Received: 20 May 2023 Revised: 22 July 2023 Accepted: 27 July 2023

DOI: 10.1002/pc.27633

REVIEW ARTICLE

Recent progress in thermal and acoustic properties

of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites:
Preparation, characterization, and data analysis

Barshan Dev 1 | Md. Ashikur Rahman 1 | Md. Reazuddin Repon 2,3 |

Mohammed M. Rahman 4 | Aminoddin Haji 5 | Yasir Nawab 6
1
Department of Textile Engineering, BGMEA University of Fashion & Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
2
Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Nature Research Centre, Vilnius, Lithuania
3
Department of Production Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Design, Kaunas University of Technology, Kaunas, Lithuania
4
Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR) & Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University,
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
5
Department of Textile Engineering, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
6
National Center for Composite Materials, School of Engineering and Technology, National Textile University, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Correspondence
Barshan Dev, Department of Textile Abstract
Engineering, BGMEA University of Natural fiber reinforced polymer composites (NFRPCs) have emerged as prom-
Fashion & Technology, Dhaka,
ising eco-friendly alternatives over conventional synthetic fiber composites due
Bangladesh.
Email: [email protected] to their inherent biodegradability, renewability, low environmental impact,
Md. Reazuddin Repon, Laboratory of and lightweight properties. It has been seen a significant growth in both inven-
Plant Physiology, Nature Research Centre, tion and innovation in the field of NFRPCs. Natural fibers (NFs) reduce the
Akademijosg. 2, Vilnius 08412, Lithuania.
cost of the material by 5%, the weight of the composite by 10%, and the energy
Email: [email protected]
required for production by 80%. In terms of thermal, and acoustic properties,
NFs can successfully compete with synthetic fibers. As a result, the develop-
ment of NFRPCs for industrial use has increased significantly in the past
decade to meet the growing demands of industrial sectors. To improve the ther-
mal and acoustic properties of NFRPCs, researchers have done a lot of investi-
gation. The aim of the current review is to provide a comprehensive analysis of
the existing literature on the thermal and acoustic properties of natural fiber
reinforced polymer composites. Thermal properties such as thermal conductiv-
ity, TGA, DSC, DMA, and acoustic properties of natural fiber reinforced com-
posites with several parameters, such as different fiber types, different matrix
types, fiber weight ratio, fiber to matrix ratio, chemical treatment of fiber have
been summarized and analyzed very concisely. This review also emphasizes a
summary of different natural fibers, their chemical compositions, composite
preparation, characterizations, and future research directions. This article
enables the readers, researchers, and manufacturers to realize several opportu-
nities about the latest developments in NFRPCs for the application of thermal
and acoustic purposes.

Polymer Composites. 2023;44:7235–7297. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pc © 2023 Society of Plastics Engineers. 7235

 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7236 DEV ET AL.

Highlights
• Natural fibers can successfully compete with synthetic fibers, in terms of
thermal and acoustic properties.
• Thermal properties of natural fiber reinforced composites including thermal
conductivity, TGA, DSC, and DMA are summarized.
• Acoustic properties of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites are
discussed.
• Composite materials made of treated fibers result better thermal stability
than untreated fiber composites.
• Sound absorption coefficient generally increases as fiber content increases.

KEYWORDS
acoustic property, composite manufacturing, natural fiber, natural fiber reinforced polymer
composites, thermal property

1 | INTRODUCTION composite materials by 10% and the energy needed for

production by 80%, whereas the manufacturing cost of
Natural fibers are increasingly being used as potential material 5% less than an equivalent amount of fiber glass
reinforcements in polymer matrixes rather than synthetic or other synthetic reinforced substance (e.g., carbon, Kev-
fibers due to their advantageous specific characteristics. lar, aramid etc.).26,34,35 Researchers have found that some
They are low in cost, low in density, abundant in supply, composite materials made from natural fibers (i.e., jute,
environmentally friendly, nontoxic, highly flexible, renew- banana, bamboo, sugarcane bagasse, cotton, sisal, flax,
able, and biodegradable.1–10 Due to their benefits of kenaf, hemp, oil palm empty fruit bunch etc.) have better
becoming sustainable and experiencing a market attrac- mechanical, thermal, acoustic, and electrical properties. As
tion in the composite manufacturing sectors, several natu- a consequence, these types of natural fiber are attractive to
ral fibers, including jute, flax, hemp, kenaf, wood, bagasse, researchers and scientists for use in composite materials.5,36
coir, sisal, bagasse, and banana, are implemented as sub- To improve the thermal and acoustic properties, matrices
stitute materials for reinforced composites.11–17 Although play an important role with fibers in composite
synthetic fibers have superior mechanical qualities to nat- manufacturing. The majority of the strength of composite
ural fiber, synthetic fiber reinforced composite materials materials is provided by the fibers, while the matrix keeps
have the significant drawback of being an environmentally them in position and in the proper shape, transfers
harmful and non-biodegradable material.18,19 Synthetic strength between them, and shields them from damage.37
fiber reinforced composites are expensive, imprecise, diffi- Researchers have been investigated the thermal and acous-
cult to manufacture, dangerous to the environment, and tic properties of composite materials employing natural
health.1,20,21 The production of synthetic fiber is estimated fibers with several polymer matrices. The polymer matrices
to require more than 10 times energy compared to the pro- can be thermoplastic (e.g., polypropylene, polyvinyl chlo-
duction of natural fiber, with a substantial dependence on ride, polyethylene, polystyrene, polyether–ether ketone
fossil fuels. As a result, the production of synthetic fiber etc.), thermoset (e.g., polyester, urea formaldehyde, epoxy,
results in significantly higher environmental pollution phenolic, vinyl ester etc.), or bio-based (e.g., polylactic acid,
(e.g., CO2 emissions) than the production of natural polyhydroxy alkanoate, polybutylene succinate, starch
fiber.22–26 Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites etc.).38–42 The thermal properties of natural fiber compos-
(NFRPCs) are distinctive materials for a variety of applica- ites are crucial for their widespread utilization in different
tions, such as airframe, marine, automobile, splitter wall, sectors. The cutting-edge applications of NFRPCs require
sports equipment, packaging, structural, construction, and proper exploration of their thermal properties including
trains.27–33 Lightweight and strong natural fibers are fabri- thermal conductivity, TGA, DSC, and DMA, because both
cated with polymer matrices, in order to make high natural fibers and polymeric materials are sensitive to ther-
strength and rigid composite materials. The lightweight mal effects. It is crucial to investigate and analysis their
properties of natural fibers show excellent potential to thermal impact in order to develop composite materials
reduce energy usage.29 Natural fibers reduce the weight of that are resistant to thermal expansion and to enhance the
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7237

properties of composite materials for high-temperature properties of natural fiber reinforced composites with sev-
applications.43 Thermal characteristics are also essential for eral parameters, such as different fiber types, different
comprehending the behavior of raw materials and finished matrix types, fiber weight ratio, fiber to matrix ratio, chem-
products.44 Natural fibers contain different constituents ical treatment of fiber have been summarized and ana-
that degrade at various temperatures. The main character- lyzed very concisely. This review also emphasizes a
istics of the composite deteriorate as a result of the summary of different natural fibers, their chemical compo-
degradation of these constituents, such as cellulose, hemi- sitions, composite preparation, characterizations, and
cellulose, and lignin.19 About 200
C, the lignin in natural future research directions. This article enables the readers,
fibers begins to break down. At higher temperatures, other researchers, and manufacturers to realize several opportu-
components, like cellulosic structures, begin to break nities about the latest developments in NFRPCs for the
down.45–47 Approximately 160
C, the stability of the natu- application of thermal and acoustic purposes. In this
ral fibers starts to fail.48 Researchers have used different review paper, Section 2 represents the information about
natural fibers as reinforcing material to improve the ther- different NFs, Section 3 tabulates the chemical composi-
mal properties of natural fiber reinforced composite mate- tion and characteristics of NFs, Section 4 discusses about
rials. For the development of thermal properties, hybrid different polymer matrix, Section 5 emphasizes the
composites are widely manufactured.49,50 manufacturing methods of composites. In Section 6, the
NFRPCs are also used as acoustic materials. In urban thermal properties of various NFRPCs including thermal
areas, sound pollution is a major problem. It leads to seri- conductivity, TGA, DSC, and DMA are represented. More-
ous health problems like heart disease and hearing prob- over, the thermal properties of NFs and polymer matrices
lems. Therefore, it is extremely important today to as well as the different techniques used to determine ther-
develop materials that have a better sound absorption mal properties are also described in this section. Section 7
capacity. Sound absorption occurs when sound waves summarizes the acoustic properties of various NFs and
collide with any object, which is porous. Some sound NFRPCs, Section 8 shows the application of NFRPCs for
comes back from the object, while other waves or energy thermal and acoustic purposes, and finally Section 9 repre-
is absorbed by the object.51 Natural fibers (i.e., jute, sents the future outlook and conclusions.
banana, hemp, coir, and bagasse) are preferred over syn-
thetic materials, such as carbon and glass because they
have viscoelastic characteristics, which make them easier 2 | NATURAL FIBERS
to handle and have better acoustic insulation qualities.52
Natural fibers with superior sound absorption qualities Natural fibers are renewable resources that can be found
than synthetic fibers including coir, kenaf, and hemp are in nature. Natural fibers are classified into three
used to produce acoustic materials.53 Acoustical materials categories: cellulose-based, protein-based, and mineral-
are used in several applications, including industrial noise based.61–63 Plant-based fibers have become the most popu-
control, room acoustics, automotive acoustics, and room lar among these fibers and have a significant market value.
acoustics.51 Natural fibers composites made from jute, They are used for a variety of purposes.64–67 They are com-
bamboo, banana,54 kapok,55 softwood,56 hardwood,57 sug- posed of cellulose molecules that have been twisted coaxi-
arcane, rice husk,58 milkweed,59 wheat straw and maize ally within a matrix of lignin and other materials, and
husk60 have excellent acoustic characteristics and are possess a lignocellulosic constitution.68 Plant-based fibers
widely used in various applications such as sound boards, include seeds (cotton, kapok), bast fibers (jute, hemp, flax,
vehicles, acoustic, and thermal panels. ramie, kenaf, roselle), leaves (pineapple, banana, sisal,
Thermal and acoustic properties of natural fiber rein- abaca), fruit (oil palm, betel nut, coir, palmyra palm),
forced polymer composites depend on the types of fiber grasses/reed (bamboo, sugarcane bagasse), straws (rice
used as reinforcement, polymer material, bonding between husk, wheat, corn), and wood fibers, including softwood
fiber-matrix, wt% of fiber, fiber to matrix ratio, chemical and hardwood.37,69–76 Figure 1 shows the classification of
treatment of fiber, as well as thickness and manufacturing natural fibers.
method of composites. Some publications summarize the
thermal and acoustic properties of NFRPCs, but those are
very limited and proper discussion as well as concise data 2.1 | Bast fibers
are not available. The purpose of the current review is to
provide a comprehensive analysis of the existing literature Bast fibers are extracted from the plant's stem. They are
on the thermal and acoustic properties of natural fiber extracts from the xylem vessels or internal bark of various
reinforced polymer composites. Thermal properties such plants. They consist mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose,
as thermal conductivity, TGA, DSC, DMA and acoustic and different ratios of lignin.85–87
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7238 DEV ET AL.

FIGURE 1 Classification of natural fibers.26,77–84

Jute (Corchorus olitorius) is a bast fiber that is thermoplastic polymeric materials are equal to those of
obtained from the stem of the jute plant. The natural and thermoplastic composites with glass fiber.68,102–107 Many
biodegradable fiber that comes in second is jute. One of products, including door and acoustic panels, cardboard
the most widely cultivated natural fibers in the subtropi- box package boxes, seats for cars, and concrete buildings,
cal area is jute, which is one of the most inexpensive are made with flax fibers.108
fiber. Jute fibers are also widely available, affordable, Kenaf fiber (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) is obtained from
non-toxic, lightweight, and environmentally friendly. the shell of the kenaf plant. Kenaf fibers are eco-friendly
Bangladesh, India, and China have the best conditions because they are completely biodegradable.82 Due to their
for the growth of jute. Jute fiber is a good option when low density, processed kenaf fiber does not really abrade.
durability, thermal conductivity, and cost are important They are utilized as reinforcements to create composites
factors. It has a larger aspect ratio, a stronger weight- out of thermoplastics and thermosets because they offer
to-strength ratio, and better insulating capabilities. The moderate to good mechanical characteristics.85,109–111 It
use of jute composites can replace wood. Jute fibers are has numerous uses in the automotive, household equip-
often utilized in flooring carpet, household, and indus- ment, sports, and packaging industries.112,113
trial textile materials.88–94
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a bast fiber that is col-
lected from the stem of the plant. Europe and Asia are 2.2 | Seed/fruit fibers
the predominant hemp-growing regions.89,95 The high
strength and water durability of this fiber makes it very Seed and fruit fibers are extracted from either the plant's
popular. Hemp fibers are made up of microfibrils that are fruit or seeds. These fibers have an attractive combina-
arranged in different hierarchical structures and incorpo- tion of cellulose and lignin. They have a high potential
rated into such a matrix of lignin and hemicellulose.96 for use as reinforcement material for advanced composite
They have a variety of applications, such as a bio adsor- material applications due to their well-known reliability
bent for wastewater treatment, a precursor of carbon and thermal insulation qualities.114
composites, a reinforcement component for lightweight The most widely used natural textile fiber is cotton
materials, and for the production of clothing.97–99 (Gossypium herbaceum). Cotton, a naturally growing cel-
Flax fiber (Linum usitatissimum) fiber is a bast fiber, lulosic fiber, is obtained from the seed of the cotton
extracted from the stem of a flax plant. Flax is generally plant.115 The majority of people around the world use
cultivated in temperate countries such as Belarus, China, cotton to create clothing and a variety of other common
France, and, USA.89,100,101 Flax fibers require less energy things. Cotton fiber reinforced composites, which can
to produce, offer superior mechanical performance due make up to 80% of overall of the fiber by weight, have
to the high cellulose content, are easy to extract, biode- been widely used as thermal and acoustic insulator.77,116
gradable, and renewable. The mechanical properties of Coconut/coir (Cocos Nucifera) fiber is made from the
the bio composites consisting of prepared flax fiber and husk of the coconut plant's fruit, which is generally found
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7239

in tropical and subtropical climates. Coir is widely avail- Banana fiber, a type of leaf fiber that is highly water
able, renewable, biodegradable, and economically viable absorbent, is a byproduct of banana production. It is a
lignocellulosic fiber. Because of its resembled biocompati- cellulosic fiber known as lignocellulosic, taken from the
ble structure, coir fiber exhibits superior mechanical prop- pseudo stem of the banana plant. In tropical regions,
erties compared to its weight. The maximum tensile banana plants are widely available.142–144 Banana fiber is
strength among the most prevalent natural fibers is shown used instead of some synthetic fibers because it offers
by the coir fiber, which has a high microfibrillar angle unique strength features (strong compatibility and inter-
(30–45
). Coir fibers are frequently used as reinforcement action with the polymer matrix) that are similar to those
material to manufacture composite material due to their of conventional materials such as glass fiber.145
excellent mechanical and wear properties.117–122 Sisal fiber (Agava sisalana) is a cellulosic, hard fiber
Kapok fiber (Ceiba pentandra) fiber is a seed fiber that is derived from the leaf of the sisal plant. Sisal fibers
that is obtained from the fruits of kapok. Kapok fiber is are widely used because they grow quickly.91 Sisal fiber
very thin and has a low density. Due to their unique has many benefits, including abundant ability, strong
qualities, the materials derived from the kapok fibers tenacity, low-density, salt-water resistance, acid and alkali
have opened the doors for a wide variety of new and resistance, and resistance to abrasion as well. Sisal fibers
advance applications.123–126 have a moderately higher specific stiffness and strength
Oil palm fibers (Elaeis guineensis) are extracted than other natural fibers. It is mainly used for straps, mats,
from the fruits of the oil palm. These fibers have several carpeting and concrete reinforcement.138,146–148
benefits, including low cost, light weight, biodegradability,
low density, and high strength. The production of oil
palm, which grows in tropical and subtropical climates 2.4 | Grass/reed fibers
(i.e., West Africa, Malaysia, Indonesia and Latin America),
and it is crucial toward the economies of these regions. Oil Grass is another incredible resource of lignocellulose
palm fiber shows good mechanical characteristics due to fiber that can be obtained from a number of variety of
their moderate to substantial percentage of cellulose.127–130 grasses. They are beneficial because they are inexpensive,
Betel nut (Areca catechu) fibers are obtained from the require little preparation during harvest, and are easy to
betel nut fruit's husk. The production of betel nuts has process. Mechanical decoration or retting is used
expanded significantly in regions with tropical cli- to derive fibers from grasses.
mates.6,131–133 Each betel nut fruit yields about 2.5–2.75 g Bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper) is one of the fast-
of fiber. This makes up between 60% and 80% of the total growing plants with a high yield that can be harvested
weight of the betel nut. The fibrous portion of the fruit is year after year.92,149–151 There are over 1200 species in
made up of two separate types of fiber namely finer fiber it, grouped into 50 genera. Bamboo fibers provide a
and coarser fiber.131–134 more opulent appearance and are soft, flexible, robust,
breathable, have a better aspect ratio, antibacterial,
and biodegradable. Due to its unique qualities,
2.3 | Leaf fibers bamboo fiber is becoming a very popular material for
reinforcement.152–157
Plant leaves are the source of the multicellular lignocellu- Bagasse is the leftover material after sugarcane is
lose fibers known as leaf fibers. These particular fibers crushed to get the juice. Bagasse fibers are obtained from
are made from plant leaves (i.e., pineapple, sisal, abaca). sugarcane stalks. It is a natural and renewable agricul-
Long, linear leaves with a smooth surface are best for tural crop.77,158 Due to this frequent waste, the use of
fiber extraction.114 fiber as a filler in composite materials are being heavily
Pineapple leaf fibers (Ananus cosomus) (PALF) are investigated as a potential solution. Brazil is the world's
extracted from the leaves of the pineapple plant and greatest producer of sugarcane, they are producing
are the by-product of pineapple production. Most of the 743,000,000 metric tons of sugarcane every year.77,159–161
time, PALF is produced for its fruits in tropical regions.
Pineapples are the third-most produced tropical fruit after
bananas and mangos. Pineapples are available in a wide 3 | C HE M I C A L C O M P O SI T I O N OF
variety depending on their colors, shapes, and flavors. Due NATURAL FIBERS
to its high cellulose content with lower lignin, hemicellu-
lose content, and low microfibril angle, PALF exhibits The three main components of natural fiber are cellulose,
strong mechanical qualities and has specific strength and hemicellulose, and lignin, along with a few auxiliary ele-
modulus comparable to those of glass fiber.135–141 ments like extractives (i.e., pectin, wax, ash).162–165 The
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7240 DEV ET AL.

