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Changes shown by ➧

CONTENTS
Section Page

SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................................3

REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................................3

BACKGROUND...............................................................................................................................................3

INSULATION TYPES AND APPLICATIONS ..................................................................................................6

REQUIREMENTS OF AN INSULATING MATERIAL ..............................................................................6
INSULATION MATERIALS AND INSULATION PROPERTIES...............................................................6
TABLES OF INSULATION PROPERTIES ..............................................................................................8
RIGID AND SEMI-RIGID INSULATIONS ................................................................................................8
BLANKET INSULATIONS .....................................................................................................................13
SPRAY INSULATIONS .........................................................................................................................14
LOOSE FILL INSULATIONS .................................................................................................................14
REFLECTIVE INSULATIONS................................................................................................................15
CRYOGENIC INSULATIONS ................................................................................................................16
SELECTION OF WEATHER AND VAPOR BARRIERS ........................................................................17
THERMAL REQUIREMENTS................................................................................................................17
TYPES OF WEATHER AND VAPOR BARRIERS.................................................................................17

NOMENCLATURE.........................................................................................................................................19

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CONTENTS (Cont)
Section Page

TABLES
Table 1 Amosite Asbestos - ASTM C 391 ....................................................................................8
Table 2 Calcium Silicate - ASTM C 533 .......................................................................................9
Table 3 Diatomaceous Earth - ASTM C 517 ................................................................................9
Table 4 Glass, Cellular - ASTM C 552........................................................................................10
Table 5 Glass, Fiber ...................................................................................................................11
Table 6 Mineral Fibers - ASTM C 612 Recognizes Five Types ..................................................11
Table 7 Mineral Fiber Blankets ...................................................................................................12
Table 8 Mineral Wool (A Mineral Fiber, But Still Commonly Called by This Name)....................12
Table 9 Perlite, Expanded Block and Pipe Insulation - ASTM C 610 (Reinforced With
Mineral Wool and Inorganic Binders).............................................................................12
Table 10 Unfaced Preformed Rigid Cellular Polyisocyanurate (Urethane) ...................................13
Table 11 Asbestos (Not to be Specified for Future Projects)........................................................13
Table 12 Glass Fiber ....................................................................................................................13
Table 13 Asbestos Fiber (Not to be Specified for Future Projects)...............................................14
Table 14 Urethane........................................................................................................................14
Table 15 Asbestos (Not to be Specified for Future Projects)........................................................14
Table 16 Diatomaceous Earth ......................................................................................................15
Table 17 Glass Fiber ....................................................................................................................15
Table 18 Perlite, Expanded - ASTM C 549...................................................................................15
Table 19 Stainless Steel Case with Stainless Steel Reflective Sheets.........................................15
Table 20 Stainless Steel Case with Aluminum Reflective Sheets ................................................16
Table 21 Aluminum Case with Aluminum Reflective Sheets ........................................................16
Table 22 Aluminum Foil and Glass Mat in Vacuum ......................................................................16
Table 23 Perlite Powder in Vacuum .............................................................................................16

FIGURES
Figure 1 Heat Transfer Through Layers for the Composite Flatwall ...............................................5
Figure 2 Heat Transfer Through Layers for the Cylindrical Composite...........................................5

Revision Memo
12/01 Tables 4 and 10 have been updated.

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SCOPE
This section gives an abbreviated summary of the heat transfer equations, which describe the heat leakage, which the use of
insulation is intended to control, plus information on various types of insulation systems. There are a number of factors, which
must be taken into account in establishing the suitability of an insulation system for a particular application. This section
describes the considerations involved in selecting insulation and jacketing materials, and presents properties for many
commonly-used insulations.
As a result of the new U.S. Department of Labor Standards for employee exposure to asbestos, EMRE's policy is asbestos
insulation should not be specified for any project. However, since most existing facilities have used asbestos insulation in the
past asbestos has been included in the list of common insulation materials indicated above, to provide data needed for
checking existing facilities.

REFERENCES

GLOBAL PRACTICES
GP 14-1-1 Hot Service Thermal Insulation, Design
GP 14-1-2 Hot Service Thermal Insulation, Materials and Application
GP 14-2-1 Cold Service Thermal Insulation, Design
GP 14-2-2 Cold Service Thermal Insulation, Materials and Application

OTHER LITERATURE
1. ASTM Standards, Part 14, Thermal Insulation; Acoustical Materials; Fire Tests; Building Constructions, 1970.
2. Malloy, J. F., Thermal Insulation, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1969.

BACKGROUND
Heat transfer may be compared by analogy with the flow of electricity against an electrical resistance, Relectric. The flow of
heat, q, against a thermal resistance, Rthermal, as a result of a temperature difference, T1–T2, is analogous to the flow of electric
current, Ie, as a result of an electrical potential difference, E1 - E2. From Ohm's law of electricity:
E1 − E2
Relectric = Eq. (1)
Ie

By analogy, a heat transfer resistance may be defined as:

T1 − T2
Rthermal = Eq. (2)
q

The thermal resistance in Eq. (2) is compared to the equations for conduction, convection and radiation given below:
Conduction equation:

Flat plate: q=
kA
(T1 − T2 ) (Customary) Eq. (3a)
t

103 k A
q= (T1 − T2 ) (Metric) Eq. (3a)M
t

2π L k (T1 − T2 )
Cylinder: q= Eq. (3b)
ln (r2 / r1)

Convection equation: q = h A (T1 − T2 ) Eq. (4)

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BACKGROUND (Cont)

Radiation equation: q = σA [ (T 1 + 460 )4 − (T2 + 460 )4 ] = hr A (T1 − T2 ) (Customary) Eq. (5)

q = σ A [ (T 1 + 273 )4 − (T2 + 273 ) ]

4
= hr A (T1 − T2 ) (Metric) Eq. (5)M

Comparison of Eq. (2) with Eqs. (3), (4), and (5) yields:
Conduction:

t
Flat plate: R = (Customary) Eq. (6a)
Ak

t
R = 3
(Metric) Eq. (6a)M
10 A k

In (r2 / r1)
Cylinder: R = Eq. (6b)
2π L k

1
Convection: R = Eq. (7)
Ah

1
Radiation: R = Eq. (8)
A hr

In the above equations, A = area, h = heat transfer coefficient, k = thermal conductivity, r = radius, t = thickness and σ =
constant for radiant heat transfer. See also NOMENCLATURE.
In the foregoing, the various modes of heat transfer have been considered separately. However, in practice, heat is transferred
by all the modes in series or in parallel. For example, the heat transferred through a solid body is by conduction, while the heat
transferred by the body in contact with a fluid is by convection. The total rate of heat transfer through a body is then related to
the temperature difference and all the thermal resistances involved.
Normally, a body is constructed of one or more materials in successive layers. Figure 1 shows a composite flat slab made of
Materials a and b in contact with two fluids at temperatures Ti and To. The conduction equation for each portion of this body is:
Ti–T1 = q Ri (hot fluid)
Ti–T2 = q Ra (metal a)
T2–T3 = q Rb (metal b)
T3–To = q Rc (cold fluid)
adding these four equations gives:
Ti–To = q (Ri + Ra + Rb + Rc) Eq. (9)
Eq. (9) shows that the overall heat transfer resistance is the sum of the individual resistances.

