36 6.3 22.8 0.52 9.2 33.2 0.65 11.4 41.2
200 0.30 9.4 33.8 0.44 13.7 49.2 0.63 19.8 71.3 0.78 24.5 88.4
250 0.35 17.0 61.4 0.50 24.7 89.1 0.73 35.8 128.8 0.90 44.3 159.4
300 0.39 27.7 99.7 0.57 40.1 144.5 0.82 57.9 208.5 1.01 71.7 258.0
350 0.43 41.7 150.1 0.63 60.4 217.3 0.90 87.0 313.2 1.12 107.6 387.3
400 0.47 59.4 213.9 0.68 85.9 309.2 0.98 123.7 445.4 1.22 152.9 550.4
450 0.51 81.2 292.2 0.74 117.2 422.0 1.06 168.7 607.3 1.31 208.4 750.1
500 0.55 107.3 386.1 0.79 154.8 557.2 1.13 222.6 801.2 1.40 274.8 989.3
600 0.61 173.6 624.9 0.88 250.2 900.6 1.27 359.3 1293.4 1.57 443.3 1596.0
700 0.68 260.6 938.2 0.97 375.2 1350.7 1.40 538.3 1937.9 1.73 663.9 2390.2
800 0.74 370.4 1333.5 1.06 532.8 1918.0 1.52 763.8 2749.7 1.87 941.7 3390.0
900 0.79 504.9 1817.7 1.14 725.7 2612.3 1.63 1039.6 3742.7 2.01 1281.3 4612.6
1000 0.85 665.9 2397.3 1.22 956.4 3443.2 1.74 1369.5 4930.1 2.15 1687.3 6074.3
1100 0.90 855.2 3078.9 1.29 1227.6 4419.4 1.85 1756.9 6324.8 2.28 2164.1 7790.6
1200 0.95 1074.5 3868.2 1.36 1541.6 5549.6 1.95 2205.2 7938.7 2.40 2715.7 9776.4
1300 1.00 1325.4 4771.3 1.43 1900.6 6842.1 2.05 2717.7 9783.6 2.52 3346.1 12045.9
1400 1.05 1609.3 5793.6 1.50 2306.8 8304.6 2.14 3297.4 11870.7 2.64 4059.1 14612.9
1500 1.09 1928.0 6940.7 1.56 2762.5 9945.1 2.23 3947.5 14210.8 2.75 4858.6 17490.8
1600 1.14 2282.7 8217.8 1.63 3269.7 11770.8 2.32 4670.8 16814.7 2.86 5747.9 20692.6

D S= 0.004 S= 0.005 S= 0.006 S= 0.007

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.36 0.7 2.5 0.41 0.8 2.9 0.45 0.9 3.2 0.49 1.0 3.4
80 0.50 2.5 9.0 0.56 2.8 10.1 0.62 3.1 11.2 0.67 3.4 12.1
100 0.58 4.5 16.3 0.65 5.1 18.4 0.72 5.6 20.2 0.78 6.1 22.0
125 0.67 8.2 29.6 0.75 9.2 33.3 0.83 10.2 36.6 0.90 11.0 39.7
150 0.75 13.3 48.0 0.85 15.0 54.0 0.93 16.5 59.4 1.01 17.9 64.4
200 0.91 28.6 102.8 1.02 32.1 115.6 1.12 35.3 127.1 1.22 38.3 137.8
250 1.05 51.5 185.4 1.18 57.9 208.3 1.30 63.6 229.1 1.40 68.9 248.2
300 1.18 83.3 299.8 1.32 93.5 336.8 1.45 102.8 370.2 1.58 111.4 401.0
350 1.30 125.0 449.9 1.46 140.3 505.2 1.60 154.2 555.2 1.74 167.0 601.3
400 1.41 177.5 639.2 1.59 199.3 717.5 1.74 219.0 788.4 1.89 237.1 853.7
450 1.52 241.9 870.9 1.71 271.5 977.4 1.88 298.3 1073.8 2.03 322.9 1162.5
500 1.62 319.0 1148.2 1.82 357.9 1288.5 2.00 393.1 1415.3 2.17 425.6 1532.1
600 1.82 514.4 1851.7 2.04 577.0 2077.2 2.24 633.7 2281.2 2.43 685.8 2469.0
700 2.00 770.0 2772.2 2.24 863.6 3109.0 2.46 948.3 3413.8 2.67 1026.2 3694.2
800 2.17 1091.9 3930.7 2.44 1224.3 4407.5 2.67 1344.1 4838.8 2.89 1454.3 5235.6
900 2.33 1485.3 5347.1 2.62 1665.2 5994.7 2.87 1827.9 6580.6 3.11 1977.6 7119.5
1000 2.49 1955.6 7040.2 2.79 2192.2 7891.8 3.06 2406.1 8662.1 3.31 2603.0 9370.8
1100 2.64 2507.8 9027.9 2.96 2810.8 10118.7 3.25 3084.8 11105.4 3.51 3337.0 12013.0
1200 2.78 3146.5 11327.4 3.12 3526.3 12694.7 3.42 3869.8 13931.4 3.70 4185.8 15069.1
1300 2.92 3876.4 13955.1 3.27 4343.9 15638.2 3.59 4766.8 17160.4 3.88 5155.7 18560.7
1400 3.05 4701.9 16927.0 3.42 5268.6 18966.9 3.76 5781.1 20811.9 4.06 6252.5 22509.0
1500 3.18 5627.4 20258.5 3.57 6305.1 22698.3 3.91 6918.0 24904.7 4.23 7481.8 26934.3
1600 3.31 6656.8 23964.6 3.71 7458.0 26848.9 4.07 8182.6 29457.3 4.40 8849.0 31856.6
A6.18 Introduction to urban water distribution
360 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

k(mm) = 0.1 T(°C) = 20

D S= 0.008 S= 0.009 S= 0.010 S= 0.012
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.52 1.0 3.7 0.56 1.1 3.9 0.59 1.2 4.2 0.65 1.3 4.6
80 0.72 3.6 13.0 0.77 3.8 13.9 0.81 4.1 14.6 0.89 4.5 16.1
100 0.83 6.5 23.6 0.89 7.0 25.1 0.94 7.4 26.5 1.03 8.1 29.2
125 0.96 11.8 42.6 1.03 12.6 45.3 1.08 13.3 47.9 1.19 14.6 52.7
150 1.09 19.2 69.1 1.15 20.4 73.5 1.22 21.6 77.6 1.34 23.7 85.4
200 1.31 41.0 147.7 1.39 43.6 157.1 1.47 46.1 165.9 1.61 50.6 182.3
250 1.51 73.9 266.0 1.60 78.5 282.7 1.69 82.9 298.6 1.86 91.1 328.0
300 1.69 119.4 429.7 1.79 126.8 456.6 1.89 133.9 482.1 2.08 147.1 529.6
350 1.86 178.9 644.2 1.98 190.1 684.5 2.09 200.7 722.6 2.29 220.4 793.6
400 2.02 254.0 914.4 2.15 269.9 971.5 2.27 284.9 1025.6 2.49 312.8 1126.1
450 2.17 345.9 1245.2 2.31 367.4 1322.8 2.44 387.9 1396.3 2.68 425.8 1532.9
500 2.32 455.8 1640.8 2.47 484.2 1743.0 2.60 511.0 1839.7 2.86 561.0 2019.5
600 2.60 734.4 2643.8 2.76 780.0 2808.0 2.91 823.2 2963.4 3.20 903.5 3252.5
700 2.85 1098.7 3955.3 3.03 1166.8 4200.6 3.20 1231.3 4432.6 3.51 1351.2 4864.3
800 3.10 1557.0 5605.1 3.29 1653.4 5952.2 3.47 1744.6 6280.6 3.81 1914.3 6891.5
900 3.33 2117.0 7621.3 3.53 2248.0 8092.7 3.73 2371.9 8538.7 4.09 2602.3 9368.3
1000 3.55 2786.3 10030.5 3.77 2958.4 10650.3 3.97 3121.3 11236.7 4.36 3424.3 12327.4
1100 3.76 3571.7 12858.1 3.99 3792.2 13651.9 4.21 4000.8 14402.8 4.62 4388.8 15799.8
1200 3.96 4480.1 16128.2 4.21 4756.4 17123.1 4.44 5017.9 18064.3 4.87 5504.2 19815.2
1300 4.16 5517.9 19864.3 4.41 5858.0 21088.9 4.66 6179.8 22247.3 5.11 6778.4 24402.2
1400 4.35 6691.4 24088.9 4.61 7103.6 25573.0 4.87 7493.6 26976.9 5.34 8219.0 29588.5
1500 4.53 8006.6 28823.8 4.81 8499.6 30598.7 5.07 8966.0 32277.6 5.56 9833.6 35400.8
1600 4.71 9469.5 34090.2 5.00 10052.3 36188.3 5.27 10603.6 38173.0 5.78 11629.1 41864.9

D S= 0.014 S= 0.016 S= 0.018 S= 0.020

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.71 1.4 5.0 0.76 1.5 5.4 0.81 1.6 5.7 0.85 1.7 6.0
80 0.97 4.9 17.5 1.04 5.2 18.8 1.10 5.5 20.0 1.17 5.9 21.1
100 1.12 8.8 31.6 1.20 9.4 33.9 1.28 10.0 36.1 1.35 10.6 38.1
125 1.29 15.9 57.1 1.39 17.0 61.2 1.47 18.1 65.1 1.56 19.1 68.7
150 1.45 25.7 92.5 1.56 27.5 99.1 1.66 29.3 105.3 1.75 30.9 111.2
200 1.75 54.8 197.5 1.87 58.8 211.5 1.99 62.4 224.8 2.10 65.9 237.3
250 2.01 98.7 355.1 2.15 105.7 380.4 2.29 112.3 404.1 2.41 118.5 426.6
300 2.25 159.2 573.3 2.41 170.5 613.9 2.56 181.1 652.1 2.70 191.2 688.3
350 2.48 238.6 858.9 2.66 255.5 919.7 2.82 271.3 976.8 2.98 286.4 1030.9
400 2.69 338.5 1218.6 2.88 362.4 1304.8 3.06 384.9 1385.7 3.23 406.2 1462.2
450 2.90 460.7 1658.7 3.10 493.3 1775.8 3.29 523.8 1885.8 3.48 552.7 1989.8
500 3.09 606.9 2185.0 3.31 649.7 2339.0 3.51 689.9 2483.8 3.71 728.0 2620.7
600 3.46 977.4 3518.5 3.70 1046.1 3766.1 3.93 1110.7 3998.7 4.14 1171.9 4218.7
700 3.80 1461.5 5261.5 4.06 1564.2 5631.2 4.32 1660.7 5978.5 4.55 1752.0 6307.1
800 4.12 2070.4 7453.4 4.41 2215.7 7976.6 4.68 2352.2 8468.0 4.94 2481.3 8932.9
900 4.42 2814.3 10131.4 4.73 3011.6 10841.8 5.03 3197.0 11509.2 5.30 3372.3 12140.4
1000 4.71 3703.0 13330.7 5.05 3962.4 14264.6 5.36 4206.1 15141.9 5.65 4436.6 15971.8
1100 4.99 4745.7 17084.6 5.34 5078.0 18280.8 5.67 5390.1 19404.3 5.98 5685.3 20467.0
1200 5.26 5951.5 21425.5 5.63 6367.9 22924.6 5.98 6759.1 24332.7 6.30 7129.1 25664.6
1300 5.52 7328.9 26384.2 5.91 7841.4 28229.2 6.27 8322.8 29962.2 6.61 8778.2 31601.5
1400 5.77 8886.2 31990.5 6.18 9507.3 34226.4 6.56 10090.7 36326.6 6.91 10642.6 38313.2
1500 6.02 10631.5 38273.2 6.44 11374.2 40947.1 6.83 12071.9 43458.7 7.20 12731.8 45834.4
1600 6.25 12572.3 45260.4 6.69 13450.3 48421.2 7.10 14275.0 51390.1 7.49 15055.1 54198.3
 Hydraulic tables (Darcy Weisbach/Colbrook-White) A6.19
Hydraulic tables 361