cellulose, which is extremely crystalline and contains glu- 4.1.1 | Thermoplastic matrix
cose molecules linked together in linear chains, and the
hemicellulose is a polysaccharide, serve as a binding Polymeric materials that are easy to shape in a viscous
matrix connecting micro cellulose fibrils and make the state and solidify through cooling are the basis for
primary structural element of the fiber cell, respectively. thermoplastic matrices. The majority of thermoplastic
It is generally known that the chemical composition of matrices are high-molecular weight substances. The
natural fibers varies greatly as a result of the variety intermolecular interactions that exist between the
of their sources and types.166,167 The morphological, polymer molecules in thermoplastics hold them
molecular, and mechanical characteristics of the various together.191,192 Compared to thermoset matrices, ther-
cellulosic fibers vary on the level of cellulose content. moplastic matrices are more resistant to impact, more
The fiber typically consists of 60% to 80% cellulose, 5% to reformable, more prone to damage and can withstand
10% lignin, and 20% moisture.29,168,169 Table 1 shows the high computation pressures and temperatures.185
chemical composition and characteristics of different nat- There are several types of thermoplastic matrices,
ural fibers. namely: polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), polyvi-
nyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), polycarbonate
(PC), polyether–ether ketone (PEEK), acrylonitrile-
4 | POLYMER M ATRIX butadiene-styrene (ABS). Among them, thermoplastic
matrices made of polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene
Natural fiber reinforced polymer composites (NFRPCs) (PE), both polyolefins, are frequently used.191,193–195
consists of a variety of organic polymers with medium
to long or linear chains as well as a number of different
reinforcing materials to enhance several features like 4.1.2 | Thermoset matrix
tensile properties, flexural strength, and rigidity.184
In order to keep the reinforcing materials together by Thermoset matrices are substances that are insoluble,
surface linkage in composite materials, polymer infusible, and curable by temperature or a crosslinker.
matrices play a crucial role in NFRPCs.185 Generally, They cannot be softened and reformed through heat-
the fibers make up the majority of the strength carriers, ing.201,202 In addition, they exhibit low tensile properties
whereas the matrix keeps them fixed in position and and are brittle at ambient temperature. Thermoset matri-
in the desired configuration, serves as a connector ces offer greater chemical stability, higher yield strength,
for the transmission of strength between them, and higher durability to thermal variability, and stronger
shields them from damage.39,40,110,186,187 Due to the creep resistance than thermoplastic matrices.29,203 The
scarcity of fossil energy and the negative environmen- curing temperature for the thermoset matrix is typically
tal effects of applying petroleum-based matrices in lower than the temperature required to manufacture
composite materials, many investigations have been thermoplastics. By using these, the problem of the natu-
conducted in recent years in an effort to find an ral fiber's decomposition rate at high temperatures can be
alternative.26,188 Figure 2 represents the classification prevented. The production of high rigidity composite
of polymer matrices used in natural fiber reinforced materials has long relied on thermoset matrices.204 Poly-
composites. ester, epoxy, phenolic, vinyl ester, polyamide are com-
monly used thermoset resins.191

4.1 | Petroleum-based matrices

4.2 | Bio-based matrix
Petroleum, which is made from oil and natural gas,
such as coal, is the source of a petroleum-based matrix The term “bio-based matrices” refers to polymeric mate-
and is a synthetic product.185 Thermoplastic and ther- rials that are either entirely or partially made from
moset polymers are the two primary categories of renewable resources. Plants can be used to make bio-
petroleum-based matrices utilized for natural fiber based matrices, or plant-based sugars as well as oils can
composites. Utilizing these polymers as matrices would be used to do the polymerizing. Bio-based matrices not
be much more economically feasible and credible for only contribute to lowering carbon emissions by repla-
the present phase due to the predominant ingestion of cing fossil carbon, but also have additional benefits like
petroleum-based polymers.29,185,190 Table 2 summa- degradability, nontoxicity, sequestration of greenhouse
rizes the properties of some thermoplastic and thermo- gases and a decreased impact on global warming of the
set matrices. environment. Polylactic acid, polyhydroxy alkanoate,
 DEV ET AL.

TABLE 1 Chemical composition and characteristics of natural fibers.

Chemical constituents (%)

Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Pectin Wax Density Moisture Crystallinity of Microfibril

Fiber (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (g/cm3) (wt%) cellulose (%) angle (
) References
51,170,171
Cotton 82.7 5.7 5.7 – 0.6 1.6 7.85–8.5 82.7–91 20–30
172,173
Jute 45–71.5 13.6–21 12–26 – – 1.3–1.5 50–80 12.5–13.7 7–9
174
Flax 60–81 14–20.6 2–3 1.8–5 1.7 1.5 50–90 8–12 5–11
170,175
Hemp 70–74 17.9–22.4 3.7–5.7 0.9 0.8 1.47 50–90 6.2–12 2–6
34,176
Sisal 65.8 12 9.9 0.8 0.3 1.45–1.5 66–78 11 10–25
90,177
Banana 63–64 19 5 3–5 – 1.35 45–55 10.71 10–25
77
Pineapple 66.2 19 4.2 – – 0.8–1.6 44–60 11.8 8–14
161,178
Sugarcane Bagasse 46 24.5 19.95 3.5 – – – – –
175,179
Kenaf 45–57 21.5 8–13 3–5 – 1.5–1.6 – 6.2–12 10–15
77,180
Ramie 68–76 13–15 0.6–1 1.9 0.3 1.4–1.6 – 12.17 7.5–8
152,154
Bamboo 73.8 12.5 10.1 0.4 - 0.5–1.1 40–60 9.16 8–11
117,181
Coir 32–43 0.15–0.25 40–45 3–4 – 1.2 27–33 11.3 30–49
117
Palmyra palm 58.58 22.8 13.48 – – – – – –
181
Snake Grass 65–75 11.5 5.84 8 – – – – –
182,183
Oil Palm 49.6 18 29 – – – – – –
7241

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 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7242 DEV ET AL.

polybutylene succinate, starch, and cellulose are some composite materials to the required dimension with no
types of bio-based matrices.191,192,205,206 faults is highly dependent on the choice of an appropri-
ate manufacturing technique. The form, dimensions,
and desired properties of the composite materials, as
5 | MANUFACTURING well as the cost of manufacturing technique, the rate of
TECHNIQUES OF C OMPOSITES production, and the characteristics of the raw
resources, all play an important role in the selection of
Natural fiber reinforced composites can be made using the composite manufacturing method207,208 The most
several techniques. The making of natural fiber rein- widely used manufacturing methods for natural fiber
forced composites can generally be done using the reinforced composites are: hand lay-up, compression
same methods as the attempt to make glass fiber com- molding, extrusion molding, injection molding, spray
posites.207 The progression of the performance of layup, resin transfer molding.37,189 Table 3 demon-
strates the manufacturing techniques of composites.
Figure 3 illustrates different manufacturing methods of
composites.

6 | THERMAL P ROPERTIES

Analysis of thermal properties is a procedure employed

to evaluate how a material would change chemically,
physically, and structurally as a result of change in tem-
perature. In general, the majority of chemical reactions,
physical qualities, and structural changes are influ-
enced by temperature.225 Thermal properties such as
thermal degradability, thermal conductivity, and fire
resistance capacity need to be considered for proper uti-
lization of NFRPCs. Thermal stability of NFRPCs is a
significant technological challenge to the broad imple-
mentation of these materials in several engineering sec-
tors.69,162,226–228 As, the majority of natural fibers
degrade when temperature rises, it is a significant issue
for the efficient use of NFRPCs. Fiber deterioration is
the result of physical and chemical changes when tem-
perature rises between 100 and 300
C.228,229 Besides
good thermal stability, the NFRPCs should have good
F I G U R E 2 Classification of polymer matrices; adapted thermal insulating properties for its cutting-edge
from.26,37,38,189 applications.230,231

TABLE 2 Properties of some thermoplastic and thermoset matrices.

Density Melting Tensile Tensile

Matrix type Matrix name (g/cm3) Temperature (
C) Strength (MPa) Modulus (MPa) References
191,196
Thermoplastic Polyvinyl chloride 1.25–1.45 212 50–80 3000
191,197
Polypropylene 0.90–0.91 175 20–45 1000–1500
191
Polystyrene 1.02–1.06 240 35–60 2500–3500
191
Polyethylene 0.90–0.95 115 25–45 250–500
Thermoset Epoxy 1.1–1.5 – 28–100 3000–6000 191,198

191,199
Unsaturated polyester 1.0–1.5 255 40–90 2000–4500
Vinyl Ester 1.2–1.4 – 60–90 3000–4000 191,200

Phenolic 1.25–1.30 – 35–62 3000–5000 39,191

 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7243

TABLE 3 Manufacturing techniques of composites.

Manufacturing
Methods Description of manufacturing method References
Hand Lay-up • The most popular, easiest, and least expensive method for producing composite materials is hand 209–212

lay-up. This procedure entails manually placing fabric layers, or laminations, in the casting,
followed by the implementation of resin to create a laminate pile.
• By spilling and rolling or scraping resin on the fibers, it is implemented. Layers are added one on
top of the other to achieve the perfect thickness for the lay-up. Mold processing, gel adhesive, lay-
up, and curing are the four basic steps that make up the hand lay-up manufacturing system.
• Because of the time-consuming nature of this process and the limited amount of fiber stacking
possible, the laminate performance, resin mixing, and ply resin content heavily depend on the
skill of operator.
Compression • A composite manufacturing method called as compression molding is utilized for making 37,210,213–215

Molding composite parts in large quantities, such as automobile, aircraft, and marine parts. Hot and cold
compression molds are the two distinct types of compression molding process.
• The molded chamber is initially filled with materials that have been heated up in this method.
The mold's central part after which applies large amount of pressure to the chamber, compressing
and deforming the parts. The compression force must be kept in place till the composite
reinforces before the mold can be opened and the composite removed.
• The quantity of material, the heating period, the pressure placed on the mold, and the cooling
period are crucial factors that are taken into account with this method.
Injection • The production of complex components with high dimensional consistency at an affordable price 208,216–220

Molding and a short processing time is made possible by the injection molding method.
• Granules of fiber composites are applied via a hopper during a traditional injection molding, and
after that, a hot screw transports the granules through the method. The required quantity of
material is first started to melt in a chamber, after which the hot screw injects the substance in
via a nozzle into the mold cavity, in which it cools and takes on the required shape. This method
is widely utilized for the processing of plastics and short fibers or components.
Spray Lay-up • The spray lay-up method is equivalent to the hand lay-up. In this method, a manual spray gun is 212,221

applied to spray sliced fibers and matrix onto a mold. The matrix is fused with these fibers at the
same time by using a roller. Sliced fibers offer excellent consistency and are much quicker than
hand lay-up method in this spray lay-up method.
Vacuum Bag • A vacuum bag is used in the vacuum bagging method to provide densification pressure and 222,223

consolidate the sheets inside the laminate during the manufacture of composite materials.
• In order to make sure that fibers are infused into the resin, laminate is first produced utilizing
hand lay-up method and afterwards positioned between the sealed bag and the mold. The
composite sheets are then provided with a variety of tools and materials, including breather,
vapor, and discharge film components.
Extrusion • One of the widely used methods for producing composite materials is extrusion molding, it allows 224

Molding for the manufacturing of composite materials with a high degree of stiffness and strength.
• First, a container is filled with sheets or granules of the thermoplastic material. They are then
passed through a heated barrel where they are melted, and after that, the molten materials are
cooled.

6.1 | Thermal properties of natural substances and inorganic ash.209 These lignocellulosic
fibers fibers undergo chemical and physical transformations
when heat is applied between 100 and 250
C, as a result
The thermal properties of a fiber can be analyzed as the of activities such as depolymerization, combustion,
maximum temperature at which the fiber can withstand hydrolysis, hydration, thermal decomposition, and
degradation.232,233 Natural plant fibers are mostly com- recrystallization.45–48,162,227,228,234 Figure 4 represents the
posed of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, and thermal degradation process of natural fiber at several
wax, along with trace amounts of naturally occurring stages with temperature.
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7244 DEV ET AL.

F I G U R E 3 Image of some composite manufacturing techniques, (A) hand layup, (B) spray layup, (C) filament winding,
(D) compression molding, (E) extrusion compound, (F) injection molding, (G) pultrusion, (H) RTM, and (I) vacuum infusion or vacuum
assisted resin transfer.189

The degradation of natural fibers' distinct primary

components (especially cellulose, hemicellulose, and lig-
nin) can be used to analyze their thermal properties. The
reaction kinematics of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin
is little different.162 Hemicellulose has the most reactive
properties compared to cellulose and lignin. At compara-
tively lower temperatures, between 240 and 350
C, the
cellulose's long polymeric chain starts to break down and
may produce more char because of the catalytic action of
inorganic ions. Hemicellulose, a polysaccharide with a
lower degree of polymerization, undergoes thermal
decomposition before cellulose. Between 200 and 260
C,
hemicelluloses degrade, generating inflammable gases
F I G U R E 4 Thermal degradation process of natural fiber at (i.e., CO2 Þ. In comparison to hemicellulose and cellulose
several stages with temperature. Reprinted with permission from decomposition, the thermal degradation of lignin takes
Reference [235], Copyright © (2018) Elsevier. place over a wider range, starts earlier, and goes to higher
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7245

temperatures. Lignin degrades at 280–500
C.236–243 cellulose content, while greater char production is caused
Table 4 shows the thermal degradation of natural fibers by higher lignin concentration. High crystalline structure
at different stages with temperatures. and low polymerization in the fiber microstructure con-
The thermal degradation varies from fiber to fiber. tribute to higher thermal properties of natural
More flammability is caused by the fiber that has higher fiber.209,249,250 Table 5 depicts the thermal degradation
properties of different natural fibers.

T A B L E 4 Different stages of thermal degradation of natural

fibers.122,244–248 6.2 | Thermal properties of polymer
1st stage 2nd stage 3rd stage matrices
Moisture Hemicellulose Decomposition of
evaporation in degradation: cellulose and lignin Polymer consists long chain molecules that are randomly
the fibers: 50– Between 200 causes weight loss: amorphous or highly organized crystalline structures.256
100
C and 260
C 400–500
C Thermoplastic and thermoset polymers are the most widely
Hemicellulose Relates to the α The lignin peak is used polymeric matrix for composites.257 Thermoplastic
and cellulose cellulose larger and seems to polymers are chemically stable and after being heated, they
glycoside degradation: be overlapped on can be reshaped without decomposing, and once cooled,
linkages 350–370
C the other sharp they harden into their solid shape. Several cycles of heating
thermally peaks: 280–500
C
and cooling can be undertaken, thereby extending the
decompose:
product's shelf life.258,259 Contrarily, thermoset polymers
300
C
have a three-dimensional, cross-linked molecular structure,
Hemicellulose Relates to the Decomposition of
which prevents them from forming when heated. There
like lower thermal lignin: 420–500
C
molecular decomposition
are several stages involved in the thermal degradation
weight of cellulose: of polymers, including heating, degradation, ignition, and
substances is 300–400
C burning.260,261 The polymer matrix degrades about
characteristic: 300–500
C, generating heat and volatile compounds.
Between 260 Degradation of polymers produces combustible gases,
and 300
C non-combustible gases, liquids, char, and trapped solid
Hemicelluloses' Celluloses' Lignin pyrolysis: particles during their decomposition.226,262,263 Table 6
pyrolysis: 220– pyrolysis: 160–900
C represents the glass transition temperature and the
320
C 320–400
C melting temperature of some common polymer matrices.

TABLE 5 Thermal degradation characteristics of natural fibers obtained from.47,251–255

Fiber name T on (
C) T max (
C) T f (
C) Major weight loss (%) Residue (%)

Cotton 221.6 293.4 318.9 70 at shift temperature 17.1 at 800
C
Jute 205.1 283.1 298.2 58.5 at shift temperature 25.2 at 800
C
Hemp 205.1 282.3 308.2 58.2 at shift temperature 24.6 at 800
C
Kenaf 216 355 500 66.50 at 2nd stage 2.14 at 700
C
Sisal 234 297 – 72 at peak stage 19.7 at 520
C
Banana 144.2 296.2 500.9 – 34.4 at 700
C
Coir 200 358 – – 15.9 at 700
C
Bagasse 222.3 299.3 313.9 68 at shift temperature 20.4 at 800
C
PALF 128.7 319,8 – – 28.9 at 700
C
Bamboo 214.1 285.9 321 68.5 at shift temperature 20.5 at 800
C
Palm 197 357 – – –
Rice husk 223.3 297.4 322 50.1 at shift temperature 37 at 800
C
Wood 234.6 311.5 328 72.7 at shift temperature 14.9 at 800
C

Note: Ton – onset degradation temperature, T max – maximum degradation temperature, T f – final degradation temperature.
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7246 DEV ET AL.