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BACKGROUND (Cont)
For the composite flat wall shown in Figure 1, the heat loss is given by Eq. (10):
Ti − To
q = (Customary) Eq. (10)
1 xa xb 1
+ + +
A hj A k ma A k mb A ho

Ti − To 103 (Ti − To )
q = or q = (Metric) Eq. (10)M
1
+
xa
+
xb
+
1 103 xa xb 103
3 3 + + +
A hj 10 A k ma 10 A k mb A ho A hi A k ma A k mb A ho

For the cylindrical composite (see Figure 2), the same reasoning leads to:
Ti − To
q = Eq. (11)
In (r2 / r1) In (r3 / r2 )
1 + + + 1
2 π L r1 hi 2 π L k ma 2 π L k mb 2 π L r3 ho

FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH LAYERS HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH LAYERS
FOR THE COMPOSITE FLATWALL FOR THE CYLINDRICAL COMPOSITE

Ti
Hot
T1
T2
r1 r2

T3
To
Cold Ti
a b
Hot T1
T2
Xa Xb T3
To

Cold
DP16Af1&2

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INSULATION TYPES AND APPLICATIONS

REQUIREMENTS OF AN INSULATING MATERIAL

Mechanical Requirements - Most insulating materials are not intended for structural applications and should not be used in
this manner. However, there are cases where moderate loadings can occur, which should be accounted for in the selection of
an insulation. For example, some locations, such as horizontal lines and the tops of large pieces of equipment, are subject to
foot traffic. Insulation for this use should have sufficient compressive strength, about 25 to 50 psi (175 to 350 kPa) depending
upon the type and frequency of traffic, to withstand the loading involved.
Thermal Requirements
1. Temperature Limits - An insulating material should never be used above its maximum rated service temperature. At the
same time, over-conservative designs lead to waste, since higher-temperature insulations are more expensive and often
have higher thermal conductives than do the lower-temperature insulations. Therefore, the maximum temperature limit of
an insulation should be matched as closely as possible with the expected conditions. Although it is sometimes overlooked,
the maximum temperature limit is also important in cold service, since cleaning and purging operations must be taken into
account. A particular cold insulation should be used only if it can withstand the maximum temperature encountered during
cleaning.
2. Thermal Diffusivity - Where insulation is to be used as fire protection, a material that transfers temperature slowly is
desirable. Resistance to temperature change is measured by thermal diffusivity, which is the ratio of thermal conductivity
to the product of density and specific heat capacity, k/cpρ (Customary) 103 k/cpρ (Metric), in ft2/hr or mm2/s. The lower the
diffusivity, the higher the resistance.
Chemical Requirements - An insulation material should not react with the contents of the equipment to be insulated.
Otherwise, leakage could cause extensive damage. Urethane foam, for example, is destroyed by certain solvents. Where
toxic substances are involved, insulations with low absorptivity are desirable. If leakage occurs, a highly absorptive material
can soak up large quantities of poisonous material, thus creating additional danger.
Moisture Considerations - In cold service, insulation has a tendency to absorb and condense water vapor if the cold face of
the insulation is cooler than the atmospheric dew point. This situation occurs because the partial pressure of the water vapor in
the air is greater than the saturation pressure of water at the cold face temperature. Thus, a partial pressure difference is
established and becomes the driving force for the transfer of water vapor into the insulation.
As the vapor passes through the insulation, it eventually freezes into ice, and, since the rate of heat transfer through iced
insulation is 50 to 100 times as great as that of dry insulation, the effectiveness of the material is destroyed. Therefore,
insulation for cold service must offer a substantial resistance to the transfer of water vapor. This requirement is included in GP
14-2-2 as a maximum permeability for cold insulation. In practice, this restriction implies that closed cell insulations such as
cellular glass and urethane foams must be used.
In hot service, moisture considerations are somewhat different. While the presence of water in the insulation is detrimental to
performance, the driving force for vapor is outward. Thus, moisture present in high-temperature insulation will be vaporized
and driven out of the material provided that the insulations have adequate permeability. Closed cell insulations are usually not
desirable in this service, except at the base of such items as storage tanks, where the possibility of absorbing large quantities
of water from the ground exists.
Fire Protection - Where insulation serves as fire protection, it should be non-combustible. In addition, the insulation should
have low absorptivity, so as not to act as a wick in the event of material leakage.

INSULATION MATERIALS AND INSULATION PROPERTIES

In the descriptions and tables which follow, the characteristics of commonly used insulating materials are presented. Where
indicated, the properties listed are based upon ASTM standard specifications. Otherwise, the information has been drawn from
vendors' literature and from Reference 2. For quick reference, a summary of the conductivities and temperature ranges of
several important insulations is presented below, under TABLES OF INSULATION PROPERTIES. The thermal conductivities
are listed in equation form in order to facilitate use with insulation computer programs.
Rigid and Semi-rigid Insulations - This category includes insulating material available in blocks, board, and pipe covering.
Rigid insulation is used where strength is needed, where the insulation may be exposed to mechanical abuses, or where it
must be partially self-supporting. Semi-rigid insulations are used for light mechanical abuses and for cases where curved
surfaces make flexibility desirable.

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INSULATION TYPES AND APPLICATIONS (Cont)