k(mm) = 0.5 T(°C) = 20

D S = 0.0005 S = 0.001 S = 0.002 S = 0.003
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.10 0.2 0.7 0.15 0.3 1.0 0.21 0.4 1.5 0.26 0.5 1.9
80 0.14 0.7 2.6 0.21 1.0 3.7 0.30 1.5 5.4 0.37 1.8 6.6
100 0.17 1.3 4.7 0.24 1.9 6.8 0.35 2.7 9.8 0.43 3.3 12.0
125 0.19 2.4 8.6 0.28 3.4 12.4 0.40 4.9 17.7 0.49 6.1 21.8
150 0.22 3.9 14.0 0.32 5.6 20.1 0.45 8.0 28.8 0.56 9.9 35.5
200 0.27 8.4 30.2 0.38 12.0 43.3 0.55 17.2 61.9 0.67 21.1 76.1
250 0.31 15.2 54.8 0.44 21.8 78.4 0.63 31.0 111.8 0.78 38.2 137.4
300 0.35 24.7 88.9 0.50 35.3 127.0 0.71 50.3 181.0 0.87 61.8 222.5
350 0.39 37.1 133.7 0.55 53.0 190.9 0.79 75.5 272.0 0.96 92.8 334.2
400 0.42 52.9 190.4 0.60 75.5 271.7 0.85 107.4 386.8 1.05 132.0 475.1
450 0.45 72.2 259.9 0.65 103.0 370.6 0.92 146.5 527.5 1.13 180.0 647.9
500 0.49 95.3 343.2 0.69 135.9 489.3 0.98 193.3 696.0 1.21 237.4 854.7
600 0.55 154.2 555.0 0.78 219.6 790.6 1.10 312.2 1124.1 1.36 383.3 1380.0
700 0.60 231.3 832.8 0.86 329.3 1185.6 1.22 468.0 1684.9 1.49 574.5 2068.2
800 0.65 328.6 1183.1 0.93 467.6 1683.5 1.32 664.4 2391.7 1.62 815.3 2935.2
900 0.70 447.8 1612.1 1.00 637.0 2293.1 1.42 904.6 3256.7 1.74 1110.1 3996.3
1000 0.75 590.5 2125.6 1.07 839.6 3022.5 1.52 1192.1 4291.6 1.86 1462.7 5265.6
1100 0.80 758.1 2729.3 1.13 1077.7 3879.8 1.61 1529.9 5507.6 1.98 1876.9 6757.0
1200 0.84 952.3 3428.4 1.20 1353.4 4872.4 1.70 1921.0 6915.4 2.08 2356.5 8483.4
1300 0.88 1174.5 4228.1 1.26 1668.8 6007.7 1.78 2368.2 8525.4 2.19 2904.9 10457.7
1400 0.93 1426.0 5133.4 1.32 2025.7 7292.6 1.87 2874.3 10347.4 2.29 3525.5 12691.9
1500 0.97 1708.1 6149.2 1.37 2426.2 8734.2 1.95 3442.0 12391.2 2.39 4221.6 15197.8
1600 1.01 2022.2 7280.1 1.43 2871.9 10338.8 2.03 4073.9 14666.1 2.48 4996.4 17987.0

D S= 0.004 S= 0.005 S= 0.006 S= 0.007

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.31 0.6 2.2 0.35 0.7 2.4 0.38 0.7 2.7 0.41 0.8 2.9
80 0.42 2.1 7.7 0.48 2.4 8.6 0.52 2.6 9.5 0.57 2.8 10.3
100 0.49 3.9 14.0 0.55 4.3 15.7 0.61 4.8 17.2 0.66 5.2 18.6
125 0.57 7.0 25.3 0.64 7.9 28.4 0.70 8.6 31.1 0.76 9.4 33.7
150 0.65 11.4 41.1 0.72 12.8 46.1 0.79 14.0 50.5 0.86 15.2 54.7
200 0.78 24.5 88.2 0.87 27.4 98.8 0.96 30.1 108.3 1.04 32.5 117.1
250 0.90 44.2 159.1 1.01 49.5 178.2 1.11 54.3 195.4 1.20 58.7 211.3
300 1.01 71.5 257.5 1.13 80.1 288.3 1.24 87.8 316.2 1.34 95.0 341.9
350 1.12 107.4 386.7 1.25 120.3 432.9 1.37 131.9 474.7 1.48 142.5 513.2
400 1.22 152.7 549.7 1.36 170.9 615.3 1.49 187.4 674.7 1.61 202.6 729.3
450 1.31 208.2 749.4 1.47 233.0 838.8 1.61 255.5 919.7 1.74 276.1 994.1
500 1.40 274.6 988.6 1.57 307.4 1106.5 1.72 337.0 1213.2 1.85 364.2 1311.2
600 1.57 443.3 1595.9 1.75 496.1 1786.1 1.92 543.9 1958.0 2.08 587.8 2116.1
700 1.73 664.3 2391.4 1.93 743.4 2676.1 2.12 814.9 2933.5 2.29 880.6 3170.3
800 1.88 942.6 3393.5 2.10 1054.8 3797.3 2.30 1156.2 4162.4 2.49 1249.5 4498.1
900 2.02 1283.3 4619.8 2.26 1435.9 5169.3 2.47 1573.9 5666.0 2.67 1700.8 6122.8
1000 2.15 1690.8 6086.8 2.41 1891.8 6810.4 2.64 2073.5 7464.6 2.85 2240.6 8066.2
1100 2.28 2169.5 7810.3 2.55 2427.3 8738.4 2.80 2660.4 9577.5 3.03 2874.8 10349.1
1200 2.41 2723.7 9805.5 2.69 3047.3 10970.2 2.95 3339.8 12023.3 3.19 3608.8 12991.7
1300 2.53 3357.4 12086.8 2.83 3756.1 13522.1 3.10 4116.6 14819.8 3.35 4448.1 16013.2
1400 2.65 4074.6 14668.4 2.96 4558.3 16409.9 3.25 4995.7 17984.4 3.51 5397.8 19432.3
1500 2.76 4878.9 17564.0 3.09 5458.0 19648.8 3.38 5981.6 21533.6 3.66 6463.0 23266.9
1600 2.87 5774.1 20786.8 3.21 6459.3 23253.6 3.52 7078.8 25483.8 3.80 7648.5 27534.7
A6.20 Introduction to urban water distribution
362 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

k(mm) = 0.5 T(°C) = 20

D S= 0.008 S= 0.009 S= 0.010 S= 0.012
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.44 0.9 3.1 0.47 0.9 3.3 0.49 1.0 3.5 0.54 1.1 3.8
80 0.61 3.0 11.0 0.64 3.2 11.7 0.68 3.4 12.3 0.75 3.7 13.5
100 0.70 5.5 19.9 0.75 5.9 21.1 0.79 6.2 22.3 0.87 6.8 24.5
125 0.82 10.0 36.0 0.87 10.6 38.3 0.91 11.2 40.4 1.00 12.3 44.3
150 0.92 16.2 58.5 0.98 17.3 62.1 1.03 18.2 65.5 1.13 20.0 71.9
200 1.11 34.8 125.4 1.18 37.0 133.1 1.24 39.0 140.3 1.36 42.8 153.9
250 1.28 62.8 226.1 1.36 66.7 239.9 1.43 70.3 253.1 1.57 77.1 277.5
300 1.44 101.6 365.7 1.53 107.8 388.1 1.61 113.7 409.3 1.76 124.7 448.8
350 1.58 152.5 549.0 1.68 161.8 582.6 1.77 170.7 614.4 1.94 187.1 673.5
400 1.72 216.7 780.1 1.83 230.0 827.9 1.93 242.5 873.0 2.12 265.8 957.0
450 1.86 295.4 1063.3 1.97 313.4 1128.4 2.08 330.5 1189.9 2.28 362.3 1304.3
500 1.98 389.6 1402.5 2.11 413.4 1488.2 2.22 435.9 1569.3 2.43 477.8 1720.1
600 2.22 628.7 2263.3 2.36 667.1 2401.5 2.49 703.4 2532.3 2.73 771.0 2775.5
700 2.45 941.8 3390.6 2.60 999.3 3597.6 2.74 1053.7 3793.4 3.00 1154.9 4157.5
800 2.66 1336.3 4810.6 2.82 1417.8 5104.2 2.97 1494.9 5381.8 3.26 1638.4 5898.1
900 2.86 1818.9 6548.0 3.03 1929.8 6947.4 3.20 2034.7 7325.1 3.51 2229.9 8027.7
1000 3.05 2396.1 8626.1 3.24 2542.2 9152.1 3.41 2680.4 9649.5 3.74 2937.4 10574.7
1100 3.23 3074.3 11067.3 3.43 3261.6 11741.9 3.62 3438.9 12380.0 3.97 3768.5 13566.7
1200 3.41 3859.2 13893.1 3.62 4094.4 14739.7 3.82 4316.8 15540.5 4.18 4730.5 17029.8
1300 3.58 4756.7 17124.0 3.80 5046.5 18167.3 4.01 5320.6 19154.0 4.39 5830.4 20989.3
1400 3.75 5772.2 20779.9 3.98 6123.8 22045.7 4.19 6456.4 23242.9 4.60 7074.9 25469.7
1500 3.91 6911.2 24880.3 4.15 7332.1 26395.5 4.37 7730.2 27828.8 4.79 8470.7 30494.4
1600 4.07 8178.8 29443.6 4.32 8676.8 31236.6 4.55 9147.9 32932.4 4.99 10024.0 36086.5