6.3 | Different techniques applied to 6.3.1 | Thermal conductivity

determine thermal properties
Thermal conductivity is mainly used to analysis the
There are several techniques applied to determine the thermal insulating properties of a material. The capac-
thermal properties of a material. The thermal insulating ity of a material to transfer heat is known as thermal
properties of a material can be determined using the ther- conductivity. In broad sense, the amount of heat
mal conductivity of the material. However, to determine transmission through a substance at unit length in a
the thermal stability and thermal degradation of perpendicular direction to the surface of a unit cross-
NFRPCs, the following techniques are widely used. They sectional area as a consequence of temperature
are: Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), Differential variation is referred to as thermal conductivity.270,271
Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), and Dynamic Mechanical Crystalline materials have the highest thermal conduc-
Analysis (DMA). Figure 5 demonstrates the different tivity. Additional variables that appear to be crucial for
techniques used to measure the thermal properties of thermal conductivity includes toughness, molecular
NFRPCs. density of the material, and interatomic connections.272
The relationship of thermal conductivity and heat con-
duction of a material can be represented using Fourier's
T A B L E 6 Glass transition and melting temperature of different equation:
polymer matrices obtained from.151,264–269
ΔT
Glass Melting Q ¼ kA ð1Þ
Name of polymer transition, temperature,
L
matrix T g (
C) T m (
C)
In this equation, Q represents the rate of heat conduction
Epoxy 60 No melting
(W), k represents the thermal conductivity (W/m. k), A
Polyester 80–90 255
represents the cross-sectional area for the heat transfer
Polypropylene 20 165 (m2 ), ΔT represents the difference of temperature (K),
Phenolic 300 No melting and L represents the conduction path's length (m).
Polyethylene 120 110–130
Polyvinyl chloride 80 100–160
Polylactic acid 65 162
6.3.2 | Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
PEEK 146–157 382–395
Thermogravimetric analysis is a common method for the
Polycarbonate 147 NA
analysis of the thermal characteristics of composite mate-
Polystyrene 95 240 rials. The most popular method for kinetic evaluation of
Note: NA–Not Available. the thermal degradation process is called TGA, and it

F I G U R E 5 Different
techniques used to measure the
thermal properties of
composites.
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7247

offers the opportunity to measure the mass loss of a sam-

ple with temperature and time. The degradation of com-
posite materials at various stages can be determined
using TGA. TGA provides information on weight loss
and thermal degradation at each stage, which is helpful
to comprehend the nature and mechanism of thermal
deterioration of the composite materials.235,255,273–275 In
order to analysis the TGA of a material, TGA curves are
used. According to the standard TGA curve, the thermal
degradability of composite material demonstrates that,
when a sample is heated, the weight falls gradually, then
quickly over a limited range, and ultimately returns to
zero gradient once the oxidant is depleted. The pyrolysis's
F I G U R E 6 General curve of DSC analysis. Reprinted with
activation energies, such as the reaction rate, frequency
permission from Reference [283] Copyright © (2019) Elsevier.
factor, and kinetic energy, evaluate the TGA curve's
shape, and the values are influenced by the environment,
the density and structure of the specimen, the rate of Rheology measurements are a common term used by
flow, the temperature range, and the mathematical anal- thermal analyzers to describe DMA evaluations on liq-
ysis method used to analyze the data.250,276–278 uids.266 The DMA method facilitates the investigation of
polymer relaxation, which enables an understanding of
the properties of composite materials under different
6.3.3 | Differential scanning calorimetry parameters including temperature, time, frequency, and
stress.285 DMA is performed by applying a small cyclic
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) is a method strain to a specimen and determining the resultant stress
for determining the amount of energy or heat absorbed response, or by applying a cyclic stress to a specimen and
or emitted when an object is heated or cooled at a spe- determining the following strain response. By using the
cific rate. It is a quantitative evaluation of the heat DMA method, the glass transition temperature, stress
energy absorption, which typically takes place in a modulus, loss modulus, and damping factor can be deter-
material with a controlled temperature change.279 The mined. Storage modulus is represented by E0 , and this is
polymer and pharmaceutical industries, where the DSC a measurement of the material's elasticity or solid-like
method is most frequently used, but organic and inor- characteristics.286 Loss modulus is represented by E00 , and
ganic chemistry have indeed greatly prospered from its this is a measurement of the material's viscosity or liquid
establishment. DSC analysis
can  be determined by like characteristics. The greater the ratio of E0 to E00 , the
glass transition temperature T g , melting temperature greater amount of energy necessary to deform the mate-
ðT m Þ, crystallization temperature (T c Þ, the degree of crys- rial can be recovered elastically. On the other hand, the
tallinity (X c Þ, liquid crystal transitions, heat capacity, greater E00 is relative to E0 , the greater proportion of
enthalpy variation (ΔH m Þ, as well as kinetic evaluation deformation energy is viscously lost as heat. The ratio
of chemical reactions. A graph with temperature and rate of the loss modulus to the storage modulus (E00 / E0 ) is
of heat flux on its axes represents the findings of any called damping factor or loss tangent, that is represented
DSC investigation. The exothermic responses in the sam- by tan δ.287–290
ple under test are depicted with either a positive or nega-
tive peak based on the method employed in the
experiment.280–284 Figure 6 illustrates the general curve 6.4 | Thermal properties analysis
of DSC analysis. of NFRPCs

The thermal properties of natural fiber reinforced poly-

6.3.4 | Dynamic mechanical analysis mer composite are influenced by the fabrication
method, type of polymer used, how the fibers are
Thermal analyzers are usually tasked with measuring the attached to the matrix, the fiber matrix ratio, and the
mechanical characteristics of polymers for a variety of type of fiber used for reinforcement.282,291 Thermal con-
applications. The most widely used method for determin- ductivity, TGA, DSC, and DMA of different natural fiber
ing the viscoelastic properties of polymers is DMA, which reinforced polymer composites have been represented in
may be applied to both polymeric solids and liquids. this section with proper discussion.
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7248 DEV ET AL.

6.4.1 | Thermal conductivity and TGA fiber/matrix ratios were 10/90, 15/85, and 20/80 (Table 7,
analysis of NFRPCs C-1). Among them, they observed the higher value of
thermal conductivity at 10% volume fraction of cotton
Among different techniques, TGA represents one of the fiber with 90% epoxy resin (Table 9, C-1). They proposed
most comprehensive thermal assessments and is fre- that, the value of thermal conductivity decreases with
quently used to describe the thermal stability of NFRPCs increasing fiber volume fraction, because the conductiv-
by evaluating the composition and structural dependence ity of the matrix (epoxy resin) is higher than that of the
of the degrading behavior of the materials under thermal cotton fiber. Furthermore, the porosity or volume of air
stress.292 This approach looks at the thermal exploitation gap of a material also has an effect on the thermal con-
of NFRPCs as temperature rises and computes the quan- ductivity of that material. The amount of air trapped
titative degradations.162,276 TGA evaluates the amount of inside the microstructure of fibers is significantly higher
weight change, as well as weight growth or reduction than that of the matrix, which results in a drop in ther-
of NFRPCs at different stages with temperature.293 More- mal conductivity as fiber loading is increased.51 The
over, the thermal conductivity of NFRPCs plays a crucial researchers also investigated the TGA of the composites
role along with TGA analysis for their proper applica- using 15% fiber volume fraction of cotton fiber. Based
tions in different sectors. Thermal conductivity is mainly on the findings, they revealed that, at temperatures
used to analyze the thermal insulating properties of between 115 and 270
C, there is no noticeable weight
NFRPCs. It defines the capacity of NFRPCs to transfer loss in the specimens. At 270–300
C, when the matrix
heat.270,271 Table 7 shows the summary of composites degrades, a substantial weight loss is noticed and the
prepared for thermal properties analysis. cellulose of cotton fiber starts to decompose at approxi-
Different types of composite manufacturing tech- mately 270
C.310
niques are employed with the necessary mold size for the
production of composites (Table 8). Depending on Sisal-cotton fiber reinforced hybrid composite
the length of the curing process, the methods used to Alsina et al.294 studied the thermal properties of the sisal-
make composites can be categorized as either opened cotton fiber reinforced hybrid composite with polyester
molding or closed molding. During the curing or harden- resin. In this study, they used the parallel and perpendic-
ing phase in enclosed molding, the matrix and reinfor- ular directions of the sisal-cotton fiber hybrid composites
cing elements are exposed to the environment.189 Spray- for the determination of thermal properties and obtained
up, filament winding, and hand lay-up are a few exam- less thermal conductivity in the perpendicular direction
ples of open molding techniques.211,304,305 The process of compared to parallel direction (Table 9, C-2). The reason
“closed molding,” which requires specialized equipment, can be described by the long fibers present in parallel
is frequently used in large manufacturing facilities that direction. In parallel direction, the temperature distribu-
produce copious amounts of composites. Examples of tion of the sample exhibits significant anisotropic, with
closed molding processes include extrusion compound- the result that heat moves more efficiently in the lami-
ing, injection molding, compression molding, resin trans- nated planes than across perpendicular direction. Hence,
fer molding, and hydraulic press molding.51,306–309 a large number of long fibers offer a unique continuous
Table 8 depicts the fabrication and the testing method of channel for the transmission of phonons that is damp-
composites for thermal conductivity and TGA analysis. ened in the parallel direction.294
There are 19 composites have been selected to review
the thermal conductivity and TGA of NFRPCs. Thermal Ramie-cotton fiber reinforced hybrid composite
conductivity and TGA varies with the volume fraction of The thermal properties of ramie-cotton fiber hybrid com-
fiber and the fiber to matrix ratio. Therefore, properties posites with polyester resin was examined by Alsina
with different fiber-matrix, different fiber volume frac- et al.294 (Table 7, C-3). They used the parallel and perpen-
tions, and with different fiber-matrix ratios have been dicular directions of the ramie-cotton fiber hybrid com-
collected. Now, the detailed study of each composite is posites and found less thermal conductivity in the
given below with the proper data. Table 9 summarizes perpendicular direction than in the parallel direction
the thermal conductivity and thermogravimetric analysis (Table 9, C-3). The reason can be described by the long
of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites. fibers present in parallel direction. The researchers also
examined the thermal properties of sisal-cotton and jute-
Cotton fiber reinforced composite cotton fiber hybrid reinforced composites. Among them,
Hassan et al.51 used 10%, 15%, and 20% volume fractions the acquired value of thermal conductivity for the sisal
of waste cotton fly as reinforcement with green epoxy fiber composites are comparable to those of the matrix
resin for the investigation of thermal properties. The material, and they assessed the characteristics are nearly
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7249

TABLE 7 Summary of composites prepared for thermal properties analysis.

Natural fiber Fiber weight ratio Fiber/matrix ratio

Composite (%) or Total fiber (%) or fiber/matrix
no. Fiber-1 Fiber-2 Matrix content (%) volume fraction References
C-1 Cotton Ply – Green epoxy 10 10/90 51

resin 15 15/85
20 20/80
C-2 Sisal Cotton Polyester resin – – 294

C-3 Ramie Cotton Polyester resin – – 294

C-4 Jute Cotton Polyester resin – – 294

C-5 Jute Banana Epoxy resin 100/0 – 49

75/25
50/50
25/75
0/100
C-6 Jute Aloe Vera Epoxy resin – – 295

182
C-7 Oil Palm Empty Jute Epoxy resin EFB 40/60
Fruit Bunch (EFB) EFB: Jute-4:1
EFB: Jute-1:1
EFB: Jute-1:4
Jute
C-8 Hemp – Polypropylene 5 5/95 296

Resin 15 15/85
25 25/75
C-9 Sugarcane – Green epoxy 10 10/90 51

resin 15 15/85
20 20/80
C-10 Sugarcane Bagasse – Polypropylene 20 20/80 297

Resin
298
C-11 Bagasse Bamboo Polyurethane 100/0 35/65
Charcoal Resin 70/30
50/50
30/70
0/100
299
C-12 Oil Palm Empty Sugarcane Phenolic 50/0 50/50
Fruit Bunch Bagasse Formaldehyde 35/15
(OPEFB) Resin 25/25
15/35
0/50
C-13 Coconut – Green Epoxy 10 10/90 51

Resin 15 15/85
20 20/80
C-14 Coir – Poly (Lactic 10 10/90 300

Acid) Resin 20 20/80

30 30/70
40 40/60
50 50/50
120
C-15 Coir Pineapple Polylactic Acid 30/0 30/70
Leaf Resin 0/30
Fiber 15/15
21/9
9/21
(Continues)
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7250 DEV ET AL.

TABLE 7 (Continued)

Natural fiber Fiber weight ratio Fiber/matrix ratio

Composite (%) or Total fiber (%) or fiber/matrix
no. Fiber-1 Fiber-2 Matrix content (%) volume fraction References
C-16 Pineapple Leaf Fiber – Phenol 15 – 301

Formaldehyde 20
Resin 30
40
50
302
C-17 Pineapple Leaf Kenaf Phenolic 70/30 50/50
Formaldehyde 50/50
Resin 30/70
C-18 Kenaf – Polyurethane 20 20/80 303

Resin 30 30/70
40 40/60
50 50/50
C-19 Betel Nut – Unsaturated – – 6

Polyester
Resin

Note: Here, C-Composite.

identical regardless of the direction of the heat flux. Due degradation changes at high temperature. As a result, this
to the slight disparity between the thermal characteristics hybrid composite represents greater thermal stability.49
of the fiber and matrix, composites manufactured with
sisal fibers may exhibit more thermal isotropy and less Jute- aloe vera fiber reinforced hybrid composite
thermal deformation than those reinforced with jute or Chandramohan et al.295 performed the thermal proper-
ramie fiber.294 ties of jute-aloe vera fiber reinforced hybrid composites
using jute and aloe vera fiber as reinforcement and epoxy
Jute-cotton fiber reinforced hybrid composite resin as matrix (Table 7, C-6). From this investigation,
Alsina et al.294 investigated the thermal properties of they got good thermal conductivity of jute-aloe vera
jute-cotton fiber hybrid composites with polyester resin. hybrid composites (Table 9, C-6).
The parallel and perpendicular directions of the hybrid
jute-cotton composites employed and less thermal con- Oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) –jute fiber hybrid
ductivity observed in the perpendicular direction com- composite
pared to the parallel direction It is obvious that, in the In order to study the thermal properties (TGA), Jawaid
parallel direction, the temperature distribution of et al.182 applied 40% fiber weight of jute and EFB fibers
the sample is significantly anisotropic, resulting in more with epoxy resin (Table 7, C-7). They mixed jute fibers with
heat conduction in the laminated planes than in the per- different amounts of oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB).
pendicular direction.294 The volume ratios are: 100% EFB, EFB: Jute-4:1, EFB: Jute-
1:1, EFB: Jute-1:4, and 100% Jute. The fiber/matrix ratio
Jute-banana fiber reinforced hybrid composite was 40/60 (Table 9, C-7). Among them, the researchers
Boopalan et al.49 explored the thermal properties of jute- observed that, EFB: Jute-1: 4 and 100% jute fiber composite
banana fiber reinforced hybrid composites with epoxy shows comparatively better thermal degradation property
resin at 100/0, 75/25, 50/50, 25/75, and 0/100 weight (Table 9, C-7). The researchers proposed that, in compari-
ratios of jute/banana fiber (Table 7, C-5). Based on the son to EFB composite (260
C), the first decomposition tem-
exploration, they revealed that, the 50/50 weight ratio of perature of hybrid composites is in the range 263–286
C.
jute/banana fiber displays a better thermal degradation Because of the hybridization with jute fibers, the final
property than others ratios (Table 9, C-5). They added decomposition temperature of EFB composites climbs from
that, at 200
C the initial degradation of the composite 433 to 463
C, as can be seen in Figure 7A. They also added
starts and is associated with the evaporation of the sol- that, the thermal stability of jute-oil palm fiber hybrid com-
vent from the polymer matrix. They also added that, at posites significantly improves when jute fiber loading
380
C, epoxy resin and fibers (jute, banana) degrade sig- increases, this is because jute fiber has better thermal sta-
nificantly, which resulted in significant weight loss. The bility than oil palm fiber.182
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7251

TABLE 8 Fabrication method, size of mold, testing method, and sample size of NFRPCs.

Composite Fabrication Testing method or

no. method Mold size testing instrument Sample size References
C-1 Hydraulic Press 20 cm  20 cm  3mm C-Thermal – 51

Method conductivity
analyzer (TCi)
C-2 Compression Molding – Thermolink 6 mm  50 mm 294

Method Equipment
C-3 Compression Molding – Thermolink 6 mm  50 mm 294

Method Equipment
C-4 Compression Molding – Thermolink 6 mm  50 mm 294

Method Equipment
49
C-5 Hand Lay-up Method 210 mm 210 mm 40 mm ASTM D 648 (51/21/4) inch
C-6 Roller Pressing 300 mm 300 mm ASTM E-1530 – 295

Method
C-7 Hand Lay-up Method 304 mm 203 mm Perkin Elmer – 182

Thermal
gravimetric
Analyzer (TGA-6)
C-8 Injection Molding – Thermogravimetric – 296

Method Analyzer Q500

C-9 Hydraulic Press 20 cm  20 cm  3mm C-Thermal thermal – 51

Method conductivity
analyzer (TCi)
C-10 Injection Molding – ASTM D 648 (HDT- (51/21/4) inch 297

Method VICAT Tester)

C-11 Compression Molding (250 mm  25 mm  6 mm ASTM D 6343 – 298

Method
C-12 Hand Lay-up Method (300 mm  300 mm  10 mm ASTM D5334 100mm  100mm  10mm 299

(Quicklime
TM-30)
C-13 Hydraulic Press 20 cm  20 cm  3 mm C-Thermal thermal – 51

Method conductivity
analyzer (TCi)
C-14 Injection Molding – Thermogravimetric – 300

Method Analyzer DTG-60

(Shimadzu Corp.,
Japan)
C-15 Hydraulic Press 15 mm  15 mm  3 mm ASTM E-03 (2003) – 120

Method (TGA Q 500 TA

Instrument, USA)
C-16 Hand Lay-up Method – – 1.9 cm  1.9 cm  0.3 cm 301

C-17 Hydraulic Press 15 mm  15 mm  3 mm Thermo-gravimetric 15 mm  15 mm  3 mm 302

Method Analyzer (TGA Q

500 TA
Instrument, USA)
C-18 Compression Molding – Mettler Toledo – 303

Method TGA/SDTA851e
Analyzer
C-19 Cold Press Molding – – – 6

Method

Note: C–Composite.
 7252

TABLE 9 Thermal properties of NFRPCs (thermal conductivity and TGA).

Thermal Properties

Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)

Fiber Weight Ratio Fiber/matrix ratio Thermal Initial Degradation Major weight Final Degradation
Composite (%) or Total fiber (%) or fiber/matrix Conductivity W/m. k with Temp. (
C) & loss (%) with Temp. (
C) &
no. content (%) volume fraction or W/m.
C Weight Loss (%) &Temp. (
C) Weight Loss (%) References
51
C-1 10 10/90 0.421 W/m.k – –
15 15/85 0.386 W/m.k
20 20/80 0.373 W/m.k
294
C-2 – – 0.25 W/m.
C (Parallel) – – –
0.213 W/m.
C
(Perpendicular)
294
C-3 – – 0.22 W/m.
C (Parallel – – –
0.19 W/m.
C (Perpendicular
294
C-4 – – 0.273 W/m.
C (Parallel) – – –
0.19 W/m.
C (Perpendicular)
49
C-5 100/0 – – 190
C (79.01%- 650
C
75/25 200
C 376.51
C) 800
C
50/50 200
C (82.14%- –
25/75 200
C 377.72
C) 660
C
0/100 190
C (75.64%-380
C) 710
C
(79.01%-
376.57
C)
(74.43%-
377.72
C)
295
C-6 – – 0.206 W/m.k – – –
182
C-7 EFB 40/60 – 260
C - 433
C
EFB: Jute-4:1 263
C 440
C
EFB: Jute-1:1 283
C 459
C
EFB: Jute-1:4 286
C 463
C
Jute 288
C 499
C
296
C-8 5 5/95 – – 294
C
15 15/85 364
C
25 25/75 376
C
51
C-9 10 10/90 0.414 W/m. k – – –
15 15/85 0.378 W/m. k
20 20/80 0.342 W/m. k
DEV ET AL.

15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
 TABLE 9 (Continued)

Thermal Properties
DEV ET AL.

Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)

Fiber Weight Ratio Fiber/matrix ratio Thermal Initial Degradation Major weight Final Degradation
Composite (%) or Total fiber (%) or fiber/matrix Conductivity W/m. k with Temp. (
C) & loss (%) with Temp. (
C) &
no. content (%) volume fraction or W/m.
C Weight Loss (%) &Temp. (
C) Weight Loss (%) References

297
C-10 20 20/80 – 20%-340 C –
96%-440
C
298
C-11 100/0 35/65 0.130 W/m. k – – –
70/30 0.124 W/m. k
50/50 0.12 W/m. k
30/70 0.084 W/m. k
0/100 0.133 W/m. k
299
C-12 50/0 50/50 0.0938 W/m. k 271.50
C 34.77% 410.40
C
35/15 0.0891 W/m. k 260.78
C 35.50% 419.71
C
25/25 0.0863 W/m. k 272.84
C 34.29% 417.63
C
15/35 0.0874 W/m. k 284.44
C 42.25% 418.3
C
0/50 0.0920 W/m. k 309.40
C 43.56% 420.65
C
51
C-13 10 10/90 0.373 W/m. k – – –
15 15/85 0.312 W/m. k
20 20/80 0.303 W/m. k
300
C-14 10 10/90 – – Untreated –
20 20/80 (At 500
C)-
30 30/70 94.5%
40 40/60 93.5%
50 50/50 89.3%
87.6%
84.2%
Alkali-treated
(At 500
C)
93.7%
91.8%
88.9%
86.1%
84.0%
120
C-15 30/0 30/70 – – 252.73
C –
0/30 287.23
C
15/15 290.07
C
21/9 288.64
C
9/21 284.59
C
7253

(Continues)

15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
 TABLE 9 (Continued)
7254

Thermal Properties

Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)

Fiber Weight Ratio Fiber/matrix ratio Thermal Initial Degradation Major weight Final Degradation
Composite (%) or Total fiber (%) or fiber/matrix Conductivity W/m. k with Temp. (
C) & loss (%) with Temp. (
C) &
no. content (%) volume fraction or W/m.
C Weight Loss (%) &Temp. (
C) Weight Loss (%) References
301
C-16 15 – 0.291 W/m. k – – –
20 0.285 W/m. k
30 0.277 W/m. k
40 0.265 W/m. k
50 0.254 W/m. k
302
C-17 70/30 50/50 – Untreated – Untreated
50/50 (279.50
C-36.72%) (394.58
C-20.84%)
30/70 (278.57
C-34.23%) (397.66
C-23.82%)
(280.70
C-35.59%) (401.36
C-22.95%)
Treated Treated
(305.78
C-40.97%), (401,60
C-24.24%),
(303.24
C-45.12%), (410.65
C-21.64),
(302.28
C-38.51%) (400.81
C-22.86%)
303
C-18 20 20/80 – – 79.8% –
30 30/70 79.8%
40 40/60 80%
50 50/50 80%
6
C-19 – – – Untreated – (230–380)
C
<10% At <110
C
Treated
<10% At <120–230
C

Note: C–Composite.
DEV ET AL.

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 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7255

F I G U R E 7 Thermal degradation and thermal conductivity of different natural fiber composites (A) thermal decomposition of oil palm
EFB-jute fiber composites with different weight ratios of EFB and jute. Reprinted with permission from Reference [182] Copyright © 2013,
SAGE publications, (B) thermal degradation of cotton, coconut and sugarcane fiber reinforced epoxy composite at 15% fiber volume
fraction,51 (C) thermal conductivity of sugarcane, coconut and cotton fiber-reinforced composites with different fiber volume fractions.51

Hemp fiber reinforced composite Sugarcane bagasse fiber reinforced composite

An investigation of thermal properties was carried out Hassan et al.51 studied the thermal properties of sugar-
by Elkhaoulani et al.296 using hemp fiber as reinforce- cane bagasse fiber reinforced composites with epoxy resin
ment and polypropylene resin as matrix. Various at 10%, 15%, and 20% fiber loading of sugarcane bagasse
volume fractions of hemp fiber were used, namely: 5%, fiber (Table 7, C-9). They used cotton and coconut fiber
15%, and 25% (Table 7, C-8). The fiber/matrix ratios along with bagasse fiber for this study. The three different
were 5/95, 15/85, and 25/75. From the investigation, fiber/matrix ratios were: 10/90, 15/85, and 20/80. Accord-
they observed that, composite made with 25% volume ing to the study, they observed the higher value of ther-
faction of hemp fiber and 75% PP resin, represents mal conductivity at 10% fiber loading of bagasse of fiber
better thermal stability than others (Table 9, C-8). with 90% epoxy (Table 9, C-9). The value of thermal con-
They noticed that, thermal degradation temperature ductivity decreased with increasing fiber volume fraction,
increases with increasing the fiber content This can be because the thermal conductivity of the matrix was
explained by the enhancement of fiber loading, the higher than that of the fiber. Moreover, the amount of air
expelled gas of polymer generated during thermal trapped inside the microstructure of fibers is significantly
decomposition is prevented by fiber loading. Moreover, more than that of the matrix, which results in a drop in
the ester bond results in excellent fiber-to-polymer thermal conductivity as fiber loading is increased. They
matrix adherence, which improves the thermal stability also proposed that, in comparison to coconut and sugar-
of composites.296 cane fiber-reinforced composites, cotton fiber-reinforced
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7256 DEV ET AL.

composites have higher conductivity because of the highest value with the 50/0 volume fraction (Table 9,
higher fiber density and considerably lower porosity of C-12). The same ratio of oil palm and sugarcane bagasse
the cotton fibers, as can be seen in Figure 7C. Cotton fiber results in reduced thermal conductivity and density.
fiber has larger weight fraction than coconut and sugar- This behavior is most likely related to the microstructure
cane fiber because of its greater density and this is indi- of sugarcane bagasse fiber, which varies in density and
cated in the TGA outcomes. The cellulose content of is lower than OPEFB. For TGA analysis, at the volume
these fibers has a negative correlation with weight loss. fraction of 0/50 OPEFB/sugarcane bagasse fiber, the
Weight loss in composites reinforced with coconut and researchers obtained a comparatively better degradation
sugarcane fiber is greater than in those reinforced with temperature with comparatively less weight loss, for both
other types of fiber because the non-cellulosic compo- initial and final degradation (Table 9, C-12). They also
nents disintegrate at lower temperatures.311,312 added that at 570
C the residue of pure bagasse fiber com-
In another investigation, Ramaraj et al.297 fabricated posites is lower than pure OPEFB composites. According
bagasse fiber reinforced composite applying 20% volume to this outcome, the researchers stated that, OPEFB fiber
fraction of bagasse fiber with polypropylene resin for in hybrid composite substrates is more thermostable than
thermogravimetric analysis (Table 7, C-10). The fiber/ bagasse fiber at high temperature. OPEFB fiber with a
matrix ratio was 20/80. From the investigation, they high cellulose content increases mechanical properties,
noticed comparatively lower weight loss at 340
C. thermal stability, and stiffness in the polymer matrix.313,314
They also added that, at 440
C major weight loss is gen-
erated (Table 9, C-10). The researchers revealed that, Coconut/coir fiber reinforced composite
compared to plain PP resin, 20% bagasse fiber loaded PP Hassan et al.51 analyzed the thermal properties of coco-
composite has a lower thermal degradation tempera- nut fiber reinforced composites with green epoxy resin
ture. Thermal degradation temperature decreases with using 10%, 15%, and 20% volume fractions of coconut
increasing the bagasse fiber. This is because of the lower fiber (Table 7, C-13). Three several fiber/matrix ratios
thermal degradation temperature of bagasse fiber.297 were used, namely: 10/90, 15/85, and 20/80. They used
cotton and bagasse fiber along with coconut fiber for this
Sugarcane bagasse-bamboo charcoal hybrid composite investigation. Based on the findings, they observed the
Sakthivel et al.298 evaluated the thermal properties of higher value of thermal conductivity at 10% volume frac-
bagasse-bamboo charcoal hybrid composite with polyure- tion of coconut fiber (Table 9, C-13). They found that, the
thane resin using 100/0, 70/30, 50/50, 30/70, and 0/100 values of thermal conductivity decreased with increasing
volume fractions of bagasse/bamboo charcoal (Table 7, fiber volume fraction, because the thermal conductivity
C-11). The fiber/matrix ratio was 35/65. Based on the of the matrix is higher than that of the fibers. Compared
findings, the researchers proposed that, at the volume to bagasse and cotton fiber reinforced composites, coco-
fraction of 0/100 bagasse/bamboo charcoal, the compos- nut fiber reinforced composites displayed lower value of
ite shows comparatively higher value of thermal conduc- thermal conductivity. This is because of the higher poros-
tivity (Table 9, C-11). They also added that, in terms of ity of coconut fibers that is created by the entire lumen
hybrid composite, the 50/50 volume fraction of bagasse/ area of coconut fibers. In term of TGA analysis, the
bamboo charcoal displays best insulation properties com- weight loss in composites reinforced with coconut and
pared to others.298 This can be discussed by the thermal sugarcane fiber is greater than in composites reinforced
conductivity of bagasse and bamboo charcoal and the with cotton fiber because the non-cellulosic components
adhesion between fibers and matrix. Fibers and matrix disintegrate at lower temperatures,311,312 as can be repre-
are incorporated with each other at 50/50 volume faction sented in Figure 7B.
of bagasse/bamboo charcoal and generate good thermal Kobayashi et al.300 examined the thermal properties of
insulation properties. coir fiber reinforced composite with polylactic acid (PLA)
at 10%, 20%, 30%,40%, and 50% fiber loading of coir fiber
Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB)- sugarcane (Table 7, C-14). The fiber/matrix ratios were 10/90, 20/80,
bagasse hybrid composite 30/70, 40/60, and 50/50 (Table 7, C-14). The researchers
Ramlee et al.299 conducted a study using 50/0, 35/15, used alkali treated and untreated coir fiber for this experi-
25/25, 15/35, and 0/50 volume fractions of OPEFB/ ment. They observed that, at peak and at 500
C, the vol-
sugarcane bagasse fibers with phenolic formaldehyde ume fraction of 50% coir fiber with 50% matrix shows
resin for the investigation of thermal conductivity and comparatively less weight loss (Degradation) (Table 9,
TGA (Table 7, C-12). From the study, they noticed the C-14). The weight loss of the coir fiber reinforced compos-
lowest thermal conductivity value with the 50/50 volume ites decreased with increasing fiber content. The thermal
fraction of OPEFB/sugarcane bagasse fiber and the decomposition of the composite improves with an increase
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7257

in fiber content below approximately 370
C, but decreases (Table 9, C-17). Weight loss in the initial stage was pre-
when the temperature exceeds 370
C. The researchers dominantly between 34% and 36%. At temperatures
stated that, the PLA compensates the lower thermal stabil- between 278 and 280
C, the thermal decomposition
ity of the coir fiber in the range of low temperatures, that occurs caused by the thermal decomposition of lig-
whereas the addition of coir fibers compensates the lower nocellulose, lignin, gelatin, and the glycosyl chains of
thermal stability of the PLA in the high temperature zone. cellulose in natural fibers. The thermal degradation of the
They also added that, the composite made with alkali trea- cellulose and the depolymerization of the resin resulted in
ted fiber represents comparatively good thermal stability a final weight loss of 20% to 24%. At all stages of degrada-
than untreated fiber composite. Better fiber-matrix adher- tion, treated PALF/KF hybrid composites exhibited ther-
ence in alkali-treated coir/PLA composites led to more sta- mal degradation weight loss at higher temperatures. Due
ble composites with improved thermal stability than to improved interfacial adhesion with phenolic resin, the
untreated coir fiber reinforced composites.315 treated hybrid composites were anticipated to have greater
final residue, however this did not materialize since
Coir-pineapple leaf fiber reinforced hybrid composite the removal of lignin decreased the quantity of final
Siakeng et al.120 used 30/0, 0/30, 15/15, 21/9, and 9/21 wt residue.182,318
% of coir/PALF fibers with poly lactic acid for the explo-
ration of thermal properties of coir-PALF fiber reinforced Kenaf fiber reinforced composite
hybrid composite (Table 7, C-15). The fiber/matrix ratio An investigation of thermal properties of kenaf fiber rein-
was 30/70. Among those ratios, the researchers observed forced composite was conducted by El-Shekeil et al.303
that, the 15/15 wt% of coir/PALF shows better thermal using kenaf fiber as reinforcement and polyurethane
stability (Table 9, C-15). They described that, after a resin as matrix. To explore the thermal properties, they
while, the decomposition temperatures rise more when used several volume fractions of kenaf fiber, namely:
PALF is applied because it contains less lignin than coir 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% and the fiber/matrix ratios were
fiber.316,317 Moreover, in comparison to PALF, the cellu- 20/80, 30/70, 40/60, 50/50 (Table 7, C-18). The
lose content of coir fiber is substantially lower. The researchers proposed that, the degradation (weight loss)
cellulose concentration of the coir fiber is much lower of all volume fractions of kenaf fiber reinforced compos-
than that of PALF. As a result, PALF has much greater ites are almost equal. They also added that, the volume
thermal stability than coir fiber.316,317 fraction of 20% and 30% of Kenaf fiber displays compara-
tively less weight loss (Table 9, C-18). Around 9.5% of the
Pineapple leaf fiber (palf) reinforced composite moisture evaporates during the first mass loss stage,
Mangal et al.301 explored the thermal properties of pine- which occurs in the 31–153
C temperature range. The
apple leaf fiber reinforced with phenol formaldehyde degradation of the three primary natural fiber compo-
resin composite using 15%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% nents, lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose, causes the sec-
weight fractions of PALF fiber (Table 7, C-16). Among ond and third mass loss processes, which occurs around
them, they observed lower thermal conductivity at 50% 194–330
C and 305–386
C, respectively.44
weight fraction of PALF fiber and higher at 15% weight
fraction of PALF fiber (Table 9, C-16). They stated that, Betel nut fiber reinforced composite
the values of thermal conductivity decrease with increas- Jayamani et al.6 conducted a study using betel nut fiber
ing fiber weight fraction, because fiber has lower thermal as reinforcement and unsaturated polyester resin as a
conductivity than the phenol formaldehyde matrix.301 matrix for the exploration of thermal properties of betel
nut fiber reinforced composite. They used untreated and
Pineapple leaf fiber (palf)- kenaf fiber reinforced hybrid chemically treated fiber for this investigation. They got
composite a moderately good degradation temperature for both ini-
Asim et al.302 used 70/30, 50/50, and 30/70 volume frac- tial and final degradation (Table 9, C-19). They revealed
tions of PALF/Kenaf fiber with phenolic formaldehyde that, treating fiber composites improves their thermal
resin for the investigation of thermal properties of stability over leaving them untreated. Composite mate-
PALF-kenaf fiber reinforced hybrid composite (Table 7, rials made of treated fibers have improved thermal sta-
C-17). The fiber/matrix ratio was 50/50. They used trea- bility, which is connected to the superior thermal
ted and untreated PALF/Kenaf composites for this stability of treated fibers. The increased fiber/matrix
investigation. The hybrid composite with 30/70 volume interactions of treated fiber composites, which often
fraction of PLAF/Kenaf fiber showed comparatively result in more intermolecular bonding between fiber
better degradation temperature with comparatively and matrix, are another reason that raises their thermal
less weight loss, for both initial and final degradation stability.6
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7258 DEV ET AL.

6.4.2 | Differential Scanning Calorimetry Silva et al.252 explored the DSC characteristics of
(DSC) analysis of NFRPCs kenaf fiber reinforced epoxy composites. They applied
10%, 20%, and 30% fiber volume content of kenaf fiber for
Differential scanning calorimetry analysis of natural the exploration. Based on the exploration, they revealed
fiber reinforced polymer composites depends on several that, the composites with 30% volume content represents
factors such as fiber type, the type of matrix used, comparatively higher temperature at endothermic peak
fiber to matrix ratio, composite compositions, different than other two contents. They also added that at 10% vol-
treatments of fibers (i.e., alkali, coupling, silane), ume content of fiber, the composites show comparatively
temperature, and atmospheric condition. Different types less temperature for exothermic peak. They concluded
of fiber, matrices, fabrication methods and parameters that, since the composites lose moisture at lower temper-
have been used by researchers for DSC analysis of atures than the resin and fiber, the peaks appear at lower
NFRPCs. Some investigations of DSC analysis have been temperatures.
described here. Guo et al.151 conducted a study on DSC analysis of
Hidalgo et al.284 investigated the thermal stability of bamboo fiber (BF) reinforced composites. They used
coir fiber reinforced polymer composites with polyolefin polypropylene (PP) resin and TiO2 nanoparticles for this
blend matrix (PP-HDPE) using DSC analysis. They used study. They used several volume contents of bamboo,
10%, 20%, and 30% fiber content of coir fiber for this polypropylene and nanoparticles. According to the study,
investigation. From the investigation, they found the exo- they stated that, the crystallization temperature of the
thermic peak between 115 and 117
C (Figure 8A). They matrix increases significantly after the addition of bam-
also added that, when coir fiber is added during cooling, boo fiber and TiO2 nanoparticles by almost 9
C, and the
the temperature at which the PP-HDPE chains begin to melting temperature of the matrix increases moderately.
crystallize rises by around 2 to 4
C. The rise suggests coir These modifications may have been caused by the crys-
fiber has the potential to serve as a catalyst support for tallization of bamboo fibers and the enrichment of the
polyolefin blends. They also observed two endothermic matrix's adherence with }TiO2 } nanoparticles. They also
peaks (around 135 and 165
C) for coir fiber reinforced added that, the degree of crystallinity increases with the
polymer composites during heating, which is less than several content of TiO2 nanoparticles treatment. This can
PP-HDPE blend (around 137 and 166
C) (Figure 8B). be explained by the increased interfacial contact between
This is because to weak interfacial characteristics, the the bamboo fiber and the polypropylene matrix,
melting point drops when a non-polar hydrophobic which accelerated the crystallization stage of polymer
matrix is combined with a polar hydrophobic untreated matrices.151 Figure 9 depicts the DSC curves of bamboo/
coir fiber.284 propylene reinforced composites.

F I G U R E 8 DSC curves of PP, HDPE, PP-HDPE blend, and their bio composites: (A) Cooling stage, (B) heating stage (Here, PP:
Polypropylene, HDPE: High density polyethylene, PP-HDPE blend: Polypropylene and High-density polyethylene blend, PP-HDPE-CCF 10:
Polypropylene-High density polyethylene and coconut coir fiber with 10% fiber content, PP-HDPE-CCF 20: Polypropylene-High density
polyethylene and coconut coir fiber with 20% fiber content, PP-HDPE-CCF 30: Polypropylene-High density polyethylene and coconut coir
fiber with 30% fiber content), from Reference [284].
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7259

F I G U R E 9 DSC curves of the PP/BFs composites: (A) cooling stage, (B) heating stage (Here, PP/BF-Polypropylene/bamboo fiber
composite, PP/BF/T1-65% polypropylene with 34.9% bamboo fiber and 0.1% volume fraction of TiO2 nanoparticles, PP/BF/T2-65%
polypropylene with 34.8% bamboo fiber and 0.2% volume fraction of TiO2 nanoparticles, PP/BF/T3-65% polypropylene with 34.6% bamboo
fiber and 0.4% volume fraction of TiO2 nanoparticles, PP/BF/T4-65% polypropylene with 34.2% bamboo fiber and 0.8% volume fraction of
TiO2 nanoparticles. Reprinted with permission from Reference [151] Copyright © 2021, Springer.