1. Amosite Asbestos - Is composed principally of amosite asbestos fiber with a heat-resistant inorganic binder. Amosite
asbestos is available only as pipe covering, for applications up to 1500°F (816°C). Refer to Table 1 for properties. This
material is not to be specified for any project. See the warning at the beginning of this section.
2. Calcium Silicate - Is composed principally of hydrous calcium silicate with reinforcing mineral fibers. It is available in
temperature limits up to 1400°F (260°C), as rigid blocks or pipe covering. Calcium silicate is now the standard hot service
insulation; however, other high-temperature insulations are similar in performance. Asbestos has been used as the binder
in the past. However, vendors are switching to non-asbestos binders as a result of the new U.S. Department of Labor
Standards. Refer to Table 2 for properties.
3. “Super" Calcium Silicate - Is similar to the standard calcium silicate, but can be used for temperatures up to 1700 -
1850°F (927 - 1010°C). This increase in maximum temperature limit is offset by a higher thermal conductivity and a higher
cost. See the comment on asbestos in the preceding paragraph. Refer to Table 2 for properties.
4. Diatomaceous Earth - Is composed principally of diatomaceous earth (see loose fill insulations) with a heat-resistant
inorganic binder and reinforcing mineral fiber. It is available in rigid block sheets, and pipe covering for temperatures up to
2000°F (1093°C). Refer to Table 3 for properties.
5. Glass, Cellular - Cellular glass is composed of hermetically sealed glass cells, fused together. This material has almost
perfect resistance to the migration of moisture vapor and is intended for use between –300 and 800°F (-184 and 427°C). It
is available in rigid blocks, sheets, and pipe covering. Refer to Table 4 for properties.
6. Glass Fiber - This material is composed of glass fibers and organic binders. It is available in a wide range of properties,
as both rigid and semi-rigid insulation. Generally, fiberglass insulation can be used between –120 and 450°F (–84 and
232°C), although permeability limits in GP 14-2-2 restrict its use in cold services. Special binders are also available for
high-temperature use [up to 1000°F (538°C)]. Refer to Table 5 for properties.
7. Mineral Fibers - Are composed of fibers processed from mineral substances, such as rock or slag, and inorganic binders.
It is available as rigid and semi-rigid blocks for temperatures up to 1800°F (982°C). Refer to Table 6 for properties.
8. Perlite, Expanded - This material is composed of expanded perlite (see loose fill insulations) with reinforcing mineral
fibers and inorganic binders. It is commercially available for use at temperatures up to 1600°F (871°C). Refer to Table 7
for properties.
9. Urethane - Is a rigid cellular foam plastic normally used in the range of –100 to 230°F (–73 to 110°C), although lower-
temperature applications may also be considered. Urethane has the best insulating properties of any of the common rigid
insulations and is available in rigid boards, sheets, and pipe covering. Refer to Table 8 for properties.
Blanket and Felt Insulations - These are flexible insulations formed from woven fiber. They are available in a wide range of
densities. These insulations are used where they can be supported by other member and for thermal and mechanical
cushioning of rigid insulations.
1. Asbestos - For use up to 750°F (399°C). Refer to Table 9 for properties. This material is not to be specified for any
project.
2. Glass, Fibrous - This material is available with or without organic binders and facings for use up to 1200°F (649°C). Refer
to Table 10 for properties.
3. Mineral fiber blankets are available with or without binders. Refer to Table 11 for properties.
Sprayed Insulations - Sprayed insulations come in the form of mixes which can be sprayed onto the surface of the equipment
to be insulated. The mixture hardens or foams into rigid insulation. These insulations can be advantageous for use on large
surfaces.
1. Asbestos Fibers, Amosite, and Inorganic Binders - The insulation comes as a sprayable cement mix. Water is added
by the spray gun. Refer to Table 12 for properties. Asbestos material is not to be specified for any project.
2. Mineral Wool Granules, Asbestos, and Inorganic Binders - This sprayable mix is formulated to be used as fire
protection and high-temperature insulation (up to 1800°F or 982°C). Refer to Table 13 for properties. Do not specify a
mixture with asbestos for any project.
3. Urethane comes as a two-part liquid mixture. The liquids are combined in the spray gun and expand approximately 30-
fold to form rigid insulation. Refer to Table 14 for properties.
Loose Fill Insulation - Loose fill insulation consists of particulate material in granular, fibrous or powdery form. It is installed
dry between retaining surfaces or as a covering layer.

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INSULATION TYPES AND APPLICATIONS (Cont)

1. Asbestos Fibers - May be used for temperatures up to 1000°F (538°C). Refer to Table 15 for properties. This material is
not to be specified for any project.
2. Diatomaceous Earth - Is a porous material made up of the fossilized remains of a special class of algae known as
diatoms. It may be used for temperatures up to 1600°F (871°C). Refer to Table 16 for properties.
3. Glass, Fiber - This material may be used for temperatures up to 1000°F (538°C). Refer to Table 17 for properties.
4. Perlite, Expanded - Perlite is a natural glass with abundant spherical cracks which cause it to break into small pearl-like
masses. Under heat treatment, moisture trapped inside the glass vaporizes and expands the glass pebbles to 12 - 20
times their original volume, thus making perlite an excellent insulation material for temperatures up to 1400°F (760°C).
Properties can be found in Table 18.
Reflective Insulation - Reflective insulation consists of a number of closely-spaced metal (aluminum or stainless steel) sheets.
These sheets insulate by reflecting the radiant energy attempting to pass through them. In between the sheets there may be
air spaces, powder or blanket insulation, or vacuum. The efficiency of reflective insulation depends upon the arrangement of
the sheets and the method of separation and support. Thus, the properties for this type of insulation represent the properties of
the overall system, not of any one material. Reflective insulation is available in foils, sheets, and preformed sections for pipes
and equipment. Tables 19, 20, 21 and 22 list four types of reflective insulations and their properties.
Cryogenic Insulation - In addition to the reflective type cryogenic insulation listed in Table 22, powder insulations in partial
vacuum are also available for use in the temperature range of –100°F to –300°F (–73 to 184°C). One example is perlite
powder in vacuum, the properties of which are presented in Table 23.

TABLES OF INSULATION PROPERTIES

Conductivity and temperature limits of insulation may vary from one manufacturer to the next. Therefore, it is important to
specify the maximum temperature limit and conductivity when specifying insulation type and thickness.

RIGID AND SEMI-RIGID INSULATIONS

TABLE 1
AMOSITE ASBESTOS - ASTM C 391

CHARACTERISTIC CLASS I CLASS II

Maximum Temperature 1200°F (649°C) 1000°F (538°C)
Maximum Density 20 lb/ft3 (320 kg/m3) 15 lb/ft3 (240 kg/m3)
Maximum Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
200°F (93°C) 0.43 (0.062) 0.37 (0.053)
400°F (204°C) 0.54 (0.078) 0.50 (0.072)
600°F (316°C) 0.65 (0.094) 0.63 (0.091)

Note: Not to be specified for new projects: data to be used for checking existing facilities only.

Vendors' data suggest that actual products have temperature limits ranging from 1000 to 1500°F (538 to 816°C) and closely
follow the conductivity equation:
k = 0.27 + 0.0005 T Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (Customary) Eq. (12a)

k = 0.0412 + (1.3 x 10–4) T W/m°C (Metric) Eq. (12a)M

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INSULATION TYPES AND APPLICATIONS (Cont)

TABLE 2
CALCIUM SILICATE - ASTM C 533

CHARACTERISTIC CUSTOMARY UNITS METRIC UNITS

Maximum Temperature 1200°F 649°C
Maximum Density 14 lb/ft3 224 kg/m3
Minimum Compressive Strength at
5% Deformation
Dry 60.0 psi 414 kPa
Wet 25.0 psi 172 kPa
Maximum Thermal Conductivity
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
300°F (149°C) 0.50 0.072
500°F (260°C) 0.60 0.086
700°F (371°C) 0.71 0.102
Maximum Linear Shrinkage after 2.0 2.0
Heat Soaking, %

According to vendors' data, calcium silicate insulations in this temperature range have thermal conductivities of about 0.4, 0.5,
and 0.6 Btu/h ft2 °F/in. at 300, 500, and 700°F (0.058, 0.072, 0.086 W/m°C at 149, 260 and 371°C), respectively, substantially
exceeding ASTM requirements. In general, products follow the conductivity equation.
k = 0.315 + 0.00043 T Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (Customary) Eq. (12b)

k = 0.0474 + 1.12 x 10–4 T W/m°C (Metric) Eq. (12b)M

“Super" Calcium Silicate - Vendors' data indicate maximum temperatures in the range of 1700 to 1850°F (927 to 1010°C) and
conductivities of 0.41 to 0.56, 0.50 to 0.63, and 0.60 to 0.70 Btu/h ft2 °F/in. at 300, 500, and 700°F (0.059 to 0.081, 0.072 to
0.091 and 0.086 to 0.101 W/m°C at 149, 260, and 371°C), respectively.