D S= 0.014 S= 0.016 S= 0.018 S= 0.020

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.59 1.2 4.2 0.63 1.2 4.4 0.67 1.3 4.7 0.70 1.4 5.0
80 0.81 4.1 14.6 0.86 4.3 15.6 0.92 4.6 16.6 0.97 4.9 17.5
100 0.94 7.4 26.5 1.00 7.9 28.3 1.06 8.4 30.1 1.12 8.8 31.7
125 1.08 13.3 47.9 1.16 14.2 51.2 1.23 15.1 54.4 1.30 15.9 57.4
150 1.22 21.6 77.7 1.31 23.1 83.1 1.39 24.5 88.2 1.46 25.8 93.0
200 1.47 46.2 166.4 1.57 49.4 178.0 1.67 52.5 188.9 1.76 55.3 199.2
250 1.70 83.3 299.9 1.82 89.1 320.8 1.93 94.6 340.4 2.03 99.7 359.0
300 1.91 134.7 485.0 2.04 144.1 518.8 2.16 152.9 550.5 2.28 161.3 580.5
350 2.10 202.2 727.9 2.25 216.3 778.5 2.39 229.5 826.1 2.51 242.0 871.1
400 2.29 287.3 1034.3 2.45 307.3 1106.1 2.59 326.0 1173.7 2.74 343.8 1237.5
450 2.46 391.5 1409.5 2.63 418.7 1507.4 2.79 444.3 1599.4 2.95 468.5 1686.4
500 2.63 516.3 1858.8 2.81 552.2 1987.9 2.98 585.9 2109.2 3.15 617.7 2223.9
600 2.95 833.1 2999.1 3.15 890.9 3207.3 3.34 945.2 3402.8 3.52 996.6 3587.8
700 3.24 1247.9 4492.3 3.47 1334.4 4804.0 3.68 1415.8 5096.7 3.88 1492.7 5373.6
800 3.52 1770.3 6373.0 3.77 1893.0 6814.9 4.00 2008.4 7230.1 4.21 2117.4 7622.7
900 3.79 2409.4 8673.7 4.05 2576.4 9275.1 4.30 2733.3 9839.9 4.53 2881.7 10374.1
1000 4.04 3173.8 11425.6 4.32 3393.8 12217.5 4.58 3600.4 12961.3 4.83 3795.8 13664.8
1100 4.28 4071.7 14658.0 4.58 4353.8 15673.8 4.86 4618.8 16627.8 5.12 4869.5 17530.2
1200 4.52 5111.0 18399.4 4.83 5465.1 19674.3 5.13 5797.7 20871.6 5.40 6112.2 22004.1
1300 4.75 6299.2 22677.1 5.07 6735.6 24248.1 5.38 7145.4 25723.5 5.68 7533.1 27119.1
1400 4.97 7643.7 27517.4 5.31 8173.2 29423.4 5.63 8670.4 31213.5 5.94 9140.8 32906.7
1500 5.18 9151.6 32945.8 5.54 9785.4 35227.5 5.87 10380.7 37370.5 6.19 10943.7 39397.5
1600 5.39 10829.7 38987.1 5.76 11579.7 41686.9 6.11 12284.0 44222.6 6.44 12950.3 46620.9
 Hydraulic tables (Darcy Weisbach/Colbrook-White) A6.21
Hydraulic tables 363

k(mm) = 1 T(°C) = 20
D S = 0.0005 S = 0.001 S = 0.002 S = 0.003
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.09 0.2 0.7 0.13 0.3 1.0 0.19 0.4 1.4 0.24 0.5 1.7
80 0.13 0.7 2.4 0.19 0.9 3.4 0.27 1.4 4.9 0.33 1.7 6.0
100 0.15 1.2 4.3 0.22 1.7 6.2 0.31 2.5 8.9 0.39 3.0 10.9
125 0.18 2.2 7.9 0.26 3.1 11.3 0.37 4.5 16.2 0.45 5.5 19.9
150 0.20 3.6 12.9 0.29 5.1 18.5 0.41 7.3 26.3 0.51 9.0 32.3
200 0.25 7.8 27.9 0.35 11.1 39.8 0.50 15.7 56.6 0.62 19.3 69.6
250 0.29 14.1 50.6 0.41 20.0 72.1 0.58 28.5 102.5 0.71 35.0 125.8
300 0.32 22.8 82.2 0.46 32.5 117.0 0.65 46.2 166.2 0.80 56.7 204.0
350 0.36 34.4 123.8 0.51 48.9 176.1 0.72 69.5 250.0 0.89 85.2 306.8
400 0.39 49.0 176.3 0.55 69.6 250.7 0.79 98.9 355.9 0.97 121.3 436.7
450 0.42 66.9 240.8 0.60 95.1 342.3 0.85 135.0 485.9 1.04 165.6 596.0
500 0.45 88.4 318.2 0.64 125.6 452.1 0.91 178.2 641.6 1.11 218.6 787.1
600 0.51 143.1 515.0 0.72 203.2 731.4 1.02 288.2 1037.6 1.25 353.5 1272.6
700 0.56 214.8 773.3 0.79 305.0 1097.9 1.12 432.5 1557.1 1.38 530.4 1909.4
800 0.61 305.4 1099.3 0.86 433.4 1560.3 1.22 614.5 2212.3 1.50 753.5 2712.7
900 0.65 416.3 1498.8 0.93 590.7 2126.7 1.32 837.5 3014.9 1.61 1026.8 3696.5
1000 0.70 549.2 1977.2 0.99 779.2 2805.0 1.41 1104.4 3975.9 1.72 1354.0 4874.4
1100 0.74 705.5 2539.8 1.05 1000.7 3602.6 1.49 1418.3 5105.7 1.83 1738.7 6259.2
1200 0.78 886.6 3191.8 1.11 1257.4 4526.6 1.58 1781.8 6414.6 1.93 2184.3 7863.4
1300 0.82 1093.8 3937.8 1.17 1551.1 5583.9 1.66 2197.8 7912.2 2.03 2694.1 9698.9
1400 0.86 1328.5 4782.7 1.22 1883.7 6781.2 1.73 2668.9 9607.9 2.13 3271.4 11777.1
1500 0.90 1591.9 5731.0 1.28 2256.9 8124.9 1.81 3197.5 11510.9 2.22 3919.2 14109.1
1600 0.94 1885.3 6787.1 1.33 2672.6 9621.3 1.88 3786.1 13629.9 2.31 4640.5 16705.9

D S= 0.004 S= 0.005 S= 0.006 S= 0.007

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.28 0.5 2.0 0.31 0.6 2.2 0.34 0.7 2.4 0.37 0.7 2.6
80 0.38 1.9 7.0 0.43 2.2 7.8 0.47 2.4 8.5 0.51 2.6 9.2
100 0.45 3.5 12.7 0.50 3.9 14.2 0.55 4.3 15.5 0.59 4.7 16.8
125 0.52 6.4 23.0 0.58 7.2 25.7 0.64 7.8 28.2 0.69 8.5 30.5
150 0.59 10.4 37.4 0.66 11.6 41.9 0.72 12.8 45.9 0.78 13.8 49.6
200 0.71 22.3 80.5 0.80 25.0 90.1 0.87 27.4 98.7 0.94 29.6 106.7
250 0.82 40.4 145.5 0.92 45.2 162.8 1.01 49.6 178.5 1.09 53.6 192.9
300 0.93 65.5 235.9 1.04 73.3 264.0 1.14 80.4 289.4 1.23 86.9 312.7
350 1.02 98.5 354.7 1.15 110.2 396.9 1.26 120.8 435.0 1.36 130.6 470.1
400 1.12 140.2 504.8 1.25 156.9 564.8 1.37 172.0 619.1 1.48 185.8 668.9
450 1.20 191.4 688.9 1.35 214.1 770.8 1.48 234.7 844.8 1.59 253.6 912.8
500 1.29 252.7 909.7 1.44 282.7 1017.7 1.58 309.8 1115.3 1.70 334.8 1205.2
600 1.44 408.5 1470.7 1.62 457.0 1645.2 1.77 500.8 1803.0 1.91 541.1 1948.1
700 1.59 612.9 2206.5 1.78 685.6 2468.2 1.95 751.3 2704.8 2.11 811.8 2922.4
800 1.73 870.7 3134.5 1.94 973.9 3506.1 2.12 1067.3 3842.1 2.29 1153.1 4151.1
900 1.86 1186.4 4271.1 2.09 1327.0 4777.4 2.29 1454.2 5235.1 2.47 1571.1 5656.0
1000 1.99 1564.4 5631.9 2.23 1749.8 6299.3 2.44 1917.4 6902.6 2.64 2071.5 7457.5
1100 2.11 2008.8 7231.7 2.36 2246.8 8088.5 2.59 2462.0 8863.1 2.80 2659.8 9575.4
1200 2.23 2523.6 9084.9 2.50 2822.5 10161.0 2.73 3092.7 11133.9 2.95 3341.3 12028.6
1300 2.34 3112.5 11205.1 2.62 3481.2 12532.2 2.87 3814.4 13731.9 3.10 4120.9 14835.2
1400 2.46 3779.4 13605.8 2.75 4226.9 15216.9 3.01 4631.5 16673.5 3.25 5003.6 18012.9
1500 2.56 4527.7 16299.6 2.87 5063.7 18229.5 3.14 5548.4 19974.2 3.39 5994.1 21578.7
1600 2.67 5360.9 19299.2 2.98 5995.5 21584.0 3.27 6569.3 23649.5 3.53 7097.0 25549.0
A6.22 Introduction to urban water distribution
364 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

k(mm) = 1 T(°C) = 20
D S= 0.008 S= 0.009 S= 0.010 S= 0.012
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.39 0.8 2.8 0.42 0.8 3.0 0.44 0.9 3.1 0.48 1.0 3.4
80 0.55 2.7 9.9 0.58 2.9 10.5 0.61 3.1 11.1 0.67 3.4 12.1
100 0.64 5.0 18.0 0.67 5.3 19.1 0.71 5.6 20.1 0.78 6.1 22.1
125 0.74 9.1 32.7 0.78 9.6 34.7 0.83 10.2 36.5 0.91 11.1 40.1
150 0.83 14.7 53.1 0.89 15.7 56.3 0.93 16.5 59.4 1.02 18.1 65.1
200 1.01 31.7 114.1 1.07 33.6 121.1 1.13 35.5 127.7 1.24 38.9 140.0
250 1.17 57.3 206.3 1.24 60.8 218.9 1.31 64.1 230.9 1.43 70.3 253.0
300 1.31 92.9 334.4 1.39 98.6 354.8 1.47 103.9 374.1 1.61 113.9 410.0
350 1.45 139.7 502.7 1.54 148.2 533.4 1.62 156.2 562.4 1.78 171.2 616.3
400 1.58 198.7 715.4 1.68 210.8 759.0 1.77 222.3 800.2 1.94 243.6 877.0
450 1.70 271.2 976.2 1.81 287.7 1035.6 1.91 303.3 1091.9 2.09 332.4 1196.6
500 1.82 358.0 1288.7 1.93 379.8 1367.3 2.04 400.4 1441.5 2.23 438.8 1579.6
600 2.05 578.7 2083.2 2.17 613.9 2210.0 2.29 647.2 2330.0 2.51 709.2 2553.1
700 2.26 868.0 3125.0 2.39 920.9 3315.2 2.52 970.9 3495.1 2.76 1063.8 3829.7
800 2.45 1233.0 4438.7 2.60 1308.0 4708.9 2.74 1379.0 4964.4 3.01 1511.0 5439.6
900 2.64 1679.9 6047.7 2.80 1782.1 6415.7 2.95 1878.8 6763.7 3.24 2058.6 7411.0
1000 2.82 2215.0 7973.9 2.99 2349.7 8459.0 3.15 2477.2 8917.8 3.46 2714.2 9771.1
1100 2.99 2844.0 10238.4 3.17 3017.0 10861.1 3.35 3180.6 11450.1 3.67 3484.9 12545.6
1200 3.16 3572.6 12861.3 3.35 3789.9 13643.5 3.53 3995.3 14383.2 3.87 4377.5 15759.1
1300 3.32 4406.2 15862.2 3.52 4674.1 16826.7 3.71 4927.5 17738.9 4.07 5398.8 19435.7
1400 3.48 5349.9 19259.7 3.69 5675.2 20430.7 3.89 5982.8 21538.2 4.26 6555.0 23598.1
1500 3.63 6408.9 23072.1 3.85 6798.5 24474.7 4.06 7167.0 25801.4 4.44 7852.5 28268.9
1600 3.77 7588.1 27317.1 4.00 8049.3 28977.6 4.22 8485.6 30548.2 4.62 9297.1 33469.4