Yorseng et al.319 analyzed the thermal properties of researchers observed that, the value of glass transition
kenaf/sisal hybrid composite by DSC analysis. They used temperature of untreated and treated fiber composites
epoxy resin as matrix and several layers of kenaf/sisal is lower than neat polylactic acid. This is due to the
fiber for composite manufacturing, namely: sisal- poor interface between PLA and fibers, which is
sisal-sisal (SSS), sisal-kenaf-sisal (SKS), kenaf-sisal-kenaf reflected in the creation of an open volume as a result
(KSK), and kenaf-kenaf-kenaf (KKK). Composites with of loose packing of filler inside the PLA, allowing
weathering and unweathering conditions employed for free movement of the chains of PLA matrix.274,322 They
the experiment. The researchers proposed that, the glass also recommended that, the melting temperature of
transition temperature of pure epoxy is lower than hybrid untreated fiber composites significantly decreases, dem-
composites and the values significantly increase. This is onstrating poor heat transport. This could be due to
due to the fiber may have made the polymer chains less poor bonding between the fiber and matrix.323
mobile and the Tg is increased. Furthermore, the Tg is a Table 10 emphasizes the DSC analysis of NFRPCs
little bit lower after the weathering condition. This may that have been collected from the investigations of sev-
be because the weathering studies caused the polymer to eral researchers.
break down.320
Gupta et al.265 observed the thermal properties of
jute/sisal fiber hybrid composites from DSC analysis. 6.4.3 | Dynamic Mechanical Analysis
They used epoxy resin as matrix with several fiber con- (DMA) of NFRPCs
tents of jute (J)-sisal (S), namely: J100S0, J75S25,
J50S50, J25S75, J0S100, and J50S50 T (alkali treated). The dynamic mechanical properties of NFRPCs are influ-
The fiber/matrix ratio was 30/70. From the observation, enced by the chemical and physical characteristics of the
they proposed that, jute/sisal fiber hybrid composites matrix and reinforcing material. The DMA properties of
consist glass transition temperature between 65 and NFRPCs are heavily influenced by matrix material
73
C, degradation temperature between 348 and 357
C, parameters, fiber properties, fiber content, fiber orienta-
and crystallization temperature between 111 and tion, different methods for fiber treatment, and the con-
119
C. In another investigation, Asaithambi et al.321 tact between the fiber and matrix. Even little difference
investigate the thermal properties of banana-sisal fiber in these parameters will have a significant influence on
reinforced hybrid composites using DSC analysis. For the dynamic mechanical performance of NFRPCs. Differ-
this investigation, they used PLA as matrix and the ent types of fiber, matrices, fabrication methods and
fiber/matrix ratio was 30/70. They used untreated parameters have been used by researchers for DMA anal-
and benzoyl peroxide treated fibers for thermal proper- ysis of NFRPCs. Some investigations of DMA analysis
ties investigation. According to the investigation, the have been discussed here.
 7260

TABLE 10 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis of NFRPCs.

Composite Fabrication
no Fiber name Matrix type Parameter method DSC analysis Ref.

324
C-20 Jute Epoxy Fiber to matrix ratio (%): 30/70 Hydraulic press Endothermic peak ( C):
Composite compositions: Without treatment: 172.5
Jute without treatment, alkali treated, mixed Alkali treatment: 188.9
treated (alkalization + salinization) Mixed treatment: 149.9
Exothermic peak (
C):
Without treatment: 351.6
Alkali treatment: 369
Mixed treatment: 359.9
325
C-21 Jute Unsaturated Fiber to matrix ratio (wt.%): 25/75 Hand lay-up Endothermic peak (
C):
polyester Composite composition: Untreated: Around 75
Untreated and alkali-treated (4%, 5%, 7%) Alkali-treated: Between 80 to 85
Exothermic peak (
C):
Untreated: Around 368
Alkali-treated: Between 350 to 360
283
C-22 Jute (J) + Polyvinyl ester Fiber content: Compression Glass transition (T g ):
Vetiveria J-17% molding Onset: 79.9
C
Zizanioides VZ-17% Mid: 84.5
C
(VZ) Matrix-66% End: 88.0
C
Complex peak (
C):
Onset: 125.9
Peak: 136.3
End: 147.7
324
C-23 Jute (J) + Sisal Epoxy Fiber to matrix ratio (%): 30/70, Hydraulic press Endothermic peak (
C):
(S) Composite compositions: Without treatment: 208.4
JS without treatment, JS with alkali Alkali treatment: 163.3
treatment, JS with mixed treatment Mixed treatment: 174.3
(alkalization + salinization) Exothermic peak (
C):
Without treatment: 374.8
Alkali treatment: 357.4
Mixed treatment: 372.9
265
C-24 Jute (J) + Sisal Epoxy Fiber content (%): Hand lay-up For J100S0, J75S25, J50S50, J25S75, J0S100,
(S) J100S0, J75S25, J50S50, J25S75, J0S100, and and J50S50 T
J50S50 T (alkali treated) T g (
C): 68.51, 68.36, 73.36, 72.86, 68.19, 71.26
Fiber to matrix ratio (%): 30/70 T c (
C): 118.45, 114.12, 115.14, 118.67, 115.48,
114.19
T d (
C): 356, 355, 349, 352, 357, 348
DEV ET AL.

15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
 TABLE 10 (Continued)
DEV ET AL.

Composite Fabrication
no Fiber name Matrix type Parameter method DSC analysis Ref.

324
C-25 Jute (J) + Ramie Epoxy Fiber to matrix ratio (%): 30/70, Hydraulic press Endothermic peak ( C):
(R) Composite compositions: Without treatment: 169.5
JR without treatment, JR with alkali Alkali treatment: 197.1
treatment, JR with mixed treatment Mixed treatment: 208.3
(alkalization + salinization) Exothermic peak (
C):
Without treatment: 353.1
Alkali treatment: 365.9
Mixed treatment: 368
324
C-26 Jute (J) Epoxy Fiber to matrix ratio (%): 30/70, Hydraulic press Endothermic peak (
C):
+ Curaua C) Composite compositions: Without treatment: 196.2
JC without treatment, JC with alkali Alkali treatment: 207.9
treatment, JC with mixed treatment Mixed treatment: 199.9
(alkalization + salinization) Exothermic peak (
C):
Without treatment: 358.4
Alkali treatment: 372.8
Mixed treatment: 368.3
274
C-27 Jute (J) + Coir Epoxy Composite composition: Hand lay-up Endothermic peak (
C):
(C) J80:C20, J65:C35, J50:C50, J35:C65 95, 100, 98, 100
Exothermic peak (
C):
310, 315, 310, 320
326
C-28 Sisal Polylactic acid Fiber content: 5%, 10%, 15% Injection molding For 5%, 10%, 15%
T g (
C): 58.5, 58.5, 58.1
T m 1st cycle (
C): 174.2, 174.7, 174.1
T m 2nd cycle (
C): 175.6, 175.8, 175.1
X C (%): 58.4, 61.2, 57.3
ΔH m (J/g): 52.8, 53.7, 49.5
264
C-29 Sisal Polypropylene Fiber content: 30%, Injection molding T m ð
CÞ : 162.36
Fiber/matrix: 30/70 T c ð
CÞ : 117.01
ΔH m ðJ=gÞ : 76.20
X c ð%Þ : 71.70
321
C-30 Banana (B) Polylactic acid (PLA) Fiber to matrix ratio: 30/70 wt.%, Injection molding UT-BSF/PLA composite:
+ Sisal (SF) Composite composition: T g ð
CÞ : 61
UT-BSF/PLA composite (untreated), T m ð
CÞ : 151
BP-T-BSF/PLA composite (benzoyl peroxide X c ð%Þ : 26
treated) BP-T-BSF/PLA composite:
(Continues)
7261

15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
 7262

TABLE 10 (Continued)

Composite Fabrication
no Fiber name Matrix type Parameter method DSC analysis Ref.


T g ð CÞ : 63
T m ð
CÞ : 109
T c ð
CÞ : 153
X c ð%Þ : 40
327
C-31 Banana (B) Epoxy Composite composition: Compression Endothermic peak (
C):
+ Coir (C) hybrid banana coir (HBC), molding HBC: Between 105.71 and 114.16
+ Sisal (S) hybrid sisal coir (HSC), HSC: Between 108.16 and 112.67
hybrid sisal banana (HSB) HSB: Between 90.54 and 118.66
Biosynthesized alumina nano powder
(BSANP) at 1%, 2%, 3% and 5% (wt.%)
319
C-32 Sisal (S) + Kenaf Epoxy Composite layer: Hand lay-up T g (
C) _Before weathering:
(K) KKK, KSK, SKS, SSS KKK: 85
(Unweathering and weathering condition) KSK: 86
SKS: 86
SSS: 86
Tg (
C) _After weathering:
KKK: 83
KSK: 84
SKS: 84
SSS: 84
328
C-33 Kapok (K) Unsaturated Fiber content (%): Hand lay-up Untreated:
+ Sisal (S) polyester K/S: 50/50, T g ð
CÞ : 52
Composite composition: T On ð
CÞ : 204.53
treated and alkali-treated T m ð
CÞ : 217.26
Alkali-treated:
T g ð
CÞ : 55
T On ð
CÞ : 210.28
T m ð
CÞ : 220.39
329
C-34 Hemp Unsaturated Composite composition: Hand lay-up Endothermic peak for both treated and
polyester Untreated and alkali-treated (4%, 6%, 8%, untreated fibers (
C): Between 70 and 90
10%) Exothermic peak for both treated and
untreated fibers (
C): Between 260 and 380
284
C-35 Coir Polyolefin blend Fiber weight ratio (% w/w): 10, 20,30 Injection molding Exothermic peak: Between 115 and 117
C
matrix (PP-HDPE) Matrix blend ratio (% w/w): 50/50 Two endothermic peaks: Around 135 and
165
C
DEV ET AL.

15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
 TABLE 10 (Continued)
DEV ET AL.

Composite Fabrication
no Fiber name Matrix type Parameter method DSC analysis Ref.
330
C-36 Coir Polylactic acid Composite composition: Hydraulic press For eight different compositions:
5 wt% UFC, 10 wt% UFC, 20 wt% UFC, 30 wt T g ð
CÞ : 53.76, 50.83, 54.44, 51.49, 53.64,
% UFC, 5 wt% TFC, 10 wt.% TFC, 20 wt.% 49.60, 51.43, 52.77
TFC, 30 wt.% TFC T m ð
CÞ : 151.42, 150.49, 147.39, 147.79,
(UFC-untreated fiber composite, TFC- alkali 150.92, 151.27, 148.86, 150.63
treated fiber composite) T c ð
CÞ : 112.63, 110.03, 112.44, 109.50, 114.81,
110.02, 114.29, 113.33
ΔH m ðJ=gÞ : 8.37, 8.65, 6.55, 7.86, 6.52, 16.66,
15.36, 9.42
X c ð%Þ : 9.48, 10.33, 8.81, 12.08, 7.38, 19.91,
20.64, 14.47
331
C-37 Oil palm fiber High density Fiber to matrix ratio (wt%): 25/75 Injection molding For five different ratios:
(OPF) + Clay polyethylene Fiber ratios: T m ð
CÞ : 136.6, 136.0, 136.2, 136.7, 136.2
(C) (HDPE) OPF25:C0, OPF18.75:C6.25, OPF12.5:C12.5, T c ð
CÞ : 110.7, 113.9, 113.1, 112.5, 112.0
OPF6.25:C18.5, OPF0:C25 ΔH m ðJ=gÞ : 143.0, 158.8, 148.8, 139.2, 137.1
X c ð%Þ : 49,51,53,47:7, 47
252
C-38 Kenaf Epoxy Fiber volume content (%): 10, 20, 30 Compression Endothermic peak (
C):
molding At 10%: 63
At 20%: 63
At 30%: 70
Exothermic peak (
C):
At 10%: 355
At 20%: 352
At 30%: 350
332
C-39 Kenaf Epoxy Fiber content: 50 wt%, Composite Compression Endothermic peak for both treated and
composition: Untreated and alkali-treated molding untreated fibers (
C): Between 80 to 110
fibers composite Exothermic peak (
C):
Untreated fibers: Between 290 to 320 and 410
to 430
Alkali-treated fibers: Between 340 to 370
333
C-40 Kenaf (KF) Thermoplastic Composite compositions: Untreated TPU/KF, Melt-blending T m ð
CÞ :
polyurethane TPU/KF treated- 2% NaOH, TPU/KF Untreated TPU/KF: 233.33
(TPU) treated 4% NaOH, TPU/KF treated- 6% TPU/KF treated- 2% NaOH: 233.33
NaOH TPU/KF treated 4% NaOH: 233.33
TPU/KF treated- 6% NaOH: 231.5
(Continues)
7263

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7264 DEV ET AL.

Gupta et al.335 investigated the DMA properties of

Ref.
jute (J)-sisal (S) fiber reinforced hybrid composites with

151

334

Note: T g - glass transition temperature, T m - melting temperature, T d - decomposition temperature, T c - crystallization temperature, X c - degree of crystallinity, ΔH m - melting enthalpy, ΔH c - crystallization enthalpy.
unsaturated polyester resin. They used five different

T m ð
CÞ : 163.40, 163.58, 163.45, 163.74, 163.35

T c ð
CÞ : 122.78, 123.12, 122.94, 122.51, 122.53
weight ratios of jute-sisal fiber, namely: J100S0, J75S25,

ΔH c ðJ=gÞ : 53.45, 52.11, 59.94, 56.74, 54.31

ΔH m ðJ=gÞ : 31.29, 31.5, 33.71, 35.14, 31.67
J50S50, J25S75, J0S100. The fiber/matrix ratio was 30/70.

X c ð%Þ : 23.03, 23.19, 24.81, 25.87, 23.31

Based on the investigations, they revealed that, due to
improved interfacial adhesion between fibers and matrix,

For two different compositions:

which allows for consistent stress transmission, hybrid
composite J25S75 has a greater storage modulus than
For five different ratios:

others. For all composites, the loss modulus values

ΔH m ðJ=gÞ : 19.3, 16.0

T m ð
CÞ : 161.9, 154.4
T c ð
CÞ : 93.7, 104.8
increased until Tg, and subsequently decreased as the

ΔH c ðJ=gÞ : 3.4, 9.6

T g ð
CÞ : 57.3, 59.9

X c ð%Þ : 21.2, 9.7

temperature increased. This is because of the decomposi-
DSC analysis

tion of fiber components. They also observed that, J25S75

hybrid composite displays comparatively lower value of
damping factor. This can be explained by the movability
of polymeric chain of matrix. The movement of poly-
meric chains may be minimized by strong interfacial
Injection molding

bonds between fibers and the matrix, which reduces

Compression
Fabrication

damping and increases the ability to bear weight. In

molding

another investigation, Jawaid et al.336 used woven jute-oil

method

palm fiber reinforced epoxy composites for DMA analy-

sis. They revealed that, in all composite materials, tem-
perature causes a reduction in storage modulus.
Although there is no difference in the rubbery zone, the
Untreated fiber composites (UTFC), alkali

storage modulus values in the glass region steadily rise.

PP/BF (65/35), PP/BF/T1 (65/34.9/0.1),
PP/BF/T2 (65/34.8/0.2), PP/BF/T3

They observed that, as compared to epoxy, hybrid com-

(T- treated with TiO2 nanoparticles)

treated fiber composites (ATFC)

posites display substantially larger loss modulus in the

transition zone, that could be related to an increment in
Fiber/matrix (wt%): 50/50

inertial forces, which accelerates the energy loss, as, can

Composite composition:

Composite composition:
PP/BF/T4 (65/34.2/0.8)

be represented in Figure 10.

Manral et al.337 explored the DMA characteristics of
(65/34.6/0.4),

kenaf/PLA green composites using three different stack-

Parameter

ing sequence of kenaf fiber mat. They used unidirec-

tional, bidirectional and randomly oriented kenaf fiber
for the exploration. From the exploration, they proposed
that, randomly oriented fiber composites represent great-
est storage modulus (Figure 11A). The fibers in the ran-
Polypropylene (PP)

domly oriented kenaf fiber mat may have become

Polylactic acid

entangled, improving the adhesion between the fiber and

Matrix type

polymer matrix and stiffening the composites of ran-

domly oriented fibers under dynamic load. Furthermore,
they stated that as the temperature rises, the loss modu-
lus increases due to the movement of the polymeric
matrix. (Figure 11B). From the curve of damping factor,
they noticed that, until a particular temperature, the
Bamboo (BF)
Fiber name
(Continued)

damping factor is minimal and nearly constant because,

Bamboo

at that temperature, the molecular structure of matrix

remains securely unbroken and consequently undeterred
by the imposed dynamic stress (Figure 11C).
Composite

Jawaid et al.338 studied the thermal properties of date

TABLE 10

pam-bamboo fiber hybrid reinforced epoxy composite

C-41

C-42

using DMA analysis. They noticed that, at room tempera-

no

ture the storage modulus increases by the addition of date

 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7265

F I G U R E 1 0 Dynamic mechanical properties analysis of pure epoxy, pure EFB, and pure woven jute and hybrid composites.: (A) storage
modulus variation with temperature, (B) loss modulus variation with temperature, (C) damping factor variation with temperature (Here,
EFB- Oil palm empty fruit bunch fiber, Jw- woven jute). Reprinted with permission from Reference [336] Copyright © 2011, Elsevier.

palm and bamboo fiber with epoxy resin (Figure 12A). 7 | A C O UST I C P R O P E R T I E S
For loss modulus, the temperature range was 30 to 200 C.
The loss modulus reaches at peak at higher temperature, Sound absorbing materials are basically utilized to
due to the epoxy matrix's integration of date palm and reduce the negative effects of sound interpretation
bamboo fiber (Figure 12B). They also proposed that, the caused by tough, rigid, and interior surfaces, hence min-
damping factor rises as temperature rises, reaches its imizing vibration noise levels. Furthermore, to enhance
peak in the transitional area, and then starts to fall as it their effectiveness, sound absorbing materials must
approaches the rubbery region (Figure 12C). They con- always be employed in combination with obstacles and
cluded that, as compared to single fiber-epoxy compos- the inside cabinets. By using the value of sound absorp-
ites, hybrid fiber-epoxy composites displays a higher glass tion coefficient, the ability of sound absorbing materials
transition temperature. is determined.347,348 The amount of energy accumulated
Table 11 summarizes the DMA analysis of NFRPCs by a material in proportion to the total energy incident
that have been collected from the investigations of sev- on it, is denoted as the sound absorption co-efficient
eral researchers. (SAC).349,350
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7266 DEV ET AL.

F I G U R E 1 1 Dynamic mechanical characteristics of kenaf fiber reinforced PLA composites: (A) storage modulus, (B) loss modulus,
(C) damping factor (Here, BDFRPC- bidirectional fiber reinforced PLA composite, UDFRPC- unidirectional fiber reinforced PLA composite,
ROFRPC- randomly oriented fiber reinforced PLA composite). Reprinted with permission from Reference [337] Copyright © 2019, John
Wiley and Sons.

Sound energy absorbed by a surface because they have viscoelastic characteristics and hollow
SAC ¼ cells configuration, which makes them easier to handle
Sound energy incident in that surface
and have better acoustic insulation.52,354 Natural fibers
The sound absorption coefficient varies from 0.00 with superior sound absorption qualities than synthetic
to 1.00. A value of 1.00 demonstrates perfect energy fibers including coir, kenaf, and hemp are extensively
absorption (without reflection), while a value of 0.00 employed to produce acoustic materials, such as sound
demonstrates, that, no sound is absorbed by the substance, boards, noise protective glass, acoustic panels and so
instead reflecting all of the energy that is imparted by forth.53 The sound absorption coefficient of natural fibers
the sound.351,352 The ability to absorb sound depends on depends on different parameters, including fiber proper-
the frequency and it typically improves as the frequency ties (diameter, thickness), frequency and type of fiber.
increases.349,350,353 Different sound absorption classes have Table 13 represents the value of the sound absorption
been represented in Table 12 according to SAC range. coefficient of some natural fibers.