TABLE 3
DIATOMACEOUS EARTH - ASTM C 517

CHARACTERISTIC CLASS I CLASS II

Maximum Temperature 1600°F (871°C) 1900°F (1038°C)
Maximum Density 24 lb/ft3 (384 kg/m3) 26 lb/ft2 (417 kg/m3)
Minimum Compressive Strength at 50 psi (345 kPa) 65 psi (448 kPa)
5% Deformation
Maximum Linear Shrinkage after 2.0 3.5
Heat Soaking, %
Maximum Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
500°F 0.70 (0.101) 0.78 (0.112)
750°F 0.76 (0.110) 0.84 (0.121)
1000°F 0.81 (0.117) 0.90 (0.130)

Actual products have a maximum temperature limit ranging from 1600 to 2000°F (871 to 1093°C) and follow the conductivity
equation:
k = 0.35 + 0.000215 T Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (Customary) Eq. (12c)

k = 0.0515 + (5.58 x 10–5) T W/m°C (Metric) Eq. (12c)M

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INSULATION TYPES AND APPLICATIONS (Cont)

➧ TABLE 4
GLASS, CELLULAR - ASTM C 552

CHARACTERISTIC GRADE 1 GRADE 2

o o o
Temperature Range –450 F (–268 C) to 800 F –450 F (–268oC) to 800oF
o

(427oC) (427oC)
Density, lb/ft3 (kg/m3):
Minimum 6.12 (98) 6.80 (109)
Maximum 8.62 (138) 9.74 (156)
Compressive Strength, capped, min, psi (kPa) 60 (415) 60 (415)
Compressive Resistance, uncapped, min, psi (kPa) 35 (242) 60 (415)
(Uncapped at 0.2 inch deformation)
Flexural Strength, min, psi (kPa) 41 (283) 60 (414)
Water Absorption, max, volume % 0.5 0.5
Water Vapor Permeability, max, per•in. or grains•in. of 0.005 (0.007) 0.005 (0.007)
thickness/h•ft2•in.Hg (ng•Pa–1•s–1•m–1)
Hot-surface Performance Warpage, in. (mm) max 0.125 (3) 0.125 (3)
Apparent Thermal Conductivity, flat block, max,
Btu•in./h•ft2•oF (W/m•K) mean temperature, oF
(oC)400 (204)
0.58 (0.084) 0.63 (0.090)
300 (149)
0.48 (0.069) 0.52 (0.075)
200 (93)
0.40 (0.058) 0.44 (0.063)
100 (38)
0.33 (0.048) 0.37 (0.053)
75 (24)
0.31 (0.045) 0.35 (0.051)
50 (10)
0.30 (0.043) 0.34 (0.049)
0 (–18)
0.27 (0.039) 0.31 (0.045)
–50 (–46)
0.24 (0.035) 0.29 (0.042)
–100 (–73)
0.22 (0.032) 0.27 (0.039)
–150 (–101)
0.20 (0.029) 0.26 (0.037)
Apparent Thermal Conductivity, pipe insulation, max, 0.69 (0.099) 0.69 (0.099)
Btu•in./h•ft2•oF (W/m•K) at mean temperature, oF 0.56 (0.081)0.46 (0.066) 0.58 (0.083)
(oC)400 (205)
0.37 (0.053) 0.48 (0.069)
300 (149)
0.41 (0.059)
200 (93)
100 (38)
Hot-surface Performance Warpage, in. (mm), max 0.125 (3) 0.125 (3)

Note: ASTM C-552-00 classifies two grades according to density, thermal conductivity, compressive strength, and flexural strength.

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INSULATION TYPES AND APPLICATIONS (Cont)

TABLE 5
GLASS, FIBER

CLASS I
CHARACTERISTIC
CUSTOMARY UNITS METRIC UNITS
Temperature Range –120 to 400°F –84 to 204°C
Density 3 to 9 lb/ft3 48 to 144 kg/m3
Compressive Strength at 10% 1.2 to 3.5 psi 8.3 to 24.1 kPa
Deformation
Maximum Water Absorption, % by 0.2 0.2
Volume
Thermal Conductivity
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
100°F ( 38°C) ~0.26 ~0.037
300°F (149°C) ~0.34 ~0.049

The following equation can be used to predict the conductivity of glass fibers:
k = 0.21 + 0.0005 T Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (Customary) Eq. (12e)

k = 0.0326 + 1.30 x 10–4 T W/m°C (Metric) Eq. (12e)M

TABLE 6
MINERAL FIBERS - ASTM C 612 RECOGNIZES FIVE TYPES

CHARACTERISTIC A1 A2 B C D

Temperature Limits, °F (°C) 400 (204) 400 (204) Ambient to 850 Ambient to 1000 Ambient to 1800
(454) (538) (982)
Maximum Density, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) 10 (160) 12 (192) 12 (192) 13 (208) 25 (400)
Minimum Compressive Strength at 25 (172) 50 (345) 700 (4826) 1440 (9928)
10% Deformation, psi (kPa)
Maximum Linear Shrinkage after Heat < 2.0 < 2.0 < 2.0 2.0 4.0
Soaking at Maximum Temperature, %
Maximum Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
25°F (–4°C) 0.24 (0.035) 0.24 (0.035) — — —
50°F (10°C) 0.25 (0.036) 0.25 (0.036) — — —
75°F (24°C) 0.26 (0.037) 0.26 (0.037) — — —
100°F (38°C) 0.28 (0.040) 0.28 (0.040) 0.30 (0.043) 0.36 (0.052) —
200°F (93°C) 0.35 (0.050) 0.35 (0.050) 0.36 (0.052) 0.42 (0.061) —
300°F (149°C) — — 0.42 (0.061) 0.50 (0.072) 0.46 (0.066)
500°F (260°C) — — — 0.64 (0.092) 0.57 (0.082)
700°F (371°C) — — — — 0.68 (0.098)
900°F (482°C) — — — — 0.82 (0.118)

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TABLE 7
MINERAL FIBER BLANKETS

CHARACTERISTIC CLASS I
Maximum Temperature: 600°F (316°C) with binders
1200°F (649°C) with binders
Density 3 to 10 lb/ft3 (48 to 160 kg/m3)
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
100°F (38°C) 0.23 to 0.28 (0.033 to 0.040)
200°F (93°C) 0.27 to 0.38 (0.039 to 0.055)
300°F (149°C) 0.32 to 0.50 (0.046 to 0.072)
500°F (260°C) 0.49 to 0.53 (0.071 to 0.076)