D S= 0.014 S= 0.016 S= 0.018 S= 0.020

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.52 1.0 3.7 0.56 1.1 4.0 0.59 1.2 4.2 0.63 1.2 4.4
80 0.73 3.6 13.1 0.78 3.9 14.0 0.82 4.1 14.9 0.87 4.4 15.7
100 0.84 6.6 23.9 0.90 7.1 25.5 0.96 7.5 27.1 1.01 7.9 28.6
125 0.98 12.0 43.3 1.05 12.9 46.3 1.11 13.7 49.1 1.17 14.4 51.8
150 1.11 19.6 70.4 1.18 20.9 75.3 1.26 22.2 79.9 1.32 23.4 84.2
200 1.34 42.0 151.3 1.43 44.9 161.8 1.52 47.7 171.7 1.60 50.3 181.0
250 1.55 75.9 273.4 1.65 81.2 292.4 1.76 86.2 310.2 1.85 90.8 327.1
300 1.74 123.1 443.0 1.86 131.6 473.8 1.98 139.6 502.6 2.08 147.2 529.9
350 1.92 185.0 665.9 2.06 197.8 712.1 2.18 209.9 755.5 2.30 221.2 796.5
400 2.09 263.2 947.5 2.24 281.4 1013.2 2.38 298.6 1074.8 2.50 314.8 1133.2
450 2.26 359.1 1292.8 2.41 384.0 1382.4 2.56 407.4 1466.5 2.70 429.5 1546.1
500 2.41 474.1 1706.7 2.58 506.9 1824.9 2.74 537.8 1935.9 2.89 566.9 2040.9
600 2.71 766.2 2758.4 2.90 819.3 2949.4 3.07 869.1 3128.8 3.24 916.2 3298.5
700 2.99 1149.3 4137.5 3.19 1228.9 4423.9 3.39 1303.6 4692.9 3.57 1374.3 4947.4
800 3.25 1632.4 5876.6 3.47 1745.4 6283.3 3.68 1851.5 6665.3 3.88 1951.8 7026.6
900 3.50 2224.0 8006.3 3.74 2377.9 8560.3 3.96 2522.4 9080.7 4.18 2659.1 9572.9
1000 3.73 2932.2 10555.8 3.99 3135.0 11286.2 4.23 3325.6 11972.2 4.46 3505.8 12621.0
1100 3.96 3764.7 13552.9 4.24 4025.2 14490.6 4.49 4269.8 15371.3 4.74 4501.2 16204.2
1200 4.18 4729.0 17024.4 4.47 5056.1 18202.1 4.74 5363.4 19308.3 5.00 5654.0 20354.5
1300 4.39 5832.2 20996.0 4.70 6235.6 22448.3 4.98 6614.5 23812.3 5.25 6972.9 25102.5
1400 4.60 7081.2 25492.5 4.92 7571.0 27255.7 5.22 8031.0 28911.7 5.50 8466.1 30478.0
1500 4.80 8482.8 30537.9 5.13 9069.4 32650.0 5.44 9620.4 34633.6 5.74 10141.6 36509.8
1600 5.00 10043.3 36155.8 5.34 10737.8 38656.2 5.67 11390.2 41004.6 5.97 12007.2 43225.8
 Hydraulic tables (Darcy Weisbach/Colbrook-White) A6.23
Hydraulic tables 365

k(mm) = 5 T(°C) = 20
D S = 0.0005 S = 0.001 S = 0.002 S = 0.003
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.07 0.1 0.5 0.10 0.2 0.7 0.14 0.3 1.0 0.17 0.3 1.2
80 0.10 0.5 1.8 0.14 0.7 2.5 0.20 1.0 3.6 0.24 1.2 4.4
100 0.12 0.9 3.3 0.16 1.3 4.6 0.23 1.8 6.6 0.29 2.2 8.1
125 0.14 1.7 6.0 0.19 2.4 8.5 0.27 3.4 12.1 0.34 4.1 14.8
150 0.16 2.7 9.9 0.22 3.9 14.0 0.31 5.5 19.9 0.38 6.8 24.4
200 0.19 6.0 21.6 0.27 8.5 30.6 0.38 12.0 43.3 0.47 14.8 53.1
250 0.22 11.0 39.4 0.32 15.5 55.9 0.45 22.0 79.1 0.55 26.9 97.0
300 0.25 17.9 64.4 0.36 25.3 91.3 0.51 35.9 129.2 0.62 44.0 158.4
350 0.28 27.1 97.5 0.40 38.3 138.0 0.56 54.3 195.5 0.69 66.5 239.5
400 0.31 38.7 139.4 0.44 54.8 197.4 0.62 77.6 279.5 0.76 95.1 342.5
450 0.33 53.1 191.1 0.47 75.2 270.6 0.67 106.4 383.1 0.82 130.4 469.4
500 0.36 70.4 253.3 0.51 99.6 358.6 0.72 141.0 507.6 0.88 172.8 622.0
600 0.40 114.5 412.0 0.57 162.0 583.4 0.81 229.4 825.7 0.99 281.0 1011.6
700 0.45 172.6 621.3 0.63 244.3 879.6 0.90 345.8 1244.8 1.10 423.6 1525.1
800 0.49 246.2 886.3 0.69 348.5 1254.6 0.98 493.2 1775.5 1.20 604.2 2175.2
900 0.53 336.7 1212.0 0.75 476.5 1715.6 1.06 674.4 2427.7 1.30 826.1 2974.1
1000 0.57 445.3 1603.1 0.80 630.3 2269.0 1.14 891.9 3210.8 1.39 1092.6 3933.4
1100 0.60 573.4 2064.1 0.85 811.5 2921.4 1.21 1148.3 4133.8 1.48 1406.7 5064.1
1200 0.64 722.1 2599.4 0.90 1021.9 3678.8 1.28 1445.9 5205.4 1.57 1771.3 6376.7
1300 0.67 892.5 3213.1 0.95 1263.1 4547.2 1.35 1787.2 6433.9 1.65 2189.3 7881.6
1400 0.71 1085.9 3909.2 1.00 1536.7 5532.2 1.41 2174.3 7827.4 1.73 2663.5 9588.6
1500 0.74 1303.3 4691.8 1.04 1844.3 6639.4 1.48 2609.4 9393.8 1.81 3196.5 11507.3
1600 0.77 1545.7 5564.5 1.09 2187.3 7874.2 1.54 3094.6 11140.6 1.89 3790.8 13647.0

D S= 0.004 S= 0.005 S= 0.006 S= 0.007

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.20 0.4 1.4 0.22 0.4 1.5 0.24 0.5 1.7 0.26 0.5 1.8
80 0.28 1.4 5.1 0.31 1.6 5.7 0.34 1.7 6.2 0.37 1.9 6.7
100 0.33 2.6 9.3 0.37 2.9 10.4 0.40 3.2 11.4 0.44 3.4 12.3
125 0.39 4.8 17.1 0.43 5.3 19.2 0.48 5.8 21.0 0.51 6.3 22.7
150 0.44 7.8 28.1 0.49 8.7 31.5 0.54 9.6 34.5 0.59 10.4 37.3
200 0.54 17.0 61.4 0.61 19.1 68.6 0.66 20.9 75.2 0.72 22.6 81.2
250 0.63 31.1 112.0 0.71 34.8 125.3 0.78 38.1 137.2 0.84 41.2 148.3
300 0.72 50.8 182.9 0.80 56.8 204.5 0.88 62.3 224.1 0.95 67.3 242.1
350 0.80 76.8 276.6 0.89 85.9 309.4 0.98 94.1 338.9 1.06 101.7 366.1
400 0.87 109.9 395.6 0.98 122.9 442.4 1.07 134.6 484.7 1.16 145.4 523.6
450 0.95 150.6 542.1 1.06 168.4 606.2 1.16 184.5 664.2 1.25 199.3 717.5
500 1.02 199.6 718.4 1.14 223.1 803.3 1.25 244.5 880.1 1.34 264.1 950.7
600 1.15 324.5 1168.4 1.28 362.9 1306.5 1.41 397.6 1431.3 1.52 429.5 1546.1
700 1.27 489.3 1761.3 1.42 547.1 1969.5 1.56 599.4 2157.7 1.68 647.4 2330.8
800 1.39 697.8 2512.2 1.55 780.3 2809.0 1.70 854.8 3077.4 1.84 923.4 3324.2
900 1.50 954.1 3434.8 1.68 1066.9 3840.7 1.84 1168.8 4207.6 1.98 1262.5 4545.0
1000 1.61 1261.8 4542.6 1.80 1410.9 5079.3 1.97 1545.7 5564.6 2.13 1669.7 6010.8
1100 1.71 1624.5 5848.3 1.91 1816.5 6539.3 2.09 1990.0 7164.0 2.26 2149.6 7738.4
1200 1.81 2045.6 7364.2 2.02 2287.3 8234.2 2.22 2505.8 9020.8 2.39 2706.7 9744.1
1300 1.90 2528.4 9102.1 2.13 2827.0 10177.3 2.33 3097.1 11149.4 2.52 3345.4 12043.4
1400 2.00 3075.9 11073.3 2.23 3439.3 12381.4 2.45 3767.8 13564.0 2.64 4069.9 14651.5
1500 2.09 3691.4 13289.0 2.34 4127.4 14858.8 2.56 4521.7 16278.0 2.76 4884.2 17583.1
1600 2.18 4377.8 15760.0 2.43 4894.9 17621.6 2.67 5362.4 19304.6 2.88 5792.3 20852.3
A6.24 Introduction to urban water distribution
366 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

k(mm) = 5 T(°C) = 20
D S= 0.008 S= 0.009 S= 0.010 S= 0.012
(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.28 0.5 2.0 0.29 0.6 2.1 0.31 0.6 2.2 0.34 0.7 2.4
80 0.40 2.0 7.2 0.42 2.1 7.6 0.44 2.2 8.0 0.49 2.4 8.8
100 0.47 3.7 13.2 0.50 3.9 14.0 0.52 4.1 14.8 0.57 4.5 16.2
125 0.55 6.7 24.3 0.58 7.2 25.8 0.61 7.5 27.2 0.67 8.3 29.7
150 0.63 11.1 39.9 0.66 11.7 42.3 0.70 12.4 44.6 0.77 13.6 48.8
200 0.77 24.1 86.8 0.81 25.6 92.1 0.86 27.0 97.1 0.94 29.6 106.4
250 0.90 44.0 158.5 0.95 46.7 168.2 1.00 49.2 177.3 1.10 53.9 194.2
300 1.02 71.9 258.8 1.08 76.3 274.6 1.14 80.4 289.4 1.25 88.1 317.1
350 1.13 108.7 391.5 1.20 115.3 415.2 1.26 121.6 437.7 1.38 133.2 479.6
400 1.24 155.5 559.8 1.31 164.9 593.8 1.38 173.9 626.0 1.52 190.5 685.8
450 1.34 213.1 767.1 1.42 226.0 813.7 1.50 238.3 857.7 1.64 261.0 939.7
500 1.44 282.3 1016.4 1.53 299.5 1078.2 1.61 315.7 1136.5 1.76 345.9 1245.1
600 1.62 459.2 1653.0 1.72 487.0 1753.4 1.82 513.4 1848.3 1.99 562.5 2024.9
700 1.80 692.2 2491.8 1.91 734.2 2643.1 2.01 774.0 2786.2 2.20 847.9 3052.4
800 1.96 987.2 3553.9 2.08 1047.1 3769.7 2.20 1103.8 3973.8 2.41 1209.3 4353.3
900 2.12 1349.7 4859.1 2.25 1431.7 5154.1 2.37 1509.2 5433.1 2.60 1653.3 5952.0
1000 2.27 1785.0 6426.1 2.41 1893.4 6816.2 2.54 1995.9 7185.2 2.78 2186.5 7871.4
1100 2.42 2298.1 8273.1 2.56 2437.6 8775.3 2.70 2569.5 9250.3 2.96 2814.9 10133.7
1200 2.56 2893.7 10417.3 2.71 3069.3 11049.6 2.86 3235.5 11647.7 3.13 3544.5 12760.0
1300 2.69 3576.5 12875.5 2.86 3793.6 13657.0 3.01 3998.9 14396.1 3.30 4380.8 15770.9
1400 2.83 4351.0 15663.7 3.00 4615.1 16614.4 3.16 4864.9 17513.7 3.46 5329.5 19186.1
1500 2.95 5221.6 18797.8 3.13 5538.5 19938.7 3.30 5838.3 21017.8 3.62 6395.8 23024.8
1600 3.08 6192.5 22292.9 3.27 6568.3 23645.9 3.44 6923.8 24925.6 3.77 7584.9 27305.7