7.1 | Sound absorption properties of 7.2 | Sound absorption models

natural fibers
The acoustic absorption characteristics of fibrous mate-
Natural fibers are preferred over synthetic fibers (e.- rials have been modeled using both theoretical and
g., carbon and glass) to make sound absorbing materials, empirical data. Fiber length, fiber diameter, porosity,
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7267

F I G U R E 1 2 Dynamic mechanical properties variation of date palm, date palm/bamboo and bamboo composites with temperature:
(A) storage modulus variation with temperature, (B) loss modulus variation with temperature, (C) damping factor variation with
temperature (Here, A/B- date palm leaf stalk/bamboo fiber composites, AA/B- date palm fruit bunch stalk/bamboo fiber composites, G/B-
date palm leas sheath/bamboo fiber composites, B- bamboo fiber, L/B- date palm trunk/bamboo fiber composites). Reprinted with
permission from Reference [338] Copyright © 2021, Elsevier.

tortuosity, fiber density, and thickness are the primary 7.2.1 | Delany–Bazley model
parameters on which these models have been built.
To determine the sound absorption coefficient of This model was developed by Delany and Bazley in 1970.
fibrous components, simplified empirical models are This model is able to determine the sound absorbing
commonly applied.360–363 In empirical models, the properties of the specimens for frequencies that are
material impedance and distinctive wave length are greater than 250 Hz and fiber diameters that belongs to
often considered to have a simple connection to the the range of 1–10 μm. This model works based on the
resistance of air flow, which enables for the estimation parameter of the resistance of air flow.361,370,371
of the material's sound absorption coefficient.364,365
" "  0:754  0:732 #
Name of some sound absorbing models are: Delany– ρf ρf
Bazley model, Miki model, Johnson–Champoux–Allard Z c ¼ ρ0 c0 1 þ 0:0571 0  j0:087 0
σ σ
microstructural model, Garai–Pompoli model, Dunn-Davern
model, and Ramis model.361,365–370 ð2Þ
 7268

TABLE 11 Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) of NFRPCs.

DMA analysis References

00
Composite Fabrication E (MPa) tan δ (peak
no. Fiber name Matrix type Parameter method T g ð
C) E0 (MPa) _At peak height)
324
C-43 Jute Epoxy Fiber to matrix ratio (%): Hydraulic From E00 max: At 35
C: Peak value: Peak value:
30/70, press WT- 81.3, WT-5388 WT- 1051 WT- 0.350
Composite compositions: AT- 94.4, AT-4713 AT-771.6 AT-0.432
Jute without treatment (WT), MT- 85 MT-4847 MT-1090 MT-0.408
alkali treated (AT), mixed From tan δ At 100
C:
treated (MT) (alkalization max: WT-1477
+ salinization) WT- 94.6, AT-1646
AT- 107.7, MT-974
MT- 96.6
339
C-44 Jute Epoxy Fiber/matrix (wt.%): 20/80, Compression From E00 max: Peak: 376.91, 412.65, 0.471, 0.446,
Composite composition: molding 72.79, 76.57, 3147.45, 3549.03, 484.07, 454.19 0.404, 0.416
Untreated fiber composites, 82.13, 78.03 3884.56, 3717.74
2.5% NaOH treated fiber From tan δ
composites, 5% NaOH max: 98.93,
treated fiber composites, 104.81,
7.5% NaOH treated fiber 115.75,
composites 110.87
324
C-45 Jute (J) + Sisal (S) Epoxy Fiber to matrix ratio (%): Hydraulic From E00 max: At 35
C: Peak value: Peak value:
30/70, press WT-95, WT-5380 WT-1306 WT- 0.408
Composite compositions: AT-95.8, AT-7210 AT-982 AT-0.314
JF without treatment (WT), MT-89.7 MT-9289 MT-1617 MT-0.248
JF with alkali treatment From tan δ At 100
C:
(AT), JF with mixed max: WT-2971
treatment (MT) WT-97.3, AT-3342
(alkalization + salinization) AT-99.3, MT-3867
MT-100
265
C-46 Jute (J) + Sisal (S) Epoxy Composite composition: Compression From E00 max: Maximum for Peak: 0.4635, 0.5106,
J100S0, J75S25, J50S50, molding 65.84, 61.10, J50S50: 3500 494, 494, 525, 0.2784,
J25S75, J0S100, 84.39, 78.61, and for alkali 351, 286, 750 0.3416,
J50S50 T (alkali treated) 62.61, 77.60 treated sample 0.5558,
From tan δ (J50S50 T): 4750 0.4228
max:
70.86, 68.02,
93.26, 89.03,
71.63, 80.15
DEV ET AL.

15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
 TABLE 11 (Continued)
DEV ET AL.

DMA analysis References

00
Composite Fabrication E (MPa) tan δ (peak
no. Fiber name Matrix type Parameter method T g ð
C) E0 (MPa) _At peak height)
335
C-47 Jute (J) + Sisal (S) Unsaturated Fiber/matrix (wt.%): 30/70, Hand lay-up From E00 : At 60
C: 280, 350, 520, 0.510, 0.555,
polyester Composite composition: 68, 72, 90, 94, 1800, 3700, 2400, 480, 485 0.337, 0.278,
J100S0, J75S25, J50S50, 71 2650, 1700 0.460
J25S75, J0S100 From tan δ: 62,
65, 80, 85, 61
324
C-48 Jute (J) + Ramie Epoxy Fiber to matrix ratio (%): Hydraulic From E00 max: At 35
C: Peak value: Peak value:
(R) 30/70, press WT- 92.2, WT-5717 WT-707.4 WT-0.209
Composite compositions: AT- 93.1, AT-4818 AT-708.9 AT-0.319
JR without treatment (WT), MT- 88.4 MT-5540 MT-881.1 MT-0.255
JR with alkali treatment From tan δ At 100
C:
(AT), JR with mixed max: WT-2571
treatment (MT) WT-99.6, AT-1597
(alkalization + salinization) AT-101.4, MT-1837
MT-98.3
324
C-49 Jute (J) + Curaua Epoxy Fiber to matrix ratio (%): Hydraulic From E00 max: At 35
C: Peak value: Peak value:
C) 30/70, press WT-85.2 WT-6778 WT- 978.3 WT-0.240
Composite compositions: AT-94.2 AT-5269 AT-1018 AT-0.401
JC without treatment (WT), MT-87.3 MT-5773 MT-1279 MT-0.326
JC with alkali treatment From tan δ At 100
C:
(AT), JC with mixed max: WT-2393
treatment (MT) WT-94.6 AT-2331
(alkalization + salinization) AT-108.1 MT-1976
MT- 96.6
336
C-50 Oil palm empty Epoxy Composite composition: Compression From E00 max: At 40
C: Peak value: Peak value:
fruit bunch Pure EFB, EFB/Jw/EFB, molding 85.06, 91.20, 3400, 3600, 3750, 2500, 2750, 2950, 0.28, 0.275,
(EFB) + Woven Jw/EFB/Jw, pure Jw 81.20, 73.71 3800 2750 0.224, 0.222
jute (Jw) From tan δ At 80
C:
max: 2900, 3250, 3400,
74.86, 85.75, 3600
75.34, 72.95
326
C-51 Sisal Polylactic acid Fiber content: 5%, 10%, 15% Injection From E00 max: At 40
C: 510, 560, 570 1,6, 1.3, 0.8
molding 60, 60, 62 2600, 3000, 3400
From tan δ At 60
C:
max: 500, 505, 510
68, 67, 65
7269

(Continues)

15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
 TABLE 11 (Continued)
7270

DMA analysis References

00
Composite Fabrication E (MPa) tan δ (peak
no. Fiber name Matrix type Parameter method T g ð
C) E0 (MPa) _At peak height)
340
C-52 Banana (B) Polyester Volume ratio of fiber (B:S)-1:1 Compression From E00 max: Almost same, but 260, 250, 265, 0.134, 0.182,
+ Sisal (S) Composite composition: molding 110.5, 84.9, above Tg B/S/B 255 0.394, 0.125
B/S/B, bilayer (B/S), S/B/S, 104,114 displays
intimate mix From tan δ comparatively
max: 123, 99, higher value
117, 122
341
C-53 Hemp + Sisal Polylactic acid Fiber/matrix (wt.%): 30/70 Injection From E00 max: At 40
C: 150 0.8
molding 70 1300
From tan δ At 60
C:
max: 65 1000
319
C-54 Sisal (S) + Kenaf Epoxy Composite Composition: Hand lay-up From E0 -100 At 35
C: Peak value: -
(K) SKS-before weathering From E00 max: SKS-3100 SKS-95
SKS (W)-after weathering SKS- 105 SKS (W)-3050 SKS (W)-225
SKS (W)-102 At 100
C:
SKS-2680
SKS (W)-2670
337
C-55 Kenaf (K) Polylactic acid Fiber/matrix (wt.%): 30/70, Compression From E00 max: At 40
C: 201.77, 163.25, 1.011
(PLA) Composite composition: molding 64.48, 66.11, 1100, 1480, 2490 208.20 0.267
K/PLA composites- 69.01 At 60
C: 0.147
bidirectional fiber, K/PLA From tan δ 505, 950, 1980
composites- unidirectional max:
fiber, K/PLA composites- 60.44, 60.39,
randomly oriented 62.88
342
C-56 Ramie (R) Polylactic acid Fiber/matrix (wt.%): 30/70, Compression From E00 max: At 40
C: 545, 800, 690, 1.5, 1.1, 1.131,
(PLA) Composite composition: molding 52, 55, 58, 58.5 2600, 3800, 3450, 700 1.128
R/PLA composites From tan δ 3400
(untreated, treated by max: At 60
C:
NaOH, treated by 60, 61, 60, 62 250, 290, 390, 375,
3-Aminopropyltriethoxy 350
silane, treated by γ-
glycidoxypropy-ltrimethoxy
silane)
284
C-57 Coir Polyolefin Fiber weight ratio (% w/w): Injection Around 10–20 At 10%, 20%, 30% At 10%, 20%, At 10%, 20%,
blend matrix 10, 20, 30 molding (peak height): 30% (peak 30%: 0.17,
(PP-HDPE) Matrix blend ratio (% w/w): 1200, 1220,1300 height): 1210, 0.18, 0.195
50/50 1400,1500
DEV ET AL.

15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
 TABLE 11 (Continued)

DMA analysis References

DEV ET AL.

00
Composite Fabrication E (MPa) tan δ (peak
no. Fiber name Matrix type Parameter method T g ð
C) E0 (MPa) _At peak height)
343
C-58 Coir (C) Polylactic acid Fiber/matrix (wt%): 30/70 Vacuum From E00 max: At 40
C: 370, 405, 390, 0.795, 0.732,
+ Pineapple leaf (PLA) Composite composition: bagging 56, 57, 56, 65, 2200, 2300, 2200, 410, 380 0.698, 0.713,
(P) C100, P100, C30P70, C50P50, 63 2700, 2400 0.723
C70P30 From tan δ At 60
C:
max: 400, 300, 400, 1800,
62, 61, 62, 61.5, 1600
60
232
C-59 Coir (C) + Coir Polypropylene Fiber/matrix (wt%): 20/80 Injection – Without treatment: – Without
shell particles Composite composition: molding 1800, 1690, 1680, treatment:
(CSP) C20CSP0, C15CSP5, 1620, 1630 0.075, 0.074,
C10CSP10, C5CSP15, Coupling agent 0.085, 0.076,
C0CSP20 treatment: 0.079
Without treatment and 1700, 1630, 1620, Coupling agent
coupling agent treatment: s 1615, 1628 treatment:
styrene-(ethylene-butene)- 0.077, 0.078,
styrene triblock copolymer 0.082, 0.078,
grafted with 1.4 to 2 wt. % 0.078
maleic anhydrides (SEBS-g-
MA)
302
C-60 PALF (P) + Kenaf Phenolic Fiber/matrix (wt.%): 50/50 Hydraulic From E0 : At 40
C: Peak: Peak:
(K) formaldehyde Composite composition: press 51.8, 51.44, 2700, 2980, 3260, 132, 134, 162, 0.11, 0.09,
70P:30 K, 50P:50 K, 30P:70 K, 55.13, 51.1, 3680, 3270, 3120 184, 171, 157 0.092, 0.091,
T-70P:30 K, 50.81, 53.85 At 100
C: 0.092, 0.0925
T-50P:50 K, From E00 max: 1620, 2280, 2450,
T-30P:70 K 97.79, 102.51, 2480, 2320, 2220
(Untreated and silane treated) 101.68, 96.27,
100.52, 96.94
From tan δ
max:
137, 128, 131,
134, 132, 132
344
C-61 Bamboo (B) Epoxy (E) Fiber loading: 40 wt.% (B: Hand lay-up From E00 max: At 25
C: 69, 179, 114, 106 0.21, 0.13, 0.19,
+ Kenaf (K) K-1:1) 70, 72, 74, 71 895, 1776, 1266, 0.20
Composite composition: From tan δ 1090
BK/E, BK/E-OMMT, BK/E- max: At 120
C:
MMT, BK/E-HNT 82, 80, 78, 79 133, 173, 148, 139
(Continues)
7271

15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
 TABLE 11 (Continued)
7272

DMA analysis References

00
Composite Fabrication E (MPa) tan δ (peak
no. Fiber name Matrix type Parameter method T g ð
C) E0 (MPa) _At peak height)
(Non-woven bamboo, woven
kenaf, filled with nano clay:
organically modified
montmorillonite (OMMT),
montmorillonite (MMT),
and halloysite nanotube
(HNT))
338
C-62 Date palm (DPE) Epoxy Fiber/matrix (wt.%): 50/50 Hand lay-up From E00 max: 3218.4, 3087.2, 349.2, 355.4, 0.27, 0.36, 0.29,
+ Bamboo (BF) (DPE:BF-1:1) 68, 70.5, 69.5, 3084.5, 3109.8, 331.6, 351.4, 0.31, 0.30
Composite composition: 68, 68.5 3249.8 352.3
A/B, AA/B, B, G/B, L/B From tan δ
(A- DPF leaf stalk, AA- DPF max:
fruit bunch stalk, G-DPF 78.02, 79.47,
leas sheath fiber, L-DPF 74.83, 73.87,
trunk fiber, B- bamboo 76.56
fiber)
345
C-63 Bamboo fiber mat Epoxy Fiber/ matrix (wt.%): 40/60 Hand lay-up From E00 max: At 25
C: 90.03, 76.37, 0.35, 0.33, 0.21.
(B) + Kenaf Composite composition: 71.95, 68.10, 979, 873, 895, 872, 68.67, 78.65, 0.30, 0.44
woven mat (K) B100:K0, B70:K30, B50:K50, 74.24, 72.94, 775 93.26
B30:K70, B0:K100 70.85 At 120
C:
From tan δ 77.2, 76.2, 133, 76.3,
max: 48.9
77.76, 73.31,
79.43, 79.22,
76.56
346
C-64 Sugarcane bagasse Polylactic acid Composite composition: Compression From E00 max: At 40
C: Peak value: 500 –
(SCB) 10% fiber content of SCB with molding 62 3400
alkali treatment At 60
C:
2000
331
C-65 Oil palm fiber High density Fiber to matrix ratio (wt.%): Injection – 1700, 1805, 2010, – 0.072, 0.071,
(OPF) + Clay polyethylene 25/75 molding 1805, 1680 0.071, 0.0715,
(C) (HDPE) Fiber ratios: 0.072
OPF25:C0, OPF18.75:C6.25,
OPF12.5:C12.5, OPF6.25:
C18.5, OPF0:C25

Note: Tg- glass transition temperature, E0 - storage modulus, E00 - loss modulus, tan δ- damping factor/loss factor.
DEV ET AL.

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DEV ET AL. 7273

"  0:7  0:595 #

ρf ρf materials. That's why Garai and Pompoli used thicker
K c ¼ ω=c0 1 þ 0:0978 0  j0:189 0 (diameter-20-50 μm) polyester fiber in their investigation
σ σ
and updated the model of Delany-Beazley.374
ð3Þ
" "  0:754  0:732 #
ρf ρf
Z s ¼ jZ c cot ðK c dÞ ð4Þ Z c ¼ ρ0 c0 1 þ 0:0571 0  j0:087 0
σ σ
  ð6Þ
Z s þ ρ0 c0 2

α¼1  ð5Þ
Z s  ρ0 c0  "  0:7  0:595 #
ρf ρf
K c ¼ ω=c0 1 þ 0:0978 0  j0:189 0
In these equations, Z c is characteristic impedance, K c is σ σ
propagation constant, Z s is the surface impedance, ρ0
ð7Þ
is the air density, c0 is sound speed in the air (m/s), f is
sound wave frequency (Hz), ω is the angular frequency 7.2.3 | Miki model
(ω = 2πf), d is thickness of porous layer; σ is airflow resis-
tivity (Rayl/m), α is the sound absorption coefficient, and This model was developed by modifying the Delany–
j = √ 1. Beazley models. The models for transmission coefficient
and characteristic impedance were verified using addi-
tional parameters by Miki, in 1990.372,373
7.2.2 | Garai–Pompoli model "  0:622  3 0:632 #
103 f 10 f
This is the modified model of Delany–Beazley models. Z c ¼ ρ0 c0 1 þ 5:05  j8:43
σ σ
Delany–Beazley model is not suitable for thicker fibrous
ð8Þ

TABLE 12 Sound absorption classes.51 "  0:618  3 0:618 #

103 f 10 f
Class of sound Range K c ¼ ω=c0 1 þ 1:781  j11:41
σ σ
absorption of SAC
ð9Þ
A 0.90–1.00
B 0.80–0.85
C 0.60–0.75 7.2.4 | Johnson–Champoux–Allard
D 0.30–0.55 microstructural model
E 0.15–0.25
The structural characteristics of fibrous materials are
F 0.00–0.10
employed to develop microstructural models. Porous

TABLE 13 Sound absorbing coefficient value of some natural fibers.