TABLE 8
MINERAL WOOL (A MINERAL FIBER, BUT STILL COMMONLY CALLED BY THIS NAME)

Maximum Temperature 1800°F (982°C)

Density 11 to 15 lb/ft3 (166 to 240 kg/m3)
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
100°F (38°C) 0.32 (0.046)
300°F (149°C) 0.40 (0.058)
500°F (260°C) 0.51 (0.074)
700°F (371°C) 0.66 (0.095)

TABLE 9
PERLITE, EXPANDED BLOCK AND PIPE INSULATION -
ASTM C 610 (REINFORCED WITH MINERAL WOOL AND INORGANIC BINDERS)

Maximum Temperature 1500°F (816°C)

Other physical requirements are identical to those given in ASTM C 533 for calcium silicate. The commercial product (only one
manufacturer) is applicable up to 1600°F (871°C) and follows the conductivity equation given in Eq. (12a).

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INSULATION TYPES AND APPLICATIONS (Cont)

➧ TABLE 10
UNFACED PREFORMED RIGID CELLULAR POLYISOCYANURATE (URETHANE)

CHARACTERISTIC Type I Type IV Type II Type III Type V Type VI

Density, min, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) 1.8 (29) 2.0 (32) 2.5 (40) 3.0 (48) 4.0 (60) 6.0 (96)
Compressive Resistance at 10% Deformation or 16 (110) 21 (145) 35 (240) 45 (310) 70 (483) 125 (862)
Yield whichever occurs first, parallel to rise, min,
lb/in2 (kPa)
Apparent Thermal Conductivity, max,
Btu•in/h•ft2•F (W/m•K)
–100oF (–73oC) 0.17 (0.025) 0.17 (0.025) 0.17 (0.025) 0.18 (0.026) 0.18 (0.026) 0.19 (0.027)
o o 0.19 (0.027) 0.19 (0.027) 0.19 (0.027) 0.20 (0.029) 0.20 (0.029) 0.21 (0.030)
–50 F (–46 C)
o o 0.18 (0.026) 0.18 (0.026) 0.18 (0.026) 0.19 (0.027) 0.19 (0.027) 0.20 (0.029)
0 F (–17 C)
o o 0.17 (0.025) 0.17 (0.025) 0.17 (0.025) 0.18 (0.026) 0.18 (0.026) 0.19 (0.027)
50 F (10 C)
o o 0.18 (0.026) 0.18 (0.026) 0.18 (0.026) 0.19 (0.027) 0.19 (0.027) 0.20 (0.029)
75 F (24 C)
o o 0.22 (0.032) 0.22 (0.032) 0.22 (0.032) 0.23 (0.033) 0.23 (0.033) 0.24 (0.035)
150 F (86 C)
o o 0.24 (0.035) 0.24 (0.035) 0.24 (0.035) 0.26 (0.037) 0.26 (0.037) 0.28 (0.040)
200 F (93 C)
Water Absorption, max, % by Volume 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8

Note:
ASTM C 591 Classifies six types according to minimum compressive resistance
Temperature range: –70oF (–51oC) to 300oF (150oC)

BLANKET INSULATIONS

TABLE 11
ASBESTOS (NOT TO BE SPECIFIED FOR FUTURE PROJECTS)

Maximum Temperature 750°F (399°C)

Density 9 to 12 lb/ft3 (144 to 192 kg/m3)
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
200°F (93°C) 0.50 (0.072)
300°F (149°C) 0.56 (0.081)
400°F (204°C) 0.61 (0.088)
500°F (260°C) 0.67 (0.097)
600°F (316°C) 0.74 (0.107)

TABLE 12
GLASS FIBER

Maximum Temperature 1200°F (649°C)

Density 0.6 to 11 lb/ft3 (9.6 to 176 kg/m3)
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
100°F (38°C) 0.24 to 0.32 (0.035 to 0.046)
200°F (93°C) 0.28 to 0.42 (0.040 to 0.061)

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SPRAY INSULATIONS

TABLE 13
ASBESTOS FIBER (NOT TO BE SPECIFIED FOR FUTURE PROJECTS)

Maximum Temperature 750°F (399°C)

Density 8 to 13 lb/ft3 (128 to 208 kg/m3)
Compressive Strength at 5% 5 psi (34.5 kPa)
Deformation
Covering Capacity 67 to 120 lb/100 ft2 - 1 in. thick
3.27 to 5.86 kg/m2 - 25 mm thick
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
100°F (38°C) 0.34 (0.049)
300°F (149°C) 0.43 (0.062)
500°F (260°C) 0.52 (0.075)
700°F (371°C) 0.71 (0.102)

TABLE 14
URETHANE

Maximum Temperature 250°F (121°C)

Density 1.6 to 3.0 lb/ft3 (26 to 48 kg/m3)
Compressive Strength at Yield 15 psi (103 kPa)
Covering Capacity 20 to 30 lb/100 ft2 - 1 in. thick
0.98 to 1.46 kg/m2 - 25 mm thick
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
0°F (–18°C) 0.18 (0.026)
100°F (38°C) 0.175 (0.025)

LOOSE FILL INSULATIONS

TABLE 15
ASBESTOS (NOT TO BE SPECIFIED FOR FUTURE PROJECTS)

Maximum Temperature 1000°F (538°C)

Density, Packed 20 to 50 lb/ft3 (320 to 801 kg/m3)
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
100°F (38°C) 0.60 to 1.62 (0.086 to 0.234)

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INSULATION TYPES AND APPLICATIONS (Cont)

TABLE 16
DIATOMACEOUS EARTH

CHARACTERISTIC COARSE FINE

Maximum Temperature 1600°F (871°C) 1600°F (871°C)
Density, Packed 20 to 31 lb/ft3 (320 to 497 kg/m3) 12 to 17 lb/ft3 (192 to 272 kg/m3)
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
200°F (93°C) 0.48 to 0.63 (0.069 to 0.091) 0.36 to 0.42 (0.052 to 0.061)
600°F (316°C) 0.63 to 0.92 (0.091 to 0.133) 0.53 to 0.55 (0.076 to 0.079)
1000°F (538°C) 0.77 to 1.22 (0.111 to 0.176) 0.69 (0.100)

TABLE 17
GLASS FIBER

Maximum Temperature 1000°F (538°C)

Density 2 to 12 lb/ft3 (32 to 192 kg/m3)
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
100°F (38°C) 0.24 (0.035)
200°F (93°C) 0.32 (0.046)
300°F (149°C) 0.40 (0.058)
400°F (204°C) 0.51 (0.074)

TABLE 18
PERLITE, EXPANDED - ASTM C 549

Maximum Temperature 1400°F (760°C)

Density 5 to 8 lb/ft3 (80 to 128 kg/m3)
can be made in 3 to 12 lb/ft3 (48 to 192 kg/m3) densities
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C) [Density = 8 lb/ft3 (128 kg/m3)]
0°F (–18°C) 0.33 (0.048)
100°F (38°C) 0.40 (0.058)
200°F (93°C) 0.46 (0.066)

Vendor's data indicate an average thermal conductivity about 15% lower over this temperature range.