D S= 0.014 S= 0.016 S= 0.018 S= 0.020

(mm) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h) v(m/s) Q(l/s) Q(m3/h)
50 0.37 0.7 2.6 0.39 0.8 2.8 0.42 0.8 2.9 0.44 0.9 3.1
80 0.52 2.6 9.5 0.56 2.8 10.1 0.59 3.0 10.8 0.63 3.2 11.3
100 0.62 4.9 17.5 0.66 5.2 18.7 0.70 5.5 19.8 0.74 5.8 20.9
125 0.73 8.9 32.1 0.78 9.5 34.4 0.83 10.1 36.5 0.87 10.7 38.4
150 0.83 14.7 52.8 0.89 15.7 56.4 0.94 16.6 59.8 0.99 17.5 63.1
200 1.02 31.9 114.9 1.09 34.1 122.9 1.15 36.2 130.4 1.22 38.2 137.4
250 1.19 58.3 209.8 1.27 62.3 224.3 1.35 66.1 237.9 1.42 69.7 250.8
300 1.35 95.2 342.6 1.44 101.7 366.2 1.53 107.9 388.5 1.61 113.8 409.5
350 1.50 143.9 518.0 1.60 153.8 553.8 1.70 163.2 587.5 1.79 172.0 619.3
400 1.64 205.8 740.8 1.75 220.0 792.0 1.86 233.3 840.1 1.96 246.0 885.5
450 1.77 282.0 1015.1 1.90 301.4 1085.2 2.01 319.7 1151.1 2.12 337.1 1213.4
500 1.90 373.6 1345.0 2.03 399.4 1437.9 2.16 423.7 1525.2 2.27 446.6 1607.8
600 2.15 607.6 2187.2 2.30 649.5 2338.4 2.44 689.0 2480.3 2.57 726.3 2614.6
700 2.38 915.9 3297.1 2.54 979.1 3524.9 2.70 1038.6 3738.9 2.84 1094.8 3941.3
800 2.60 1306.2 4702.4 2.78 1396.5 5027.2 2.95 1481.2 5332.4 3.11 1561.4 5621.0
900 2.81 1785.9 6429.2 3.00 1909.3 6873.3 3.18 2025.1 7290.5 3.36 2134.7 7685.1
1000 3.01 2361.8 8502.5 3.21 2525.0 9089.8 3.41 2678.2 9641.5 3.59 2823.1 10163.3
1100 3.20 3040.6 10946.1 3.42 3250.6 11702.2 3.63 3447.9 12412.4 3.82 3634.5 13084.1
1200 3.39 3828.6 13782.9 3.62 4093.1 14735.0 3.84 4341.5 15629.3 4.05 4576.4 16475.0
1300 3.57 4732.0 17035.1 3.81 5058.9 18211.9 4.04 5365.9 19317.1 4.26 5656.2 20362.4
1400 3.74 5756.7 20724.1 4.00 6154.3 22155.6 4.24 6527.8 23500.1 4.47 6881.0 24771.8
1500 3.91 6908.5 24870.5 4.18 7385.7 26588.4 4.43 7833.8 28201.9 4.67 8257.8 29727.9
1600 4.07 8192.9 29494.5 4.36 8758.8 31531.7 4.62 9290.3 33445.2 4.87 9793.0 35254.9
Appendix 7

Spreadsheet hydraulic
lessons – Overview
368 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 369
370 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 371
372 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 373
374 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 375
376 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 377
378 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 379
380 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 381
382 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 383
384 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 385
386 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 387
388 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 389
390 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 391
392 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 393
394 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 395
396 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 397
398 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 399
400 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 401
402 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 403
404 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 405
406 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 407
408 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 409
410 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 411
412 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 413
414 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Spreadsheet hydraulic lessons – Overview 415
416 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution
Appendix 8

EPANET – Version 2
(based on the EPANET 2 Users Manual
by L.A. Rossman) 1

8.1 Installation
EPANET 2 is a computer programme that performs hydraulic and water quality
simulations of drinking water distribution systems. For a basic set of input data
related to the geometry of the network and the water demand levels in it, the pro-
gramme is able to determine the flow of water in each pipe, the pressure at each
pipe junction, the flows and heads at each pump, and the water depth in each stor-
age tank. Additional information on water quality parameters serves to calculate
the concentration of a substance throughout a distribution system. In addition to
substance concentrations, water age and source tracing can also be simulated. The
user is able to edit EPANET 2 files and, after running a simulation, display the
results on a colour-coded map of the distribution system and generate additional
tabular and graphical views of these results.
The calculations made by EPANET can help in solving all sorts of practical
problems, such as:

• the design of new extensions and pumping stations,

• the analysis of pumps’ energy and cost,
• the optimal operation which can guarantee delivery of sufficient water quality
and pressure,
• the assessment of network reliability,
• the development of effective flushing programmes,
• the use of satellite treatment, such as re-chlorination at storage tanks,
• the diagnosis of water quality problems, etc.

EPANET 2 software (release 12, dated January 2018) and its manual are in the
public domain and can be downloaded from the website of the US Environmental
Protection Agency. This site is easily accessible through any search engine (e.g.
‘Google’), by using the keyword ‘epanet’.
The setup file contains a self-extracting setup programme. The installation
starts after double-clicking on this file. The default programme directory is c:\
Program Files\EPANET 2.0.12, which can be changed during the process that will
be fully completed in just a few seconds. After the programme has been installed,

1 Rossman, L.A., EPANET 2 Users Manual, EPA/600/R-00/057, Water Supply and Water Resources
Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, September 2000.
 418 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

the Start Menu will have a new item named EPANET 2.0.12. To start the pro-
gramme, choose Start>>Programs>>Epanet 2.0.12>>Epanet 2.0.

8.2 Using the programme

After running the programme, a screen with the menu bar, toolbars, blank network
map window and the browser window will appear.
Menu Bar The Menu Bar located across the top of the EPANET workspace contains a col-
lection of menus used to control the program. These include:

File Menu

Figure 8.1 File menu options

Edit Menu

Figure 8.2 Edit menu options

 EPANET – Version 2 419

View Menu

Figure 8.3 View menu options

Project Menu

Figure 8.4 Project menu options

420 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Report Menu

Figure 8.5 Report menu options

Window Menu

Figure 8.6 Window menu options

Help Menu

Figure 8.7 Help menu options

 EPANET – Version 2 421

The Toolbars located below the Menu Bar provide shortcuts to commonly used oper- Toolbars
ations. The toolbars can be made visible or invisible by selecting View>>Toolbars.

There are two such toolbars:

Standard Toolbar: contains speed buttons for commonly used commands. Standard Toolbar

Opens a new project (File>>New)

Opens an existing project (File>>Open)
Saves the current project (File>>Save)
Prints the currently active window (File>>Print)
Copies selection to the clipboard or to a file (Edit>>Copy To)
Deletes the currently selected item
Finds a specific item on the map (View>>Find)
Runs a simulation (Project>>Run Analysis)
Runs a visual query on the map (View>>Query)
Creates a new graph view of results (Report>>Graph)
Creates a new table view of results (Report>>Table)
Modifies options for the currently active view (View>>Options or
Report>>Options)

Map Toolbar: contains buttons for working with the Network Map. Map Toolbar

Selects an object on the map (Edit>>Select>>Object)

Selects link vertex points (Edit>>Select Vertex)
Selects a region on the map (Edit>>Select Region)
Pans across the map (View>>Pan)
Zooms in on the map (View>>Zoom In)
Zooms out on the map (View>>Zoom Out)
Draws map at full extent (View>>Full Extent)
Adds a junction to the map
Adds a reservoir to the map (fixed surface level, unknown dimensions)
Adds a tank to the map (variable surface level, known dimensions)
Adds a pipe to the map
Adds a pump to the map
Adds a valve to the map
Adds a label to the map
 422 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Network Map The Network Map provides a planar schematic diagram of the objects comprising a
water distribution network. The location of objects and the distances between them
do not necessarily have to conform to their actual physical scale. New objects can
be directly added to the map and existing objects can be clicked on for editing,
deleting, and repositioning. A backdrop drawing (such as a street or topographic
map) can be placed behind the network map for reference. The map can be zoomed
to any scale and panned from one position to another. Nodes and links can be
drawn at different sizes, flow direction arrows added, and object symbols, ID labels
and numerical property values displayed. The map can be printed, copied onto the
Windows clipboard, or exported as a text file (extension MAP), drawing exchange
file (DXF) or enhanced metafile (EMF).
Data Browser The Data Browser is accessed from the Data tab on the Browser window. It
gives access to the various objects that exist in the network being analysed. The
buttons at the bottom are used to add, delete, and edit these objects.

Figure 8.8 Data browser

Map Browser The Map Browser is accessed from the Map tab of the Browser Window. It selects
the parameters and time period that are viewed in colour-coded fashion on the
Network Map. It also contains controls for animating the map through time.

Figure 8.9 Map browser

 EPANET – Version 2 423

The work begins by opening a network file, *.NET, by the menu option:
File>>Open from the Menu Bar or clicking the Standard Toolbar (If the
toolbar is not visible View>>Toolbars>>Standard should be selected from the
menu bar).
The selected file will be loaded into the computer memory. It is possible to
choose to open a file type saved previously as an EPANET project (typically with
a .NET extension) or exported as a text file (typically with a .INP extension).
EPANET recognizes file types by their content, not their names.
Calculation starts by running the menu option: Project>>Run Analysis or
clicking the Run button on the Standard Toolbar.
If the run was unsuccessful then a Status Report window will appear indicat- Status Report
ing what the problem was. In some situations, the calculation may be completed
regardless of the hydraulic boundary conditions. A warning message is displayed
in that case. The input data have to be carefully analysed. More information about
the calculation progress can be requested in repeated trials. The details about this,
together with the description of other programme features, are presented in the
full version of the programme manual.
If it ran successfully, the user can view the computed results in a variety of ways:

• Select Node Pressure from the Browser’s Map page and observe how pres-
sure values at the nodes become colour-coded. To view the legend for the
colour coding, the user can select View>>Legends>>Node (or right click
on an empty portion of the map and select Node Legend from the pop-up
menu). To change the legend intervals and colours, right click on the legend
makes the Legend Editor appear. Legend Editor

Figure 8.10 Legend editor

 424 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Property Editor • The user can bring up the Property Editor (double-click on any node or
link) and note how the computed results are displayed at the end of the
property list.

