Measurement of air, water permeability/retention, crease recovery, wear and

abrasion test, pilling of fabric, flame retardant/resistant tests.

Air Permeability of Fabric:

Permeability may be defined as the rate at which gas or liquid passes through a porous medium.
Textile fabrics are permeable substances. The fabric needs air, water and vapor permeability so
that a person feels comfortable wearing it.

The concept of ‘air permeability’ is widely used in the textile industry to interpret the intrinsic
characteristics of fabric. It is an important property of fabric which is frequently asked by retail
buyers. The air permeability of a fabric is a measure of how well it allows the passage of air
through it .This technical information to describe functional performance of garments. Several
existing standards can be used for air permeability evaluation with different testing conditions
`
Air permeability is defined as the volume of air in milliliters which is passed in one second
through 10Os mm2 of the fabric at a pressure difference of 10mm head of water. Air permeability
of any material can be defined as the air passing at right angle through a known area of the
specimen in a unit time under a prescribed air pressure differential between the two surfaces of a
specimen.
The level of air permeability varies depending on the following:
 Types of yarn
 Fabric structure
 Fiber parameters

Procedure of air permeability test for fabric:

1. At first handle the test specimens carefully to avoid altering the natural state of the material.
2. Then we Place each specimen onto the test head of the test instrument and perform the test as
specified in the manufacturer’s operating instructions.
3. Place coated test specimens with the coated side down to minimize edge leakage.
4. Use a water pressure differential of 125 Pa.
5. Read and record the individual test results in SI units as cm3/s/cm2 and in inch-pound units as
ft3/min/ft2 rounded to three significant digits.

6. For special applications, the total edge leakage underneath and through the test specimen may
be measured in a separate test, with the test specimen covered by an airtight cover, and
subtracted from the original test result to obtain the effective air permeability.
7. Remove the tested specimen and continue testing until all the specimens have been tested for
each laboratory sampling unit.
8. The number of tests may go up to 10 but the minimum required number of tests is 4.

Figure: Air permeability test of fabric

Water permeability of fabric:

Absorbability: It is the ability of the fabric to take up a liquid.
Shower proof: To treat the material in a manner to delay the absorption and penetration of water.
The fabric retains a degree of permeability to air.
Water proof: To treat the textile materials with waxes, fats or rubber to prevent the absorption of
water.
Water Repellent: It is a state characterized by the non spreading of a Globule of water on a
textile material.
Method of test water permeability of fabric:
 Hydrostatic method,
 spray method,
 Rain method.

1. Hydrostatic Pressure Test method (Hydrostatic Head Tester）

The hydrostatic method refers to the water permeability of fabric under a certain water pressure,
it is applicable to all kinds of fabrics, and including the fabric which had been waterproof
finishing fabric .Waterproof of fabric is related to the waterproof of fibers, yarns, and fabric
structures. The measured results are different with water spray and rain on the fabric surface.
Hydrostatic method is used to measure the waterproof of fabrics. There are hydrostatic method
and dynamic pressure method.
Hydrostatic Head Tester GT-C26.
In the test method of experiment, take at least three samples with a size and area of

the two sides of the sample is different. Make a mark and test with (21±2) ℃ distilled water.
200mm×200mm along the diagonal direction of the sample to be tested. The water resistance of

The test area is 100 cm2. The test surface is in contact with water. If there are water droplets
leaking from three different places on the sample, the test reaches the end. However, water
droplets leaking within 3mm from the sample holder are not effective. The measured result is the
average of 3 test samples under the same conditions. The larger the test value, the greater the
pressure value required for water to seep out of the sample, and the better its water resistance.
Figure: Hydrostatic Head Tester

2. Spray Test Method (Spray Rating Tester)

The spray method simulates the degree to which clothing gets wet when it gets drizzled. This
method is applicable to all water-resistant fabrics and untreated fabrics. The measured water-
resistance results have a great relationship with the treatment of fibers, yarns, fabrics, and fabric
structure.
Spray Rating Tester GT-C31
In the test method, the test sample is fixed with an iron ring with a diameter of 152.4mm. The
sample is in a tensioned state and the surface is flat without wrinkles. 250mL of distilled water
was sprayed from the standard spray head at 45°, and the sample 150mm below the spray nozzle
was sprayed for 25-30 seconds. Tap the bottom of the iron ring which with sample once with a
solid object, the test surface is opposite to the solid object, and then rotate the iron ring by 180°
and tap it once. Water repellency of the fabric. There are 5 levels of evaluation, with 5 being the
best and 1 being the worst.