REFLECTIVE INSULATIONS

TABLE 19
STAINLESS STEEL CASE WITH STAINLESS STEEL REFLECTIVE SHEETS

Maximum Temperature 1500°F (816°C)

Density 8 to 10 lb/ft3 (128 to 160 kg/m3)
Thermal Conductivity Can be Varied to Suit Need —

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TABLE 20
STAINLESS STEEL CASE WITH ALUMINUM REFLECTIVE SHEETS

Maximum Temperature 1000°F (538°C)

Density 6 to 8 lb/ft3 (96 to 128 kg/m3)
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
100°F (38°C) 0.265 (0.0382)
300°F (149°C) 0.400 (0.0575)
500°F (260°C) 0.537 (0.0775)

TABLE 21
ALUMINUM CASE WITH ALUMINUM REFLECTIVE SHEETS

Maximum Temperature 1000°F (538°C)

Density 5 to 7 lb/ft3 (80 to 112 kg/m3)
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
100°F (38°C) 0.250 (0.0361)
300°F (149°C) 0.378 (0.0545)
500°F (260°C) 0.507 (0.0731)

CRYOGENIC INSULATIONS

TABLE 22
ALUMINUM FOIL AND GLASS MAT IN VACUUM

Density 2.5 to 7.5 lb/ft3 (40 to 120 kg/m3)

Recommended Vacuum (Absolute 0.1 µm Hg (1.33 x 10–2 Pa)
Pressure)
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
–200°F (–129°C) 0.00012 to 0.00108 (1.7 x 10–5 to 1.56 x 10–4)
Note: For temperature ranges of –150°F (–101°C) to absolute zero. Density and conductivity
depend on the number of layers used.

TABLE 23
PERLITE POWDER IN VACUUM

Temperature Range –100°F to –300°F (–73°C to –184°C)

Pressure 2.0 µm Hg (2.67 x 10–2 Pa)
Density 8.0 lb/ft3 (128 kg/m3)
Thermal Conductivity,
Btu/h ft2 °F/in. (W/m°C)
–200°F (–129°C) 0.00865 (1.25 x 10–3)

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INSULATION TYPES AND APPLICATIONS (Cont)

SELECTION OF WEATHER AND VAPOR BARRIERS

Most insulation systems require an outer protective layer to guard against possible damage from factors in the environment.
For outdoor insulation, this protection takes the form of weather barriers or weather and vapor barriers, depending upon the
service. Hot service insulation requires a weather barrier to protect against precipitation, wind, solar radiation, and mechanical
damage. Cold service insulation requires additional protection against the passage of water vapor, which is provided by a
vapor barrier. The vapor barrier prevents water vapor from entering the cold insulation, where it would condense and form ice.
In some cases, the functions of weather and vapor barriers are performed by the same material, in which case it is referred to
as a weather-vapor barrier. Since the requirements for weather and vapor barriers are similar, they are treated together in this
section.
Mechanical Requirements - Barriers must withstand the stresses caused by differential expansion or contraction between the
insulation and the barrier material. They must also withstand the external forces of cutting, shearing, abrasion, impact, and
compression which can be caused by walking on the insulated equipment, accidental dropping of objects, and the action of the
wind.
Chemical Requirements - Barriers must not react chemically with the insulation material. Possible reactions with chemicals
due to leakage must also be considered.

THERMAL REQUIREMENTS
1. The thermal emissivity of a barrier strongly affects the surface temperature of an insulation system. In cold service, the
lower the surface emissivity, the lower the surface temperature. Thus, if the insulation is designed to prevent surface
condensation, care must be taken to insure that the emissivity of the barrier used is at least equal to the value assumed for
design purposes. In hot service, the lower the surface emittance, the higher the surface temperature. Again, care must be
taken to ensure that barrier material of the proper emittance is used.
2. Thermal conductivity is an important property for hot service weather barriers, because it determines the temperature at
which personnel burns occur. The higher the conductivity of the material, the more readily heat is transferred to the
surface of the skin. For example, a mastic surface at 160°F (71°C) feels warm to the touch, whereas a metal surface at
the same temperature causes burns.
Moisture Considerations - A weather barrier is designed to protect the insulation from moisture in the form of rain, sleet,
snow, hosed water, and spillage. Should such moisture enter high-temperature insulation, it would eventually vaporize,
consuming large quantities of heat and thereby wasting energy. However, since most high-temperature insulations contain
significant amounts of moisture by the time they are installed, the weather barriers should have a relatively high vapor
permeability, in order to allow the vapors to pass out of the insulation. In metal barriers, suitable vents may be required.
A vapor barrier used in cold service must have a low water vapor permeability, which is usually measured in perm-inches or
metric perm-centimeters. (1 perm inch = 1 grain of vapor per square foot, per hour, per inch of Hg vapor pressure difference,
per inch of thickness; 1 metric perm-centimeter = 1 gram of vapor per square meter, per 24 hours, per kPa of vapor pressure
difference per centimeter of thickness.) The major problem in obtaining the required low permeability is usually in sealing the
joints.
Fire Safety - One measure of the relative safety of a material in a fire is the flame-spread index, which is described in ASTM
E 84. The index is the product of two factors, one of which represents the rate at which the flame front advances on a sample
of the material, while the other represents the amount of heat released as the material burns. ASTM E 84 describes the testing
procedures required to obtain these factors.
Currently, the ExxonMobil Engineering Global Practices GP 14-1-2 and GP 14-2-2 require that barrier materials have a flame
spread index no greater than 25 per ASTM E 84. Other requirements depend upon the overall insulation system. For example,
if there is a danger that the insulation will fail under thermal shock, then the barrier should be resistant enough to contain the
insulation during the fire and fire fighting. Aluminum barriers may pose a hazard under fire conditions, because of the low
melting point of the metal.
Some types of mastic barriers contain solvents, which are highly flammable. During application, care should be taken to make
sure that ignition sources are not present and that the area of use is well ventilated.

TYPES OF WEATHER AND VAPOR BARRIERS

Weather and vapor barriers can be broken into two main groups: jackets and mastics.