Figure 8.11 Property editor

• A tabular listing of results is created by selecting Report >>Table (or by

clicking the Table button on the Standard Toolbar ). It is possible to create
the report for all nodes or links for a specific time, or a report for a specific
node or link for a time series. In the columns, it is possible to have a report for
elevation, base demand, initial quality, demand, head, pressure and quality
in the case of a node; and length, diameter, roughness, bulk coefficient, wall
coefficient, flow, velocity, unit head loss, friction factor, reaction rate, quality
and status in the case of a link.

Figure 8.12 Snapshot report

 EPANET – Version 2 425

8.3 Input data

8.3.1 Data preparation

Prior to running EPANET, the following initial steps should be taken for the net-
work being studied:

1. All network components and their connections should be identified. Network

components consist of pipes, pumps, valves, storage tanks and reservoirs.
The term ‘node’ denotes a junction where network components connect to
one another. Tanks and reservoirs are also considered as nodes. The compo-
nent (pipe, pump or valve) connecting any two nodes is termed a ‘link’.
2. Unique ID numbers should be assigned to all nodes. ID numbers must be
between 1 and 2,147,483,647, but need not to be in any specific order nor be
consecutive.
3. An ID number should be assigned to each link (pipe, pump, or valve). It is
permissible to use the same ID number for both a node and a link.
4. The following information should be collected on the system parameters:
a. diameter, length, roughness and minor loss coefficient for each pipe,
b. the characteristic operating curve for each pump,
c. diameter, minor loss coefficient and pressure or flow setting for each
control valve,
d. diameter and minimum and maximum water depths for each tank
e. control rules that determine how pump, valve and pipe settings change
with time, tank water levels, or nodal pressures,
f. changes in water demands for each node over the time period being
simulated
g. initial water quality at all nodes and changes in water quality over time
at source nodes.
With this information at hand, it is now possible to construct an input file to use
with EPANET.

8.3.2 Selecting objects

To select an object on the map:

• The map must be in Selection mode (the mouse cursor has the shape of an Selection mode
arrow pointing up to the left). To switch to this mode, the user should either
click the Select Object button on the Map Toolbar or choose Edit>>Select
Object from the menu bar.
• The mouse has to be clicked over the desired object on the map.

To select an object using the Browser:

• The category of object has to be seleceted from the dropdown list of the Data
Browser.
• The desired object has to be selected from the list below the category heading.
426 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

8.3.3 Editing visual objects

The Property Editor is used to edit the properties of objects that can appear on the
Network Map (Junctions, Reservoirs, Tanks, Pipes, Pumps, Valves, or Labels). To
edit one of these objects, the user should select the object on the map or from the
Data Browser, then click the Edit button on the Data Browser (or simply double-
click the object on the map). The properties associated with each of these types of
objects are described in tables 8.1 to 8.7.

Table 8.1 Junction Properties

PROPERTY DESCRIPTION

Junction ID A unique label used to identify the junction. It can consist of a

combination of up to 15 numerals or characters. It cannot be the
same as the ID for any other node. This is a required property.
X-Coordinate The horizontal location of the junction on the map, measured in the
map’s distance units. If left blank the junction will not appear on the
network map.
Y-Coordinate The vertical location of the junction on the map, measured in the
map’s distance units. If left blank the junction will not appear on the
network map.
Description An optional text string that describes other signifcant information
about the junction.
Tag An optional text string (with no spaces) used to assign the junction
to a category, such as a pressure zone.
Elevation The elevation above some common reference of the junction. This is
a required property. Elevation is used only to compute pressure at
the junction. It does not affect any other computed quantity.
Base Demand The average or nominal demand for water by the main category of
consumer at the junction, as measured in the current fow units. A
negative value is used to indicate an external source of fow into the
junction. If left blank then demand is assumed to be zero.
Demand Pattern The ID label of the time pattern used to characterize time variation
in demand for the main category of consumer at the junction. The
pattern provides multipliers that are applied to the Base Demand
to determine actual demand in a given time period. If left blank
then the Default Time Pattern assigned in the Hydraulic Options
(Report>>Default) will be used.
Demand Number of different categories of water users defned for the
Categories junction. Click the ellipsis button (or press <Enter>) to bring up
a special Demands Editor which makes it possible to assign base
demands and time patterns to multiple categories of users at the
junction. Ignore if only a single demand category will suffce.
Emitter Discharge coeffcient for emitter (sprinkler or nozzle) placed at junction.
Coeffcient The coeffcient represents the fow (in current fow units) that occurs
at a unit pressure drop. It should be left blank if no emitter is present.
Initial Quality Water quality level at the junction at the start of the simulation
period. Can be left blank if no water quality analysis is being made or
if the level is zero.
Source Quality Quality of any water entering the network at this location. The user
should click the ellipsis button (or press <Enter>) to bring up the
Source Quality Editor.
 EPANET – Version 2 427

Table 8.2 Reservoir Properties

PROPERTY DESCRIPTION

Reservoir ID A unique label used to identify the reservoir. It can consist of a

combination of up to 15 numerals or characters. It cannot be the
same as the ID for any other node. This is a required property.
X-Coordinate The horizontal location of the reservoir on the map, measured in
the map’s distance units. If left blank the reservoir will not appear on
the network map.
Y-Coordinate The vertical location of the reservoir on the map, measured in the
map’s distance units. If left blank the reservoir will not appear on the
network map.
Description An optional text string that describes other signifcant information
about the reservoir.
Tag An optional text string (with no spaces) used to assign the reservoir
to a category, such as a pressure zone
Total Head The hydraulic head (elevation + pressure head) of water in the
reservoir. This is a required property.
Head Pattern The ID label of a time pattern used to model time variation in the
reservoir’s head. It should be left blank if none applies. This property
is useful if the reservoir represents a tie-in to another system whose
pressure varies with time.
Initial Quality Water quality level at the reservoir. Can be left blank if no water
quality analysis is being made or if the level is zero.
Source Quality Quality of any water entering the network at this location. Click the
ellipsis button (or press <Enter>) to bring up the Source Quality Editor.

Table 8.3 Tank Properties

PROPERTY DESCRIPTION

Tank ID A unique label used to identify the tank. It can consist of a

combination of up to 15 numerals or characters. It cannot be the
same as the ID for any other node. This is a required property.
X-Coordinate The horizontal location of the tank on the map, measured in the
map’s unit of scale. If left blank the tank will not appear on the map.
Y-Coordinate The vertical location of the tank on the map, measured in the map’s
unit of scale. If left blank the tank will not appear on the map.
Description Optional text string that describes other signifcant information
about the tank.
Tag Optional text string (with no spaces) used to assign the tank to a
category, such as a pressure zone
Elevation Elevation above a common reference level of the bottom shell of the
tank. This is a required property.
Initial Level Height of the water surface above the bottom elevation of the tank
at the start of the simulation. This is a required property.
Minimum Level Minimum height of the water surface above the bottom elevation
that will be maintained. The tank will not be allowed to drop below
this level. This is a required property.
(Continued)
428 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 8.3 (Continued)

PROPERTY DESCRIPTION

Maximum Level Maximum height of the water surface above the bottom elevation
that will be maintained. The tank will not be allowed to rise above
this level. This is a required property.
Diameter The diameter of the tank. For cylindrical tanks this is the actual
diameter. For square or rectangular tanks it can be an equivalent
diameter equal to 1.128 times the square root of the cross-sectional
area. For tanks whose geometry is described by a curve it can be set
to any value. This is a required property.
Minimum The volume of water in the tank when it is at its minimum level.
Volume This is an optional property, useful mainly for describing the bottom
geometry of non-cylindrical tanks where a full volume versus depth
curve will not be supplied.
Volume Curve The ID label of a curve used to describe the relation between tank
volume and water level. If no value is supplied then the tank is
assumed to be cylindrical.
Mixing Model The type of water quality mixing that occurs within the tank. The
choices include:
• MIXED (fully mixed),
• 2COMP (two compartment mixing),
• FIFO (frst-in-frst-out plug fow),
• LIFO (last-in-frst-out plug fow).
Mixing Fraction The fraction of the tank’s total volume that comprises the inlet-
outlet compartment of the two-compartment (2COMP) mixing
model. Can be left blank if another type of mixing model is
employed.
Reaction The bulk reaction coeffcient for chemical reactions in the tank.
Coeffcient Time units are 1/days. Use a positive value for growth reactions and
a negative value for decay. Leave blank if the Global Bulk reaction
coeffcient specifed in the project’s Reactions Options applies.
Initial Quality Water quality level in the tank at the start of the simulation. Can be
left blank if no water quality analysis is being made or if the level is
zero.
Source Quality Quality of any water entering the network at this location. Click the
ellipsis button (or press <Enter>) to bring up the Source Quality
Editor.

Table 8.4 Pipe Properties

PROPERTY DESCRIPTION

Pipe ID A unique label used to identify the pipe. It can consist of a combination
of up to 15 numerals or characters. It cannot be the same as the ID for
any other link. This is a required property.
Start Node The ID of the node where the pipe begins. This is a required property.
End Node The ID of the node where the pipe ends. This is a required property.
Description An optional text string that describes other signifcant information
about the pipe.
Tag An optional text string (with no spaces) used to assign the pipe to a
category, e.g. based on age or material
 EPANET – Version 2 429

Length The actual length of the pipe. This is a required property.

Diameter The pipe diameter. This is a required property.
Roughness The roughness coeffcient of the pipe. It has no units for Hazen-
Williams or Chezy-Manning roughness and has units of mm (or
millifeet) for Darcy-Weisbach roughness. This is a required property.
Loss Unitless minor loss coeffcient associated with bends, fttings, etc.
Coeffcient Assumed 0 if left blank.
Initial Status Determines whether the pipe is initially open, closed, or contains a
check valve. If a check valve is specifed then the fow direction in the
pipe will always be from the Start node to the End node.
Bulk The bulk reaction coeffcient for the pipe. Time units are 1/days. Use
Coeffcient a positive value for growth and a negative value for decay. It should
be left blank if the Global Bulk reaction coeffcient from the project’s
Reaction Options applies.
Wall The wall reaction coeffcient for the pipe. Time units are 1/days. A
Coeffcient positive value should be used for growth and a negative value for
decay. It should be left blank if the Global Wall reaction coeffcient
from the project’s Reactions Options applies.

Table 8.5 Pump Properties

PROPERTY DESCRIPTION

Pump ID A unique label used to identify the pump. It can consist of a

combination of up to 15 numerals or characters. It cannot be the same
as the ID for any other link. This is a required property.
Start Node The ID of the node on the suction side of the pump. This is a required
property.
End Node The ID of the node on the discharge side of the pump. This is a
required property.
Description An optional text string that describes other signifcant information
about the pump.
Tag An optional text string (with no spaces) used to assign the pump to a
category, e.g. based on age, size or location.
Pump Curve The ID label of the pump curve used to describe the relationship
between the head delivered by the pump and the fow through the
pump. It should be left blank if the pump is a constant energy pump.
Power The power supplied by the pump in horsepower (kW). Assumes that
the pump supplies the same amount of energy no matter what the
fow is. This information is used when pump curve information is not
available. It should be left blank if a pump curve is used instead.
Speed The relative speed setting of the pump (no units). For example, a
speed setting of 1.2 implies that the rotational speed of the pump is
20% higher than the normal setting.
Pattern The ID label of a time pattern used to control the pump’s operation.
The multipliers of the pattern are equivalent to speed settings. A
multiplier of zero implies that the pump will be shut off during the
corresponding time period. It should be left blank if not applicable.
Initial Status State of the pump (OPEN or CLOSED) at the start of the simulation
period.