Frequency Sound absorption

Fibers Fiber Properties (Hz) coefficient (α) Refs.
Jute Diameter: 81.2 μm 500 0.20 355

Flax Diameter: 21.8 μm 500 0.40 355

356
Hemp Thickness: 40 mm 500 0.60
357
Ramie Thickness: 40 mm 800 0.60
356
Kenaf Thickness: 50 mm 500 0.74
Cotton Diameter: 13.5 μm 500 0.50 355

358
Oil Palm Thickness: 50 mm 1000 0.90
356
Coir Thickness: 35 mm 500 0.84
Sisal Diameter: 213 μm 500 0.10 355

359
Bagasse Thickness: 20 mm 500 0.13
359
Corn Thickness: 20 mm 500 0.13
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7274 DEV ET AL.

structure, tortuosity, viscoelasticity, density of fiber, air approach.374–378 ASTM 1050–12, ASTM C423-17, ISO
velocity, and thermal loss of fiber are some of the 354, and ISO 10,534–2 standards are used to determine the
fiber-related characteristics that are considered when acoustic properties of small materials employing imped-
developing the model. The Johnson–Champoux–Allard ance tube. Sound absorption coefficient and transmission
microstructural model was developed by Johnson and loss is calculated using impedance tube.378–380
Allard in 1992. This model included both the air viscosity
effect and the heat conduction effect, which are repre- Sound absorption coefficient, α ¼ 1  jr j2 ð12Þ
sented by the dynamic density and bulk modulus, respec-
tively. Microstructural models are able to predict the Transmission loss, TL ¼ 20 log jτj ð13Þ
sound absorption coefficient more precisely than empiri-
cal models.360,361,372,373 In these equations, r is the reflection coefficient and τ is
" sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi!# the transmission coefficient.
α∞ ρair σϕ 4jα2 ∞ ηωρair For measuring the acoustic properties of large mate-
ρðɷÞ ¼ 1þ 1þ
ϕ jωρair α∞ ðσϕΛÞ2 rials (e.g., wall, door, window, car glass) sound reduction
ð10Þ index is applied. ISO 10140-2 testing standard is
employed for this measurement.381
γP0 =ϕ
K ðωÞ ¼  qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1 s ð11Þ
4jk 02
o C p ωρair
Sound reduction index, R ¼ L1  L2 þ 10log S=A ð14Þ
γ  ðγ  1Þ 1  k0 Cjϕκ
p ωρ
1 þ κΛ 02 2
ϕ
o air

In this equation, S represents the free test opening area

where, ρ(ɷ) is dynamic bulk density of air, K(ω) is where the test material is positioned ðm2 Þ, A represents
dynamic bulk modulus, ρair is the density of air (kg/m3, ϕ the corresponding area of sound absorption in the receiv-
is the porosity, σ is the specific flow resistivity (Rayl/m), ing room ðm2 Þ, L1 and L2 represent the mean level of
η is air viscosity (N S/m2), α∞ is the tortuosity, ω repre- sound pressure (dB) in the generating and receiving
sents angular frequency, Λ0 is the viscous characteristic rooms, respectively.
length, Λ0 is the thermal characteristic length, P0 is the
air equilibrium pressure (N/m2), γ is the specific heat
ratio of air, k 0o is the static thermal permeability, Cp rep- 7.4 | Sound absorption properties of
resents its specific heat at constant pressure and, κ repre- NFRPCs
sents the thermal conductivity.
Natural fibers reinforced polymer composites are employ-
ing widely as acoustic materials because of their superior
7.3 | Measurement of sound absorption sound absorbing capabilities. The sound absorption prop-
erties depend on several characteristics of material. Mate-
Acoustic properties can be explained using different rial characteristics like porous structure, thickness,
parameters including sound absorption coefficient, noise density, the amount of air gap between the absorbing
reduction coefficient, sound absorption average, scattering material and the wall, perforation, and facing all have an
coefficient, sound reduction index and transmission loss. impact on the sound absorption properties of NFRPCs.
Acoustic properties of small size materials can be mea- Sound absorption properties also depends on the types of
sured using impedance tube. An impedance tube is a tube fiber used as reinforcement, type of polymer matrix, fiber
with hard walls that contains a specimen holder at one matrix bonding, fiber weight percentage, fiber to matrix
end and a loudspeaker at the opposite end. A plane wave ratio, and manufacturing method of composites. Table 14
is produced by the loudspeaker and travels normally inci- summarizes the fiber wt% & fiber/matrix ratio for the
dent to the specimen. The sample absorbs some of the acoustic properties of different composites and Table 15
energy, while some of it is deflected and travels back along shows the composites manufacturing method and the test
the tube. A fixed sound wave is formed in the tube as a method for sound absorption test.
consequence of the collision between the two waves. In
order to determine the cross spectrum more precisely, the
transfer function between the two points, two micro- 7.4.1 | Acoustic properties analysis of
phones are employed to determine the sound pressure at different NFRPCs
two separate positions. To determine the tested sample's
absorption coefficient at the required frequency, the find- There are 17 composites have been selected to review the
ings are finally calculated using the transfer function acoustic properties. Acoustic properties with different
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7275

TABLE 14 Summary of composites prepared for acoustic properties.

Natural Fiber
Composite Fiber Weight Ratio (%) or Fiber/Matrix
no. Fiber-1 Fiber-2 Matrix Total fiber content (%) Ratio (%) References
C-66 Cotton waste fly – Green epoxy resin 10 – 51

15
20
382
C-67 Jute Luffa Epoxy Resin 55 55/45
C-68 Banana Stem – Polyester 10 10/90 383

Resin 20 20/80
30 30/70
C-69 Banana – Epoxy Resin 5 – 143

10
15
20
383
C-70 Sugarcane Banana Polyester 10 10/90
Stem Resin 20 20/80
30 30/70
384
C-71 Coir Banana Polypropylene 5 5/95
Resin 10 10/90
15 15/85
20 20/80
25 25/75
C-72 Sugarcane – Polyester 10 10/90 383

Resin 20 20/80
30 30/70
C-73 Waste Sugarcane – Green Epoxy 10 – 51

Resin 15
20
298
C-74 Sugarcane Bamboo Polyurethane 100/0 35/65
Bagasse Resin 70/30
50/50
30/70
0/100
119
C-75 Bagasse Coir Epoxy Resin 30/30 60/40
40/20
20/40
C-76 Waste Coconut – Green Epoxy 10 – 51

Resin 15
20
C-77 Flax – Epoxy Resin 0 0/100 174

25 25/75
35 35/65
45 45/55
C-78 Sisal – Polypropylene 10 0/100 385

Resin 20 10/90
30 20/80
30/70
386
C-79 Sisal Palm Epoxy Resin 30/5 35/65
25/10
20/15
387
C-80 Kenaf Bamboo Epoxy Resin 100/0 40/60
70/30
(Continues)
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7276 DEV ET AL.

TABLE 14 (Continued)

Natural Fiber
Composite Fiber Weight Ratio (%) or Fiber/Matrix
no. Fiber-1 Fiber-2 Matrix Total fiber content (%) Ratio (%) References
50/50
30/70
0/100
299
C-81 Oil Palm Empty Sugarcane Phenolic 50/0 50/50
Fruit Bunch Bagasse Formaldehyde 35/15
Resin 25/25
15/35
0/50
C-82 Betelnut Fiber – Unsaturated 5 5/95 6

Polyester Resin 10 10/90

15 15/85
20 20/80

Note: C- Composite.

fiber-matrix, different fiber volume fractions, and with level than jute fiber composite. On the other hand, jute
different fiber-matrix ratios have been collected and dis- fiber composite is denser and has a lower energy dissipa-
cussed in this review paper. Now, the detailed study of tion level than luffa fiber composite. As a result, there is
each composite is given below with proper data analysis. not much of a difference between the sound absorption
Table 16 shows the acoustic properties of different natu- properties of the jute-luffa-jute and luffa-jute-luffa
ral fiber reinforced polymer composites. composites.382

Cotton fiber reinforced composite Banana fiber reinforced composite

Hassan et al.51 investigated the acoustic properties of Abdullah et al.383 performed a study incorporating 10%,
waste cotton fiber reinforced composites with green 20%, and 30% volume fractions of banana fiber with poly-
epoxy resin at 10%, 15%, and 20% fiber loading (Table 14, ester resin for the investigation of sound absorbing prop-
C-66). Several fiber/matrix ratios were used, namely: erties (Table 14, C-68). The fiber/matrix ratio were 10/90,
10/90, 15/85 and 20/80. Among them, the sound absorp- 20/80, and 30/70. According to the study, the researchers
tion coefficient was higher at 20% fiber loading with 80% stated that at 2650 Hz, 30% banana fiber with 70% matrix
matrix (Table 16, C-66). Sound absorbing co-efficient represents a higher sound absorbing co-efficient value
value increased linearly with increasing the fiber loading (Table 16, C-68). This can be described by the porosity
(Table 16, C-66). It is obvious that, higher fiber and density of the material. At 30% volume fraction, the
loading causes a more convoluted path for sound waves density is higher that results low porosity and this signifi-
to follow, increasing friction and resulting in higher cantly affects how effectively they absorb sound. Mate-
transmission losses. Additionally, the porous surface and rials with higher densities often absorb more vibrational
inner configuration with a cylindrical lumen of natural wave energy because there is more friction between the
fibers, aid in the dispersion of acoustic energy.388 acoustic energy and the fiber components.383
In another investigation, Jayamani et al.143 used 5%,
Jute-luffa fiber reinforced hybrid composite 10%,15%, and 20% fiber wt.% of banana fiber with epoxy
Saygili et al.382 used jute and luffa fiber as reinforcement resin (Table 14, C-69). They conducted the investigation
and epoxy resin as matrix for the exploration of sound incorporating treated and untreated banana fiber/epoxy
absorption properties. They conducted the exploration resin composites. The researchers found highest sound
using 55% volume fraction of jute and luffa fiber. The absorbing co-efficient value at higher frequency
fiber/matrix ratio was 55/45 (Table 14, C-67). Two types (6000 Hz) at 20% fiber content (Table 16, C-69). At higher
of plates were fabricated, namely: jute-luffa-jute (JLJ) frequency, the sound absorption coefficients of compos-
and luffa-jute-luffa (LJL). From the exploration, they ites rise as the fiber content rises. Because of the uneven
assessed that the sound absorption coefficient and trans- placement of short banana fibers in the epoxy matrix, a
mission loss of JLJ and LJL plates were almost similar, significant section of the construction is porous and capa-
but the values were moderate (Table 16, C-67). Luffa fiber ble of absorbing sound waves. At lower (2000 Hz) and
composite has greater damping and energy dissipation medium (4000 Hz) frequency, the sound absorption
 TABLE 15 Method of composites preparation, size of mold, testing method and sample size for acoustic properties of NFRPCs.
DEV ET AL.

Composite Method of Composites Testing Method or Testing Sample Size or Composite

no. Preparation Mold Size Instrument Size (After Molding) Refs.
51
C-66 Hydraulic Press Method Length-20 cm ASTM E1050-08 (Impedance Tube) Diameter- 140 mm
Width-20 cm
Thickness-3 mm
382
C-67 – – – Diameter-29 mm
383
C-68 Compression Molding Method Dia-100 mm (low frequency) ASTM E1050-98 (Impedance Tube) Dia-100 mm (low frequency)
Dia-28 mm (High Frequency) Dia-28 mm (High Frequency)
143
C-69 Cold Compression Method Diameter-25 mm ASTM E1050-12 –
Thickness-5 mm
383
C-70 Compression Molding Method Dia-100 mm (low frequency) ASTM E1050-98 (Impedance Tube) Dia-100 mm (low frequency)
Dia-28 mm (High Frequency) Dia-28 mm (High Frequency)
384
C-71 Compression Molding Method Thickness-3.2 mm DIN EN ISO 717–1 (Impedance Tube) 100 mm & 30 mm
383
C-72 Compression Molding Method Dia-100 mm (low frequency) ASTM E1050-98 (Impedance Tube) Dia-100 mm (low frequency)
Dia-28 mm (High Frequency) Dia-28 mm (High Frequency)
51
C-73 Hydraulic Press Method Length-20 cm ASTM E1050-08 (Impedance Tube) Diameter- 140 mm
Width-20 cm
Thickness-3 mm
298
C-74 Compression Molding Method Length-250 mm ASTM E 1050-10 (Impedance Tube) Length-200 mm
Width-25 mm Width-80 mm
Thickness-6 mm Thickness-6-8 mm
119
C-75 Compression Molding Method Length-250 mm ASTM E-1050 (Impedance Tube Method) Diameter-29.5 mm &
Width-150 mm 99.5 mm
Thickness-3 mm Thickness-20 mm
51
C-76 Hydraulic Press Method Length-20 cm ASTM E1050-08 (Impedance Tube) Diameter- 140 mm
Width-20 cm
Thickness-3 mm
174
C-77 Hand Lay-Up Method Length-250 mm ASTM E1050-12 (Impedance Tube) Diameter- 29.5 mm &
Width-220 mm 99.5 mm
Thickness-35 mm
385
C-78 Extrusion–Injection Molding – ASTM E1050 (Impedance Tube) Diameter- 29.5 mm &
Method 99.5 mm
386
C-79 Compression Molding Method Length-300 mm ASTM E 10534–1 (Impedance Tube) –
Width-300 mm
Thickness-3 mm
(Continues)
7277

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 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7278 DEV ET AL.

coefficient of the composite with 20% fiber loading is

Refs.
found to be lower than the composite with 15% fiber

387

299

6
loading. The microstructure differences between the two
composites could be the cause of this. The cylindrical
Sample Size or Composite lumen configuration collapses for the composite at 20%
fiber loading, reducing the sound's path inside banana
fiber epoxy composites. The composite with 15% fiber
Size (After Molding)

Thickness-2,4,6 mm
loading does not exhibits this behavior. The researchers

Thickness-10 mm
Diameter-33 mm

Diameter-33 mm

Diameter-25 mm
concluded that, in comparison to untreated fibers, com-
posites containing treated fibers have a better sound
absorption coefficient (Table 16, C-69). The lower molec-
ular weight components of banana fibers were removed
by the treatment of sodium hydroxide, that resulting in
lesser reflection and higher sound absorption.389,390

Sugarcane- banana fiber reinforced hybrid composite

ISO 10534-2:2001 (Impedance Tube)

Abdullah et al.383 reported the sound absorbing proper-

ASTM E1050-10 (Impedance Tube)

ties of sugarcane-banana fiber reinforced hybrid compos-

ISO 10534-2 (Impedance Tube)
Testing Method or Testing

ites with polyester resin at 10%, 20%, and 30% volume

fractions (Table 14, C-70). Based on the findings, they
recommend that at 3100 Hz, the volume fraction of 30%
sugarcane and banana fiber with 70% matrix displays
comparatively higher sound absorbing coefficient value
Instrument

(Table 16, C-70). This is due to the lower porosity and

density of the material. The porosity and density of 30%
sugarcane-banana fiber reinforced composites is less than
10% and 20% fiber reinforced composites(Table 16, C-70).
Furthermore, the researchers added that the sound
absorption coefficient can be enhanced by creating air
gaps behind the composite material and enhancing the
thickness of the sample, this is because friction forces
Thickness-2,4,6 mm

increased and the sound energy was dissipated. Addition-

Thickness-10 mm
Diameter-25 mm
Thickness-5 mm
Length-300 mm

Length-300 mm
Width-300 mm

Width-300 mm

ally, SAC can be increased by decreasing the fiber

diameter.391,392
Mold Size

Coir-banana fiber reinforced hybrid composite

Singh et al.384 conducted a study on the acoustic proper-
ties of coir-banana fiber reinforced hybrid composite with
polypropylene resin. Five different fiber contents were
used, namely: 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and, 25% and fiber/
Cold Press Molding Method
Method of Composites

matrix ratios were 5/95, 10/90, 15/85, 20/80, 25/75

Hand Lay-Up Method

Hand Lay-Up Method

(Table 14, C-71). Here, the transmission loss of both

banana and coir face hybrid composite have shown. At
2000 Hz and 4000 Hz, the researchers noticed the highest
Preparation

transmission loss for 25% fiber content of coir and

(Continued)

banana fiber (Table 16, C-71). With increasing fiber load-

ing, the transmission loss increases gradually. Because
the matrix and fibers have different molecular structures,
Note: C–Composite.

the sound wave experiences splitting and numerous

Composite

refractions as it moves through the substance.384

TABLE 15

The researchers also proposed that, the coir face hybrid

C-80

C-81

C-82

composites have higher transmission loss compared

no.

to banana face hybrid composite. The variation in

 TABLE 16 Acoustic properties of different NFRPCs.

Acoustic Properties
DEV ET AL.

Fiber weight ratio

(%) or Total fiber Fiber/Matrix Density Porosity Sound Absorbing Coefficient or
Composite no. content (%) Ratio (%) (g/cm3) (%) Noise Reduction Coefficient Transmission loss (dB) Refs.
51
C-66 10 – – – At 1600 Hz- –
15 0.059
20 0.097
0.125
382
C-67 55 55/45 0.925 – 0.07 (jute-luffa-jute) 24 (jute-luffa-jute)
0.10 (luffa-jute-luffa) 27 (luffa-jute-luffa)
383
C-68 10 10/90 1.164 0.119 (0.6835-At 2350 Hz) –
20 20/80 1.261 0.116 (0.5865-At 2775 Hz)
30 30/70 1.189 0.090 (0.6998- At 2650 Hz)
143
C-69 5 – – – Untreated –
10 At 2000 Hz-
15 (0.028, 0.030, 0.031, 0.029)
20 At 4000 Hz-(0.041, 0.038, 0.041, 0.037)
At 6000 Hz
(0.08, 0.088, 0.088, 0.09)
Treated
At 2000 Hz- (0.032, 0.038, 0.0376, 0.035)
At 4000 Hz- (0.052, 0.045, 0.045, 0.043)
At 6000 Hz-
(0.098, 0.099, 0.099, 0.105)
383
C-70 10 10/90 1.513 0.132 (0.7331- At 2325 Hz) –
20 20/80 1.405 0.114 (0.7306- At 2500 Hz)
30 30/70 1.006 0.090 (0.7332- At 3100 Hz)
384
C-71 5 5/95 – – – Hybrid Banana face
10 10/90 At 2000 Hz- (14.5, 25, 25.5, 26, 45)
15 15/85 At 4000 Hz- (20, 24, 25, 25.5, 39)
20 20/80 Hybrid Coir face
25 25/75 At 2000 Hz- (22, 29.5, 25.5, 26.5, 47)
At 4000 Hz- (21, 25, 27, 28, 41)
383
C-72 10 10/90 1.351 0.132 (0.6338- At 2350 Hz) –
20 20/80 1.472 0.134 (0.7122-At 2275 Hz)
30 30/70 1.225 0.110 (0.6314-At 3050 Hz)
51
C-73 10 – – – At 1600 Hz- –
15 0.081
20 0.115
0.163
7279

(Continues)

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 7280

TABLE 16 (Continued)

Acoustic Properties
Fiber weight ratio
(%) or Total fiber Fiber/Matrix Density Porosity Sound Absorbing Coefficient or
Composite no. content (%) Ratio (%) (g/cm3) (%) Noise Reduction Coefficient Transmission loss (dB) Refs.
298
C-74 100/0 35/65 324.22 0.497 (At 4000 Hz) –
70/30 340.50 0.291 0.023
50/50 650.03 0.164 0.033
30/70 656.03 0.198 0.061
0/100 658 0.099 0.065
0.113
119
C-75 30/30 60/40 – – Untreated –
40/20 At 2000 Hz-(0.98, 0.99, 0.89)
20/40 At 4000 Hz-(0.91, 0.905, 0.90)
Treated
At 2000 Hz- (0.82, 0.84, 0.815)
At 4000 Hz- (0.80, 0.82, 0.795)
51
C-76 10 – – – At 1600 Hz- –
15 0.090
20 0.130
0.183
174
C-77 0 0/100 1.13 – At 2000 Hz-(0.035,0.045,0.07,0.06) –
25 25/75 1.17 At 4000 Hz-(0.15,0.25,0.28,0.44)
35 35/65 1.21
45 45/55 1.31
385
C-78 10 0/100 – – At 2000 Hz-(0.155,0.04,0.185) At 1250 Hz
20 10/90 At 4000 Hz-(0.115,0.235,0.13) 16
30 20/80 At 6000 Hz-(0.125,0.165,0.12) 19
30/70 23
386
C-79 30/5 35/65 – – At 2000 Hz-(0.045,0.04,0.06) –
25/10 At 4000 Hz-(0.10,0.20,0.41)
20/15
387
C-80 100/0 40/60 1.0750 – At 500 Hz-(0.4, 0.3, 0.4, 0.4, 0.19) –
(10 mm thickness) 70/30 1.1475 At 1000 Hz-(0.68, 0.78, 0.99, 0.45, 063)
50/50 1.1450 At 2000 Hz-(0.22,0.22,0.26,0.18,0.4)
30/70 1.1525
0/100 1.1825
DEV ET AL.