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Jacket Weather Barriers - Consist of sheets or performed sections, which can be attached to the outside surface of the
insulation. They are usually preferred for flat and cylindrical surfaces. The most commonly used jacket barriers are films,
laminates, and metal jackets.
1. Film Barriers - Have been made from a number of different plastics, such as neoprene and butyl. These may be
reinforced with fibers for added strength. Adhesives and tapes are available for the application of films and laminates.
2. Laminated Barriers - Consist of plastic films laminated to metal foil. In some cases, reinforcing materials such as
fiberglass strands are added.
3. Metal Jacket Barriers - Are made of galvanized steel, stainless steel, or aluminum. Of these, stainless steel provides the
strongest and most chemically resistant barrier. It is usually furnished in 0.01 and 0.02 in. (0.25 and 0.51 mm)
thicknesses.
Galvanized steel, although also strong, is much more susceptible to chemical attack. For this reason, galvanized steel
barriers are often treated with special finishing coats to improve service life. The emittances of both stainless and
galvanized steel are in the range of 0.3 to 0.4. Treated galvanized steel can have an emittance as high as 0.8.
Aluminum jackets are available in thicknesses of 0.006 to 0.036 in. (0.15 to 0.91 mm). Aluminum is the lightest and
easiest to work of the metal jacket materials, but it is also the weakest and should not be used when physical abuse is
expected. Because of its low melting temperature, aluminum should not be used over plastic foam insulation in fire critical
areas. Aluminum has the lowest emissivity of the metal jackets, about 0.05 to 0.2.
4. Corrugated Jackets - To obtain improved rigidity, corrugated metal jackets have been introduced. Large corrugations
(e.g., 1-1/2 in. or 38 mm) are frequently used on large storage tanks. Small corrugations (e.g., 3/16 in. or 4.8 mm) make it
difficult to form a tight joint and should not be used.
5. Corrosion - Metal jackets used in hot service often corrode from the inside out, because the vapor forced out of the
insulation can be highly alkaline. For this reason, so called “vapor barriers” are installed on the inside of the jackets to
further protect the metal.
6. Joints - In order for metal jacketing to be effective as weatherproofing, all joints must be watertight under normal use.
Joints should be formed and positioned to shed water, or, where this is not possible, sealer should be used.
Jacket Vapor Barriers - Vapor barriers can be made from the same jacket materials as weather barriers. The major problem
is that of providing an effective seal, since vapor can travel through joints, which are watertight. For this reason, field
installation of effective jacket vapor barriers can be costly and time-consuming.
Mastic Barriers - Are thick protective finishes which can be applied by spray or trowel. There are two major types, bituminous
and resin-based.
1. Bituminous Barriers - Are thick black mastics, such as asphalt. Application thickness for these materials range from 1/8
in. to 1/4 in. (3.2 mm to 6.4 mm). These materials tend to be brittle (especially below 45°F or 7°C) and combustible, unless
specially treated. Bituminous resins present a fire hazard while being applied, and dry with a great deal of shrinkage.
2. Resin Barriers - Are made from polyvinyl acetate or acrylic resins in emulsion. The mastic dries without cracking,
although shrinkage may be from 40 to 50%. They can be formulated to remain flexible down to 20°F (–7°C). The
recommended application thickness is 1/16 in. (1.6 mm).
Resin mastics are available in water-based emulsions, which present no fire hazard during application. After drying, they
have a low flame spread rate and do not melt, but disintegrate in a fire.
3. Vapor Barriers - Both bituminous and resin mastics can be formulated as vapor barriers or as weather-vapor barriers.
4. Reinforcement - In order to prevent cracking of the mastics due to expansion and contraction forces, a reinforcing fabric is
added to the material during application. Fiberglass has been commonly used for this purpose. However, in applications
where expansion or contraction is large, fiberglass does not have sufficient elastic properties, and a material such as
Dynel, which is much more elastic, is preferred.

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NOMENCLATURE
a = Thermal diffusivity, ft2/h (mm2/s)
A = Cross-sectional area of plate perpendicular to direction of heat flow, ft2 (m2)
A′ = Surface area of pipe or cylinder, ft2/ft (m2/m)
Af = Cross-sectional fluid flow area in a pipe, ft2 (m2)
As = Surface area of wetted wall, ft2 (m2)
Aw = Cross-sectional area of pipe wall, ft2 (m2)
Bi = Biot modulus = h x/k or hδ ;k, dimensionless (k in consistent units)
cf = Cost of heat or cost of running refrigeration equipment, $/Btu or $/kJ (negative for cold service)
C = Constant in expression for natural convection heat transfer coefficient, dimensionless
Cb = Portion of insulation cost proportional to the thickness, $/ft2 per in. of thickness ($/m2 per mm of thickness)
Ci = Cost of insulation, $/ft2 ($/m2)
Co = Constant in expression for insulation cost, $/ft2 ($/m2)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of a fluid at Tfilm, Btu/lb °F (kJ/kg °C)
Cpb = Specific heat capacity of bulk fluid at Tf, Btu/lb °F (kJ/kg °C)
Cpw = Specific heat capacity of pipe or vessel wall, Btu/lb °F (kJ/kg °C)
D = Outside diameter of cylinder, in. (mm)
Db = Diameter of storage tank (base), ft (m)
E = Electrical potential, V
E1 = Voltage at (upstream) Point 1
E2 = Voltage at (downstream) Point 2
F = Investment charge factor, dimensionless
Fo = Fouler modulus = a τ/x2 or a τ/δ2, dimensionless
g = Gravitational constant = 4.17 x 108 ft/h2 (9.81m/s2)
Gabs = Solar radiation absorbed by a body, Btu/h ft2 (W/m2)
Gi = Solar radiant energy incident upon a horizontal plane, Btu/h ft2 (W/m2)
Gn = Solar radiant energy incident upon a plane at ground level, normal to the sun's rays, Btu/h ft2 (W/m2)
Go = Solar constant, 442 Btu/h ft2 (1395 W/m2)
Gr = Fluid Grashof No. (properties evaluated at Tfilm), dimensionless
h = Heat transfer coefficient, Btu/h ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
hc = Combined forced and natural convection heat transfer coefficient, Btu/h ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
he = Overall environment-side heat transfer coefficient, Btu/h ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
hf = Process side heat transfer coefficient, Btu/h ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
hfc = Forced convection heat transfer coefficient, Btu/h ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
hi = Conduction heat transfer coefficient for hot (inside) fluid, Btu/h ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
hnc = Natural convection heat transfer coefficient, Btu/h ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
ho = Convection heat transfer coefficient for cold (outside) fluid, Btu/h ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
hr = Radiant heat transfer coefficient, Btu/h ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
H = Depth below ground of axis of cylinder or pipe, in. (mm)
HL = Height of liquid in storage tank, ft (m)
HT = Height of storage tank, ft (m)
Hy = Number of hours of operation of equipment per year
i = Angle between sun's rays and normal to a surface, degrees
I = Incremental investment in furnace/boiler capacity or refrigeration capacity, $/Btu/h ($/W) (negative for cold
service)
Ie = Current, A