(Continued)
430 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Table 8.5 (Continued)

PROPERTY DESCRIPTION

Effciency The ID label of the curve that represents the pump’s wire-to-water
Curve effciency (in percent) as a function of fow rate. This information is
used only to compute energy usage.
Energy Price The average or nominal price of energy in monetary units per kw-hr.
Used only for computing the cost of energy usage.
Price Pattern The ID label of the time pattern used to describe the variation in
energy price throughout the day. Each multiplier in the pattern is
applied to the pump’s energy price.

Table 8.6 Valve Properties

PROPERTY DESCRIPTION

ID Label A unique label used to identify the valve. It can consist of a

combination of up to 15 numerals or characters. It cannot be the same
as the ID for any other link. This is a required property.
Start Node The ID of the node on the nominal upstream or infow side of the
valve. (PRVs and PSVs maintain fow in only a single direction.) This is a
required property.
End Node The ID of the node on the nominal downstream or discharge side of
the valve. This is a required property.
Description An optional text string that describes other signifcant information
about the valve.
Tag An optional text string (with no spaces) used to assign the valve to a
category, e.g. based on type or location.
Diameter The valve diameter. This is a required property.
Type The valve type (PRV, PSV, PBV, FCV, TCV, or GPV). This is a required
property.
Setting A required parameter that describes the valve’s operational setting.
Valve Type - Setting Parameter:
PRV - Pressure (mwc or psi)
PSV - Pressure (mwc or psi)
PBV - Pressure (mwc or psi)
FCV - Flow (fow units)
TCV - Loss Coeffcient (no units)
GPV - ID of head loss curve
Loss Minor loss coeffcient that applies when the valve is completely opened
Coeffcient (no units). Assumed 0 if left blank.
Fixed Status Valve status at the start of the simulation. If set to OPEN or
CLOSED then the control setting of the valve is ignored and the
valve behaves as an open or closed link, respectively. If set to
NONE, then the valve will behave as intended. A valve’s fxed status
and its setting can be made to vary throughout a simulation by the
use of control statements. If a valve’s status was fxed to OPEN or
CLOSED, then it can be made active again using a control that assigns
a new numerical setting to it.
 EPANET – Version 2 431

Table 8.7 Map Label Properties

PROPERTY DESCRIPTION

Text The label’s text.

X-Coordinate The horizontal location of the upper left corner of the label on the
map, measured in the map’s unit of scale. This is a required property.
Y-Coordinate The vertical location of the upper left corner of the label on the map,
measured in the map’s scaling units. This is a required property.
Anchor Node ID of node that serves as the label’s anchor point. It should be left
blank if label is not anchored.
Meter Type Type of object being metered by the label. Choices are None, Node,
or Link.
Meter ID ID of the object (Node or Link) being metered.
Font Launches a Font dialogue that allows selection of the label’s font,
size, and style.

8.3.4 Editing non-visual objects

Curves, Time Patterns, and Controls have special editors that are used to define
their properties. To edit one of these objects, the user should select the object from
the Data Browser and then click the Edit button . In addition, the Property
Editor for Junctions contains an ellipsis button in the field for Demand Categories
that brings up a special Demand Editor when clicked. Each of these specialized
editors is described in the following paragraphs.
The Curve Editor is a dialogue form as shown below: Curve Editor

Figure 8.13 Curve editor

 432 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

The Curve Editor contains the following items:

Item Description

Curve ID ID label of the curve (maximum of 15 numerals or characters)

Description Optional description of what the curve represents
Curve Type Type of curve
X-Y Data X-Y data points for the curve

When moving between cells in the X-Y data table (or after pressing the <Enter>
key) the curve is redrawn in the preview window. For single- and three-point
pump curves, the equation generated for the curve will be displayed in the Equa-
tion box. The user can click the OK button to accept the curve or the Cancel
button to cancel the entries. It is also possible to click the Load button to load in
curve data that was previously saved to file or click the Save button to save the
current curve’s data to a file.
Pattern Editor The Pattern Editor, when displayed, edits the properties of a time pattern object.

Figure 8.14 Pattern editor

To use the Pattern Editor values for the following items should be entered:

Item Description

Pattern ID ID label of the pattern (maximum of 15 numerals or characters).

Description Optional description of what the pattern represents.
Multipliers Multiplier value for each time period of the pattern.

As multipliers are entered, the preview chart is redrawn to provide a visual depic-
Time Periods tion of the pattern. If the end of the available Time Periods is reached when enter-
ing multipliers, pressing <Enter> adds on another period. When finished editing,
clicking OK accepts the pattern whilst the Cancel button cancels the entries. It is
 EPANET – Version 2 433

also possible to click Load to load in pattern data that was previously saved to file
or click Save to save the current pattern’s data to a file.
The Controls Editor is a text editor window used to edit both simple and rule- Controls Editor
based controls. It has a standard text-editing menu that is activated by right click-
ing anywhere in the Editor. The menu contains commands for Undo, Cut, Copy,
Paste, Delete, and Select All.

Figure 8.15 Controls editor (simple)

The Demand Editor is used to assign base demands and time patterns when there Demand Editor
is more than one category of water user at a junction. The editor is invoked from
the Property Editor by clicking the ellipsis button (or pressing <Enter>) when
the Demand Categories field has the focus. The editor is a table containing three
columns. Each category of demand is entered as a new row in the table.

Figure 8.16 Demand editor

 434 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

The columns contain the following information:

Base Demand • Base Demand: baseline or average demand for the category (required)
• Time Pattern: ID label of time pattern used to allow demand to vary with time
(optional)
• Category: text label used to identify the demand category (optional)

The table is initially sized for 10 rows. Additional rows can be added by pressing
<Enter> in any cell in the last row. By convention, the demand placed in the first
row of the editor will be considered the main category for the junction and will
appear in the Base Demand field of the Property Editor.

8.3.5 Editing a group of objects

To edit a property for a group of objects:

• The region of the map that will contain the group of objects to be edited can
be selected as follows:
• Select Edit>>Select Region
• Draw a polygon fence line around the region of interest on the map by
clicking the left mouse button at each successive vertex of the polygon.
• Close the polygon by clicking the right button or by pressing the <Enter>
key; cancel the selection by pressing the <Escape> key.
• Select Edit>>Group Edit from the Menu Bar.
• Define what to edit in the Group Edit dialogue form that appears.

The Group Edit dialogue form is used to modify a property for a selected group of
objects. The steps to use the dialogue form are as follows:

• Select a category of object (Junctions or Pipes) to edit.

• Check the ‘with’ box if it is necessary to add a filter that will limit the objects
selected for editing. Select a property, relation and value that define the filter.
An example might be ‘with Diameter below 300 (mm)’.
• Select the type of change to make – ‘Replace’, ‘Multiply’, or ‘Add To’.
• Select the property to change.
• Enter the value that should replace, multiply, or be added to the existing value.
• Click OK to execute the group edit.

Figure 8.17 Editor for group of objects

 EPANET – Version 2 435

8.4 Viewing results

8.4.1 Viewing results on the map

There are several ways in which database values and results of a simulation can
be viewed directly on the Network Map:

• For the current settings on the Map Browser the nodes and links of the map will
be coloured according to the colour coding used in the Map Legends. The map’s
colouring will be updated as a new time period is selected in the Browser.
• ID labels and viewing parameter values can be displayed next to all nodes
and/or links by selecting the appropriate options on the Notation page of the
Map Options dialogue form.
• The display of results on the network map can be animated either forward
or backward in time by using the Animation buttons on the Map Browser.
Animation is only available when a node or link viewing parameter is
a computed value (e.g., link flow rate can be animated but diameter
cannot).
• The map can be printed, copied to the Windows clipboard, or saved as a Bit-
map, Metafile or Text file.
• Nodes or links meeting a specific criterion can be identified by submitting a
Map Query; the user should execute the following steps: Map Query

Figure 8.18 Map query editor

1 Select a time period in which to query the map from the Map Browser.
2 Select View>>Query or click on the Map Toolbar.
3 Fill in the following information in the Query dialogue form that appears.
4 Click the Submit button. The objects that meet the criterion will be high-
lighted on the map.
5 As a new time period is selected in the Browser, the query results are auto-
matically updated.
6 It is possible to submit another query using the dialogue box or close it by
clicking the button in the upper right corner.

8.4.2 Viewing results with a graph

Analysis results, as well as some design parameters, can be viewed using several
different types of graphs. Graphs can be printed, copied to the Windows clipboard,
436 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

or saved as a data file or Windows metafile. The following types of graphs can be
used to view values for a selected parameter:

Type of Plot Description Applies To

Time Series Plot Plots value versus time Specifc nodes or links over all
time periods
Profle Plot Plots value versus distance A list of nodes at a specifc time
Contour Plot Shows regions of the map where All nodes at a specifc time
values fall within specifc intervals
Frequency Plot Plots value versus fraction of All nodes or links at a specifc
objects at or below the value time
System Flow Plots total system production Water demand for all nodes
and consumption versus time over all time periods

The procedure to create a graph is as follows:

• Select Report>>Graph or click on the Standard Toolbar.

• Fill in the choices on the Graph Selection dialogue box that appears.
• Click OK to create the graph.

The Graph Selection dialogue is used to select a type of graph and its contents to
display. The choices available in the dialogue consist of the following:

Figure 8.19 Graph selection editor

 EPANET – Version 2 437

Item Description

Graph Type Selects a graph type

Parameter Selects a parameter to graph
Time Period Selects a time period to graph (does not apply to Time Series plots)
Object Type Selects either Nodes or Links (only Nodes can be graphed on
Profle and Contour plots)
Items to Graph Selects items to graph (applies only to Time Series and Profle plots)

Time Series plots and Profile plots require one or more objects be selected for
plotting. The procedure to select items into the Graph Selection dialogue for plot-
ting is as follows:

• Select the object (node or link) either on the Network Map or on the Data
Browser. (The Graph Selection dialogue will remain visible during this
process).
• Click the Add button on the Graph Selection dialogue to add the selected
item to the list.

Figure 8.20 Time series diagram

To customize the appearance of a graph, the following steps should be implemented:

• Make the graph the active window (click on its title bar).
• Select Report>>Options, or click on the Standard Toolbar, or right-
click on the graph.
• For a Time Series, Profile, Frequency or System Flow plot, use the resulting
Graph Options dialogue to customize the graph’s appearance.
• For a Contour plot use the resulting Contour Options dialogue to customize
the plot.
438 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

The Graph Options dialogue form is used to customize the appearance of an X-Y
graph. To use the dialogue box, the user can select from among the five tabbed
pages that cover the following categories of options:

• General
• Horizontal Axis
• Vertical Axis
• Legend
• Series

The Default box has to be checked if the current settings are also required as
defaults for all new graphs. Clicking OK accepts the selections.

Figure 8.21 Graph options editor

8.4.3 Viewing results with a table

EPANET allows selected project data and analysis results to be viewed in a tabu-
lar format:

• A Network Table lists properties and results for all nodes or links at a specific
period of time.
 EPANET – Version 2 439

• A Time Series Table lists properties and results for a specific node or link in
all time periods.

Tables can be printed, copied to the Windows clipboard, or saved to file. To create
a table, the user has to:

• Select View>>Table or click on the Standard Toolbar.