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 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7281

morphology of these fibers explains the findings. Despite

Refs.
the fact that both fibers are chemically lignocellulosic,

299

6
they are physically distinct. Banana fibers are finer than
coir fibers and have a lower lumen value. Air pockets are
trapped by the larger lumen of coir fibers. Moreover, the
coir fibers have a tendency to dampen sound waves as
they travel through the construction when they are facing
Transmission loss (dB)

the source of the noise.384

Sugarcane bagasse fiber reinforced composite

Abdullah et al383 studied the sound absorption properties
of sugarcane bagasse fiber reinforced composites with
polyester resin at 10%, 20%, and 30% volume fractions
(Table 14, C-72). The fiber/matrix ratio was 10/90, 20/80
–

and 30/70. They assessed that, at 2275 Hz, the volume

fraction of 20% bagasse fiber with 80% matrix showed a
At 1000 Hz-(0.79,0.88,0.70,0.36,0.95)
At 2000 Hz-(0.23,0.29,0.24,0.19,0.26)
At 4000 Hz-(0.23,0.29,0.23,0.23,0.24)

At 4000 Hz-(0.185,0.225,0.205,0.225)
At 6000 Hz-(0.255,0.255,0.255,0.265)

higher sound-absorption coefficient value (Table 16,

Sound Absorbing Coefficient or

At 2000 Hz-(0.075,0.105,0.1,0.135)

C-72). Bagasse fiber reinforced composites with 20% fiber

Noise Reduction Coefficient

volume fraction has higher porosity and density than 10%

and 30% volume fractions that results greater value of
Acoustic Properties

sound absorption coefficient.

In another investigation, Hassan et al.51 examined the
acoustic properties of sugarcane bagasse fiber reinforced
composites with green epoxy resin at 10%, 15%, and 20%
fiber loading (Table 14, C-73). Based on the findings, they
proposed that, at 1600 Hz, 20% fiber loading of bagasse
fiber with 80% epoxy resin shows better sound-absorbing
co-efficient value (Table 16, C-73). The value of the sound
Porosity

absorption coefficient is enhanced with increasing fiber

(%)

volume fraction (Table 16, C-73). It is obvious that,

–

higher fiber loading causes a more convoluted path for

sound waves to follow, increasing friction and resulting
Density
(g/cm3)

in higher transmission losses. They also added that, com-

0.531
0.545
0.535
0.525
0.521

pared to cotton fiber, sugarcane fiber has a greater accu-

–

mulated lumen diameter. Therefore, bagasse fiber

Fiber/Matrix

reinforced composites have a greater capacity to absorb

sound than the composites made of cotton fiber.388
Ratio (%)
50/50

10/90
15/85
20/80
5/95

Sugarcane bagasse-bamboo charcoal hybrid composite

Sakthivel et al.298 fabricated bagasse-bamboo charcoal
hybrid composites with polyurethane resin. Bagasse/
Fiber weight ratio
(%) or Total fiber

bamboo volume factions were 100/0, 70/30, 50/50, 30/70

and 0/100 and the fiber/matrix ratio was 35/65 (Table 14,
content (%)

C-74). Among them, at 0/100 volume fraction of bagasse/

bamboo charcoal displayed comparatively better sound-
35/15
25/25
15/35
50/0

0/50
(Continued)

absorbing coefficient value (Table 16, C-74). Sound

10
15
20
5

absorbing co-efficient value increased with increasing the

volume fraction of bamboo charcoal. This is because of
(10 mm air gap)
Composite no.

Note: C–Composite.

the higher density and lower porosity of the composites.

TABLE 16

Due to increased friction between the acoustic energy

and the fiber components, denser materials frequently
C-81

C-82

absorb more vibrational wave energy. The researchers

concluded that, the effectiveness of sound absorption also
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7282 DEV ET AL.

rises as thickness enhances. The heavier formation less vacuum, sound wave incident on the specimen must
reduces interfacial loss between sound energy and fibers, travel a greater distance through this structure. More-
which consumes sound waves. The sound absorption over, since there are internal frictional losses and viscous
properties are also increased when density is increased losses caused by the decrease in sound energy, SAC is
and air flow resistivity decreases.393,394 subsequently enhanced.174,350

Bagasse-coir fiber reinforced hybrid composite Sisal fiber reinforced composite

Marichelvam et al.119 analyzed the sound absorbing prop- Munde et al.385 investigated sound absorbing properties
erties of bagasse-coir fiber reinforced hybrid composites of sisal fiber reinforced composite with polypropylene
using 30/30, 40/20, 20/40 weight ratios of bagasse/coir resin utilizing 10%, 20%, and 30% weight fractions of sisal
fiber with epoxy resin (Table 14, C-75). The fiber/matrix fiber (Table 14, C-78). The fiber/matrix ratio were 10/90,
ratio was 60/40. Among those ratios, they observed better 20/80, and 30/70. According to the investigation, at
sound absorbing co-efficient at 2000 Hz for the weight 2000 Hz they found better sound absorption co-efficient
ratio of 40/20 (Bagasse/coir) (Table 16, C-75). At 4000 Hz value at 30% weight fractions of sisal fiber with 70%
they got better sound absorbing co-efficient for the matrix (Table 16, C-78). They also demonstrated that at
weight ratio of 30/30 (Bagasse/coir) (Table 16, C-75). 4000 Hz and 6000 Hz, 20% weight fraction of sisal fiber
The sound absorption coefficient decreases when the shows better sound absorption co-efficient value
fibers are treated with alkaline. This is because of the hol- (Table 16, C-78). SAC observed as the fiber loading
low lumen structure of bagasse and coir fiber. When the increases from 10 to 20% by weight. The rise in SAC is
fibers are treated with alkaline, the hollow lumen struc- supported by the rise in tortuosity caused by the volumet-
ture and the porosity of the materials are decreased. As a ric improvement of fibers in the polypropylene resin at
result, the material reflects the sound wave rather than increasing fiber concentrations. The SAC is reduced by
absorb it.359 an increase in fiber loading from 20% to 30%. The
decrease in SAC leads to the increase in fiber content in a
Coconut fiber reinforced composite small volume, resulting in an excessively dense structure.
Hassan et al.51 conducted a study employing 10%, 15%, and Hence, this structure incorporates collapsed fibers, that
20% volume fractions of coconut fiber with green epoxy reflect sound energy instead of absorb them.395,396
resin for the investigation of acoustic properties (Table 14,
C-76). Five different fiber/matrix ratios were used, namely: Sisal-palm fiber reinforced hybrid composites
10/90, 15/85 and 20/80. Based on the study, they claimed Dhandapani et al.386 reported the acoustic properties of
that at 1600 Hz, the volume fraction of 20% fiber with 80% sisal-palm fiber hybrid composite with epoxy resin. Sev-
matrix represents better sound absorbing co-efficient value eral weight ratios of sisal/palm fiber were used, namely:
(Table 16, C-76). Sound absorbing co-efficient value 30/5, 25/10, and 20/15 and the fiber/matrix ratio was
increased with increasing the fiber volume fraction. This is 35/65. (Table 14, C-79). Among those ratios, they
because of higher fiber content causes a more convoluted obtained better SAC value at 2000 and 4000 Hz with
path for sound waves to follow, which increases friction 20/15 weight ratio of sisal/palm fiber (Table 16, C-79).
and results in higher transmission losses. Also, the cylindri- The researchers revealed that, at 2000 Hz, the SAC of
cal lumen of natural fibers and porous inner structure facil- composites made of 25/10 and 20/15 weight ratio of sisal/
itate the dispersion of acoustic energy.388 palm fiber is 25% and 50% greater than the composite
made of 30/5 weight ratio of sisal/palm fiber. They also
Flax fiber reinforced composite added that, at 4000 Hz, the SAC of composites made of
Vinu Kumar et al.174 evaluated sound absorption proper- 25/10 and 20/15 weight ratio of sisal/palm fiber is 50%
ties of flax fiber reinforced composite with epoxy resin at and 75.6% greater than the composite made of 30/5
25%, 35%, and 45% fiber loading (Table 14, C-77). Among weight ratio of sisal/palm fiber, respectively. At multiple
those, at 2000 Hz they observed better sound absorption frequencies, the sound absorption value of this composite
coefficient value at 35% fiber loading (Table 16, C-77). is more compared to banana-epoxy composites without
SAC falls off at frequencies below 1200 Hz and rises from treatment.386,397
2000 Hz. In particular, flax fiber can reflect sound at
lower frequencies and absorb sound at higher frequen- Kenaf-bamboo fiber reinforced hybrid composite
cies. Furthermore, at 4000 Hz they found better SAC Ismail et al.387 fabricated kenaf-bamboo fiber reinforced
value at 45% flax fiber loading (Table 16, C-77). Due to hybrid composite with epoxy resin applying 100/0, 70/30,
the fact that an increase in fiber loading results in a 50/50, 30/70, and 0/100 volume ratios of kenaf/bamboo
denser composite structure. As dense structure possesses fiber and investigated the sound absorbing properties
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7283

(Table 14, C-80). They investigated the properties using that, SAC rises with increasing the fiber loading, particu-
several thickness of air gaps (10 mm, 20 mm, and 30 mm). larly at greater concentrations. When there are, more
The fiber/matrix ratio was 40/60. Among them, at 500 Hz, fibers in the material, sound waves have to follow a
they found the better sound absorbing co-efficient value more complicated path, which increases friction and
for the volume ratio of 100/0, 50/50 and 30/70 of kenaf/ leads to higher transmission losses. Also, the surface of
bamboo fiber (Table 16, C-80). At 1000 Hz, they got the betel nut fiber is porous and the inner structure is made
highest sound absorbing co-efficient value for the volume of hollow lumen, which helps propagate acoustic
ratio of 50/50 of Kenaf/bamboo fiber. At 2000 Hz, the vol- energy.388,389
ume ratio of 0/100 of Kenaf/bamboo fiber was shown bet-
ter sound absorbing co-efficient value (Table 16, C-80).
Composites made of kenaf fiber have a higher sound 8 | APPLICATI ON OF NFRPCS FOR
absorption capacity than those made of bamboo fiber TH E R M A L A N D A C O U S TI C
because the kenaf fiber has a high porosity.250 They also PU RPOS ES
included that, in order to improve the composites' ability
to absorb sound, an air space could be added between the The utilization of natural fiber reinforced polymer com-
specimen and solid wall. The highest values of sound posites increases, as designers can use their biodegrad-
absorption move from a higher to a lower frequency spec- ability and affordability to design materials for thermal
trum as the air space thickness increases. Hence, to and acoustic purposes.146,401–405 Jute, bamboo, banana,
enhance the absorption at the lower frequencies, addi- kapok, softwood, hardwood, sugarcane, rice husk, and
tional air gap may be added rather than expanding the wheat straw are natural fibers have strong thermal
absorber thickness.398,399 and acoustic properties that are used in several applica-
tions like sound boards, automobiles, and thermal and
Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OEEFB)- sugarcane acoustic panels.54–56,58 Several factors, such as the physi-
bagasse fiber reinforced hybrid composite cal properties, content, placement of perforated plates,
Ramlee et al.299 used 50/0, 35/15, 25/25, 15/35, and 0/50 and others, have an impact on the sound absorption of a
volume fractions of OPEFB/sugarcane bagasse fiber with natural fiber-based composites absorber plate.371 Natural
phenolic formaldehyde resin (Table 14, C-81). The inves- fiber-based composites can be employed as a heating ele-
tigation was carried out using different measurements of ment in heating systems such as under floor heating, wall
the air gap including 10, 20, and 30 mm. For all measure- heating, and ceiling heating. Furthermore, NFRPCs can
ments, at 1000 Hz, the volume fraction of 0/50 of be used in the automotive industry for heating car seats,
OPEFB/sugarcane bagasse fiber shows better SAC value. steering wheels, and door panels. These materials can
This can be described by the density of composites. The also be employed in the automotive industry to reduce
researchers stated that, pure bagasse fiber composite gen- noise levels in car interiors. Natural fiber-based compos-
erates higher sound absorption compared to other com- ites can be utilized in medical devices for heating ther-
posites. This is because pure bagasse composites have apy, such as heating pads and blankets. They can be used
larger porosities or hollow constructions that have been in the aerospace industry for de-icing or anti-icing of air-
incorporated to absorb sound, which has entered the plane wings. Moreover, NFRPCs can also be used in the
composite.400 Furthermore, at 2000 and 4000 Hz, the vol- aerospace industry to reduce noise levels inside aircraft
ume fraction of 35/15 of OPEFB/sugarcane bagasse fiber cabins. In construction industry, NFRPCs can be utilized
represented better SAC value (Table 16, C-81). When the for heating floors, walls, and roofs. They can also be
air gap increased, the highest peak sound absorbing coef- used in building construction to reduce noise levels in
ficient of composite materials transformed to the lower buildings.230,406–410
frequency spectrum.299 NFRPCs can be used in the textile industry for heated
clothing, gloves, and socks. Besides being used in agricul-
Betel nut fiber reinforced composite ture to heat greenhouses and soil, they are also used in the
For the investigation of acoustic properties, Jayamani construction industry. Natural fiber-based acoustic compos-
et al.6 conducted an investigation at 5%, 10%, 15% and ites can be used in consumer electronics such as speakers
20% fiber loading of betel nut fiber with unsaturated and headphones to improve sound quality. Natural fiber-
polyester resin (Table 14, C-82). The fiber/matrix ratio based acoustic composites can be used in the marine indus-
were 5/95, 10/90, 15/85, and 20/80. Based on the investi- try to reduce noise levels on boats and ships.230 Translucent
gation, the researchers state that, 20% fiber loading of micro porous plate can be created by natural fiber rein-
betel nut fiber with 80% matrix displays better SAC value forced composites in order to use the sound absorption
at 2000, 4000, and 6000 Hz (Table 16, C-82). They noticed window system for solar power utilization.411 In order to
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
7284 DEV ET AL.

change the resonant frequency without modifying the frequency spectrum as the air space thickness of NFRPCs
entire room indoor customizable acoustic panel can be increases. In comparison to untreated fibers, composites
made by NFRPCs.412 Moreover, insulated composite mate- containing treated fibers have a better sound absorption
rials could be used to create furniture that would protect coefficient value. But sometimes the effectiveness of trea-
the electronic devices around it while they worked. Winter ted fiber composite reduces because the hollow lumen
jackets can make use of insulated composite materials that structure and the porosity of the natural fibers are
are light and less clumsy.413 decreased by treatment and then the material reflects the
sound wave rather than absorbs it.
The improvement of thermal stability and sound-
9 | CONCLUS I ON AN D FU TU R E absorbing capability in natural fiber-reinforced polymer
OUTLOOK composites is an important issue for advanced materials.
The numerous works mentioned above in a variety of
Natural fiber has gained special attention from techni- contexts can aid in the choice of materials for a particu-
cians, researchers, and manufacturers due to its huge lar purpose. However, lignocellulosic fibers that are
potential for application in numerous industries such as thermally resistant are being combined with nanoparti-
automobiles, aviation, sound absorbent items, and ther- cles, fire retardants, and other materials to improve the
mal insulators. This is due to a number of environmental thermal resistance of natural fiber-reinforced polymer
issues. The creation of composites today from recyclable, composites. At higher humidity levels, natural fibers are
regenerative, and reusable sources is highly favored. more likely to absorb moisture into their inner porous
NFRPCs are generally being used more and more, and it structures; however, at relatively low humidity levels,
appears that their applications will have a promising they can release hydration progressively. An important
future. Numerous factors, such as commercial viability, factor in this context for blended and single fiber filled
technological viability, and environmental compatibility, composite materials is appropriate NF surface treat-
can enhance the quality of products manufactured with ment. Undoubtedly, the main viewpoint for future inter-
NFRPCs. This review paper has offered a clear and facial research on composite materials will be the use of
instructive summary of the thermal and acoustic proper- nanofillers rather than fibers. In the near future, cellu-
ties of the composites that made with natural fibers. The lose nanofibrils and cellulose nano-whiskers will receive
improvement of thermal and acoustic properties of a considerable amount of attention, and the interface
NFRPCs made with variable fiber, matrix, fiber content, will be crucial in this new category of materials.
fiber-matrix ratio, and chemical treatment of fibers have NFRPCs are generally being used more and more, and
been demonstrated by the analysis of many researchers' their potential for use both inside and outside of build-
studies. The key findings of this review can be summa- ings is growing.
rized as follow: In terms of the thermal conductivity of
NFRPCs, the value of thermal conductivity decreases AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
with increasing fiber volume fraction, if the fiber has Barshan Dev, Md. Ashikur Rahman and Md. Reazuddin
lower thermal conductivity than the matrix material used Repon have contributed to conceptualization, data col-
for the composite manufacturing. Composite materials lection, original draft preparation and approval of con-
made of treated fibers have improved thermal stability tents. Mohammed M. Rahman, Aminoddin Haji, and
than untreated fiber composites, which is connected to Yasir Nawab have contributed to editing and reviewing.
the superior thermal stability of treated fibers. Moreover, Barshan Dev and Md. Reazuddin Repon has supervised
hybridization of natural fibers has also been found effec- all stages of preparing the manuscript. All authors have
tive for the thermal stability of NFRPCs. In terms of read and agreed to the published final version of this
hybridization, the thermal decomposition temperature review.
increases if less lignin content fibers are added during
composite manufacturing. In terms of DSC analysis, the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
melting temperature, degree of crystallinity, and crystalli- Technical supports from the “ZR Research Institute for
zation temperature of natural fiber composites can be Advanced Materials”, Sherpur-2100, Bangladesh are
improved by adding nanoparticles with natural fibers, gratefully acknowledged.
such as TiO2 . Nanoparticles improve the adhesion
between fiber and matrix. Sound absorption coefficient F U N D I N G IN F O R M A T I O N
increases as the volume fraction or content of fiber The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other
increases. Furthermore, the highest value of sound support were received during the preparation of this
absorption coefficient moves from a higher to a lower manuscript.
 15480569, 2023, 11, Downloaded from https://4spepublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pc.27633 by Universitat Politecnica De Valencia, Wiley Online Library on [20/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
DEV ET AL. 7285

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