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NOMENCLATURE (Cont)
k = Thermal conductivity of insulation, Btu/h ft2 °F/in. or Btu/h ft2 °F/ft (W/m °C)
ka = Thermal conductivity of air at Tfilm, Btu/h ft2 °F/in. or Btu/h ft2 °F/ft (W/m °C)
kf = Thermal conductivity of a fluid, evaluated at Tfilm, Btu/h ft2 °F/in. or Btu/h ft2 °F/ft (W/m °C)
kg = Thermal conductivity of the ground, Btu/h ft2 °F/in. or Btu/h ft2 °F/ft (W/m °C)
ki = Thermal conductivity of the “j” layer, Btu/h ft2 °F/in. or Btu/h ft2 °F/ft (W/m °C)
kma = Thermal conductivity of material a, Btu/h ft2 °F/in. or Btu/h ft2 °F/ft (W/m °C)
kmb = Thermal conductivity of material b, Btu/h ft2 °F/in. or Btu/h ft2 °F/ft (W/m °C)
kn = Thermal conductivity of the “nth” layer, Btu/h ft2 °F/in. or Btu/h ft2 °F/ft (W/m °C)
k1 = Thermal conductivity of the layer 1, Btu/h ft2 °F/in. or Btu/h ft2 °F/ft (W/m °C)
k2 = Thermal conductivity of the layer 2, Btu/h ft2 °F/in. or Btu/h ft2 °F/ft (W/m °C)
L = Significant length for natural convection coefficient, ft (m) length or diameter of cylinder, ft (m)
L′ = Volume to area ratio of a vessel, ft (m)
m = Ratio of actual path length of solar radiation to the shortest possible path, dimensionless
M = Mass flow rate, lb/h (kg/s)
MRR = Minimum revenue required, $
n = Exponent in expression for natural convection heat transfer coefficient
Pr = Prandtl No. of a fluid (properties evaluated at Tfilm), dimensionless
q = Heat flow or loss, Btu/h (W)
q′ = Heat loss per ft of pipe, Btu/h ft, (Heat loss per meter of pipe, W/m)
q′′ = Heat flux, Btu/h ft2 (W/m2)
qa = Atmospheric radiation absorbed, Btu/h ft2 (W/m2)
q′′av = Heat flux at average environment conditions, Btu/h ft2 (W/m2)
qc = Convection heat loss or gain, Btu/h ft2 (W/m2)
qfl = Heat loss through bottom (floor) of storage tank, Btu/h (W)
qk = Conduction heat loss or gain, Btu/h ft2 (W/m2)
qr = Radiant heat emitted, Btu/h ft2 (W/m2)
q′′r = Radiant heat emitted, Btu/h ft2 (W/m2)
q′′wd = Heat flux at winter (or summer) design environment conditions, Btu/h ft2 (W/m2)
r = Inside diameter of insulation, in. (mm)
ri = Inside radius of pipe or insulation, in. (mm)
rs = Outside radius of pipe or insulation, in. (mm)
r1 = Radius of curvature of inside cylindrical surface, ft (m)
r2 = Radius of curvature of outside cylindrical surface (or inside surface of next layer), ft (m)
R = Resistance (electrical or thermal, according to context)
Ra,b = Resistance of layer (a or b), h °F/Btu (°C/W)
Rc = Resistance of cold fluid, h °F/Btu (°C/W)
Re = Reynolds No. of a fluid (properties evaluated at Tfilm), dimensionless
Ri = Resistance of hot (inside) fluid, h °F/Btu (°C/W)
Rg = Thermal resistance of ground, h °F/Btu (°C/W)
Rr = Rate of rainfall, in./h (mm/h)

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THERMAL INSULATION Section Page
XVI-A 21 of 22
BASIC CONCEPTS
DESIGN PRACTICES December, 2001

NOMENCLATURE (Cont)
t = Thickness of insulation, in. (mm)
tec = Economic insulation thickness, in. (mm)
tj = Thickness of “j” layer, in. or ft (mm or m)
tn = Thickness of “nth” layer, in. or ft (mm or m)
tw = Wall thickness of a vessel, in. (mm)
t1 = Thickness of Layer 1, in. or ft (mm or m)
t2 = Thickness of Layer 2, in. or ft (mm or m)
T = Temperature, °F (°C)
Ta = Temperature of air, °F (°C)
Tc = Temperature of steam in tank heating, coil, °F (°C)
Te = Temperature of environment, °F (°C)
Teav = Average environment temperature, °F (°C)
Tewd = Winter (or summer) design environment temperature, °F (°C)
Tf = Temperature of process fluid, °F (°C)
Tfilm = Average of fluid and wall temperature, °F (°C)
Tfo = Initial temperature of process fluid, °F (°C)
Tfx = Temperature of process fluid at a distance x along a conduit, °F (°C)
Tfy = Temperature of process fluid at time Y, °F (°C)
Tg = Temperature of the ground, °F (°C)
Ti = Temperature of surface in contact with process fluid, °F (°C); inside temperature, °F (°C)
Tj = Temperature of surface of “j” layer, °F (°C)
Tm = Average of hot and cold face temperatures, °F (°C)
Tn = Temperature of surface of “nth” layer, °F (°C)
To = Initial temperature, °F (°C); outside temperature, °F (°C)
Tr = Temperature of raindrops, °F (°C)
Ts = Temperature of surface in contact with the environment, °F (°C)
Tsur = Temperature of surroundings, °F (°C)
Tw = Temperature of vessel wall, °F (°C)
T1 = Temperature at (higher-temperature) Location 1, °F (°C)
T2 = Temperature at (lower-temperature) Location 2, °F (°C)
Uo = Overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/h ft2 °F (W/m2 °C)
v = Water velocity, ft/s (m/s)
V = Wind speed, mph (km/h)
x = Radius of cylinder, ft (m); distance along conduit, ft (m)
Xa = Thickness of material a, in. (mm)
Xb = Thickness of material b, in. (mm)

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ExxonMobil Proprietary
Section Page THERMAL INSULATION
XVI-A 22 of 22
BASIC CONCEPTS
December, 2001 DESIGN PRACTICES

NOMENCLATURE (Cont)
α = Solar absorptivity coefficient, dimensionless
β = Volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, °F–1 (°C–1)
δ = Plate thickness, ft (m)
ε = Emissivity of surface at Ts, dimensionless
θi = Initial temperature excess, To–Te, °F (°C)
θm = Centerline temperature excess, Tm–Te, °F (°C)
θs = Surface temperature excess, Ts–Te, °F (°C)
µf = Absolute viscosity of a fluid evaluated at Tfilm, cP (Pa•s)
νa = Kinematic viscosity of air at Tfilm, ft2/s (mm2/s)
ρ = Density of a fluid evaluated at Tfilm, lb/ft3 (kg/m3)
ρb = Density of fluid at Tf, lb/ft3 (kg/m3)
ρw = Density of pipe or vessel wall, lb/ft3 (kg/m3)
σ = Constant for radiant heat transfer (0.1714 x 10–8 Btu/h ft2 °R4 or 5.669 x 10–8 W/m2 °K4)
τ = Time, h (s)
τa = Radiation transmission coefficient for unit air mass (range 0.81 - 0.62), dimensionless

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