• Use the Table Options dialogue box that appears to select:
• the type of table
• the quantities to display in each column
• any filters to apply to the data

The Table Options dialogue form has three tabbed pages. All three pages are
available when a table is first created. After the table is created, only the Columns
and Filters tabs will appear. The options available on each page are as follows:

Figure 8.22 Table selection editor

Type Page
The Type page of the Table Options dialogue is used to select the type of table to
create. The choices are:

• All network nodes at a specific time period

• All network links at a specific time period
440 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

• All time periods for a specific node

• All time periods for a specific link

Data fields are available for selecting the time period or node/link to which the
table applies.

Columns Page
The Columns page of the Table Options dialogue form selects the parameters that
are displayed in the table’s columns. The procedure is as follows:

• Click the checkbox next to the name of each parameter to be included in

the table, or if the item is already selected, click in the box to deselect it.
(The keyboard’s Up and Down Arrow keys can be used to move between
the parameter names, and the spacebar can be used to select/deselect
choices).
• To sort a Network-type table with respect to the values of a particular
parameter, select the parameter from the list and check off the Sorted By
box at the bottom of the form. (The sorted parameter does not have to be
selected as one of the columns in the table.) Time Series tables cannot be
sorted.

Figure 8.23 Selection of the table columns

Filters Page
The Filters page of the Table Options dialogue form is used to define conditions
for selecting items to appear in a table. To filter the contents of a table, the con-
trols at the top of the page should be used to create a condition (e.g. Pressure
Below 20). The user can further:

• Click the Add button to add the condition to the list.

• Use the Delete button to remove a selected condition from the list.
 EPANET – Version 2 441

Figure 8.24 Filtering of the tabular results

Multiple conditions used to filter the table are connected by ANDs. If a table has
been filtered, a re-sizeable panel will appear at the bottom indicating how many
items have satisfied the filter conditions.
Once a table has been created it is possible to add/delete columns or sort or
filter its data. The user has to:

• Select Report>>Options or click on the Standard Toolbar or right-click

on the table.
• Use the Columns and Filters pages of the Table Selection dialogue form to
modify the table.

8.5 Copying to the Clipboard or to a File

EPANET can copy the text and graphics of the current window being viewed to
both the Windows clipboard and to a file. Views that can be copied in this fashion
include the Network Map, graphs, tables, and reports. To copy the current view to
the clipboard or to file, the steps are as follows:

• Select Edit>>Copy To from the main menu or click.

• Select choices from the Copy dialogue that appears.
• and click OK.
• If copy-to-file was selected, enter the name of the file in the Save As dialogue
box that appears and click OK.

Figure 8.25 Data copying dialogue

442 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

Use the Copy dialogue as follows to define how data is to be copied and to where:

• Select a destination for the material being copied (Clipboard or File).

• Select a format to copy in:
• Bitmap (graphics only)
• Metafile (graphics only)
• Data (text, selected cells in a table, or data used to construct a graph)
• Click OK to accept the selections or Cancel to cancel the copy request.

8.6 Error and warning messages

Error Number Description

101 An analysis was terminated due to insuffcient memory available.

110 An analysis was terminated because the network hydraulic equations
could not be solved. Check for portions of the network not having
any physical links back to a tank or reservoir or for unreasonable
values for network input data.
200 One or more errors were detected in the input data. The nature of
the error will be described by the 200-series error messages listed
below.
201 There is a syntax error in a line of the input fle created from the
network data. This is most likely to have occurred in .INP text
created by a user outside of EPANET.
202 An illegal numeric value was assigned to a property.
203 An object refers to undefned node.
204 An object refers to an undefned link.
205 An object refers to an undefned time pattern.
206 An object refers to an undefned curve.
207 An attempt is made to control a check valve. Once a pipe is assigned
a Check Valve status with the Property Editor, its status cannot be
changed by either simple or rule-based controls.
208 Reference was made to an undefned node. This could occur in a
control statement for example.
209 An illegal value was assigned to a node property.
210 Reference was made to an undefned link. This could occur in a
control statement for example.
211 An illegal value was assigned to a link property.
212 A source tracing analysis refers to an undefned trace node.
213 An analysis option has an illegal value (an example would be a negative
time step value).
214 There are too many characters in a line read from an input fle. The
lines in the .INP fle are limited to 255 characters.
215 Two or more nodes or links share the same ID label.
216 Energy data were supplied for an undefned pump.
217 Invalid energy data were supplied for a pump.
219 A valve is illegally connected to a reservoir or tank. A PRV, PSV or
FCV cannot be directly connected to a reservoir or tank. Use a
length of pipe to separate the two.
 EPANET – Version 2 443

220 A valve is illegally connected to another valve. PRVs cannot share

the same downstream node or be linked in series, PSVs cannot share
the same upstream node or be linked in series, and a PSV cannot be
directly connected to the downstream node of a PRV.
221 A rule-based control contains a misplaced clause.
223 There are not enough nodes in the network to analyse. A valid network
must contain at least one tank/reservoir and one junction node.
224 There is no tank or reservoir in the network.
225 Invalid lower/upper levels were specifed for a tank (e.g., the lower
lever is higher than the upper level).
226 No pump curve or power rating was supplied for a pump. A pump
must either be assigned a curve ID in its Pump Curve property or a
power rating in its Power property. If both properties are assigned
then the Pump Curve is used.
227 A pump has an invalid pump curve. A valid pump curve must have
decreasing head with increasing fow.
230 A curve has non-increasing X-values.
233 A node is not connected to any links.
302 The system cannot open the temporary input fle. Make sure that the
EPANET Temporary Folder selected has write privileges assigned to it.
303 The system cannot open the status report fle. See Error 302.
304 The system cannot open the binary output fle. See Error 302
308 Could not save results to fle. This can occur if the disk becomes full.
309 Could not write results to report fle. This can occur if the disk
becomes full.

Warning Message Suggested Action

Pump cannot deliver head. Use a pump with a larger shut-off head.
Pump cannot deliver fow. Use a pump with a larger fow capacity.
Flow control valve cannot Reduce the fow setting on the valve deliver fow.
or provide additionalhead
at the valve.

8.7 Troubleshooting results

Pumps Cannot Deliver Flow or Head

EPANET will issue a warning message when a pump is asked to operate outside
the range of its pump curve. If the pump is required to deliver more head than its
shut-off head, EPANET will close down the pump. This might lead to portions of
the network becoming disconnected i.e. without any source of supply.

Network is Disconnected
EPANET classifies a network as being disconnected if there is no way to provide
water to all nodes that have demands. This can occur if there is no path of open
links between a junction with demand and either a reservoir, a tank, or a junction
444 Introduction to Urban Water Distribution

with a negative demand. If the problem is caused by a closed link EPANET will
still compute a hydraulic solution (probably with extremely large negative pres-
sures) and attempt to identify the problem link in its Status Report. If no con-
necting link(s) exist, EPANET will be unable to solve the hydraulic equations for
flows and pressures and will return an Error 110 message where an analysis will
be made. Under an extended period simulation it is possible for nodes to become
disconnected as links change status over time.

Negative Pressures Exist

EPANET will issue a warning message when it encounters negative pressures at
junctions that have positive demands. This usually indicates that there is some
problem with the way the network has been designed or operated. Negative pres-
sures can occur when portions of the network can only receive water through links
that have been closed off. In such cases an additional warning message about the
network being disconnected is also issued.

System Unbalanced
A System Unbalanced condition can occur when EPANET cannot converge to a
hydraulic solution in some time period within its allowed maximum number of trials.
This situation can occur when valves, pumps, or pipelines keep switching their status
from one trial to the next as the search for a hydraulic solution proceeds. For example,
the pressure limits that control the status of a pump may be set too close together, or
the pump’s head curve might be too flat causing it to keep shutting on and off.
To eliminate the unbalanced condition it is possible to try to increase the allowed
maximum number of trials or loosen the convergence accuracy requirement. Both
of these parameters are set with the project’s Hydraulic Options. If the unbalanced
condition persists, then another hydraulic option, labelled ‘If Unbalanced’, offers
two ways to handle it. One is to terminate the entire analysis once the condition is
encountered. The other is to continue seeking a hydraulic solution for another 10
trials with the status of all links frozen to their current values. If convergence is
achieved then a warning message is issued about the system possibly being unsta-
ble. If convergence is not achieved then a ‘System Unbalanced’ warning message
will be issued. In either case, the analysis will proceed to the next time period.
If an analysis in a given time period ends with the system unbalanced, then the
user should recognize that the hydraulic results produced for this time period are
inaccurate. Depending on circumstances, such as errors in flows into or out of
storage tanks, this might affect the accuracy of results in all future periods as well.

Hydraulic Equations Unsolvable

Error 110 is issued if at some point in an analysis the set of equations that model
flow and energy balance in the network cannot be solved. This can occur when
some portion of a system demands water but has no links physically connecting it
to any source of water. In such a case EPANET will also issue warning messages
about nodes being disconnected. The equations might also be unsolvable if unre-
alistic numbers were used for certain network properties.
Appendix 9

Unit conversion table

IMPERIAL (UK) and US ⇒ METRIC* METRIC ⇒ IMPERIAL (UK) and US

LENGTH: LENGTH:
1 mile = 1.6093 kilometre (km) 1 km = 0.6214 mile
1 yard (yd) = 0.9144 metre (m) 1 m = 1.0936 yd
1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 m 1 m = 3.2808 ft
1 inch (in) = 0.0254 m 1 centimetre (cm) = 0.3937 in
AREA: AREA:
1 square (sq) mile = 2.5898 km2 1 km2 = 0.386 mile2
1 sq yard (yd2) = 0.8361 m2 1 m2 = 1.196 yd2
1 sq foot (ft 2) = 0.0929 m2 1 m2 = 10.764 ft 2
1 acre = 4047 m2 = 0.4047 hectare (ha) 1 ha = 2.471 acre
VOLUME: VOLUME:
1 cubic foot (ft3)= 28.32 litre (l) 1 m3 = 35.3 ft3
1 gallon (Imp.) = 4.546 l 1 m3 = 220 Imperial gallon (gal)
1 gallon (US) = 3.785 l 1 m3 = 264.2 US gal
WEIGHT/MASS: WEIGHT/MASS:
1 pound (lb) = 0.4536 kilogram (kg) 1 kg = 2.205 lb
1 ounce (oz) = 28.35 gram (g) 1 kg = 35.27 oz
FLOW: FLOW:
1 cubic foot per second (ft3 /s) = 28.32 litres per second (l/s) 1 l/s = 0.0353 ft3 /s
1 Imperial mega-gallon per day (mgd (Imp.)) = 52.62 (l/s) 1 l/s = 0.019 mgd (Imp.)
1 US mega-gallon per day (mgd (US)) = 43.81 l/s 1 l/s = 0.0228 mgd (US)
1 Imperial gallon per minute (gpm (Imp.)) = 0.0758 l/s 1 l/s = 13.2 gpm (Imp.)
1 US gallon per minute (gpm (US)) = 0.0631 l/s 1 l/s = 15.85 gpm (US)
PRESSURE: PRESSURE:
1 pound per square inch (psi) = 6895 Pa (0.06895 bar) 1 bar = 14.5 lb/in2 (psi)
1 psi = 0.6765 metres of water column (mwc) 1 mwc = 1.478 psi
POWER: POWER:
1 horse power (hp) = 0.7457 kilo-Watt (kW) 1 kW = 1.341 hp
* Some of the units in the table are not metric but are listed because they are in common use.

TEMPERATURE SCALE READINGS:

9 5
TF = TC + 32 ; TC = (TF −32)
5 9
The subscripts stand for F (Fahrenheit) and C (Celsius).