Figure: Spray Rating Tester

3. Rain test method(Rain Tester)

Rain test method is to simulate the waterproof of the fabric exposed to the air during heavy rain.
This method is applicable to any fabric with or without water repellent finishing. Measure the
impact water permeability of single layer fabric or composite fabric under the impact strength of
water at different speeds. The test results are related to the waterproof of the fibers, yarns and
fabric structure in the fabric.
In the test method we have to place a 15.2 cm ×15.2 cm standard absorbent paper on the back of
the sample, and weigh the standard absorbent paper, accurate to 0.1g.On the vertical rigid

30.5cm away from the nozzle, and directly spray the water flow of (27±1) ℃ to the test
surface, place the sample on the sample holder, and put the sample in the middle of the spray,

horizontally for 5minutes. After spraying, carefully remove the absorbent paper and quickly
weigh it and accurate to 0.1 g. Calculate the weight increase of the absorbent paper during the
5min spray time, and take the average of its test data. If it is greater than 5.0g, it is reported as +
5.0g or > 5.

Figure:Rain Tester Machine

Crease recovery:
The ability of a fabric to recover to its original condition is called crease recovery. This recovery
is a measure of crease resistance, specified quantitatively in terms of the crease recovery angle
(CRA). We measure this by using the Shirley crease recovery tester. The crease is imparted on
fabric by placing it between two glass plates over which 500 g weight is placed for 1 min. The
creased fabric is clamped on the instrument.
The instrument consists of a circular dial which carries the clamp for holding the specimen.
Directly under the centre of the dial, there is a knife from the edge of which the specimen hang
freely and the angle at which the specimen recovers from creasing is measured by the index line
or the circular scale fitted along the circular dial. Crease recovery is determined depending upon
this recovery angle. If the angle is 0 degree, then recovery is zero, and if the angle is 180
degrees, then recovery is full. The total CRA, which is the sum of the CRAs of the warp and the
fill directions of the fabric, increases from about 150 degrees (untreated) to about 300 degrees
(resin finishes). Crease recovery depends on the construction, twist of yarn, pressure, time, etc.
Usually crease recovery is more in warp way than in weft way. This is because warp yarns are
high in quality and strength, as well as treated with size and kept in more tension during
weaving, etc.

Figure: Shirley crease recovery tester

Wear and abrasion tests of fabric:

Abrasion is just one aspect of wear and is the rubbing away of the component fibers and yarns of
the fabric. It is a series of repeated applications of stress; therefore a capacity to absorb
punishment is required to the fibers. Inherent fiber properties such as work of rupture may give a
high resistance to abrasion.
Apparatus:
 Abrasion tester
 Scissor
 Electric balance
 Brush
Figure: Nu-Martindale 404 abrasion resistance tester

Working Procedure of wear and abrasion test:

1: At first cut the fabric into 4 pieces according to the measurement of the instrument. Weigh
these 4 pieces of fabric samples.
2: Now place these samples in the instrument under a certain load as supplied in the instrument.
3; Now start the machine and observe the counter of abrasion no.
4: After an abrasion of 200 bring out the first sample and weigh it.
5: After an abrasion of 300 bring out the second sample and weigh it.
6: Similarly after abrasion of 400 and 500 bring out the third and fourth sample and take their
weight.
7: Now put the weights before and after abrasions in a table and find out their wear index.
Pilling Test of Fabric:
Pilling:
Pilling is formation of little balls of fibers (pills) on the surface of a fabric which is caused by
abrasion in wear.
Causes of Pilling:
1: Due to wear and abrasion.
2: Due to rubbing action of fabric with particular parts of garments and body.
3: Due to soft twisted yarn.
4: Due to excess short fibers.
5: Due to migration of fibers from constituent yarn in fabric.
6: Due to protruding fiber / yarn hairiness.
7: Due to heat in case of thermoplastic fibers.

Figure: ICI pilling box tester machine

Working Procedure of pilling test:

1: For the test four specimens each 5 inch X 5 inch are cut from the fabric.
2: A seam allowance of 12mm is marked on the back of each square. In two of the samples the
seam is marked parallel to the warp direction and in the other two parallel to the weft direction.
3: The samples are then folded face to face and a seam is sewn on the marked line.
4: This gives two specimens with the seam parallel to the warp and two with the seam parallel to
the weft.
5: Each specimen is turned inside out and 6mm cut off each end of it thus removing any sewing
distortion.
5: The fabric tubes made are then mounted on rubber tubes so that the length of tube showing at
each end is the same. Each of the loose ends is taped with poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) tape so
that 6mm of the rubber tube is left exposed as shown in Figure.
6: All four specimens are then placed in one pilling box.
7: The samples are then tumbled together in a cork-lined box.
8: The usual number of revolutions used in the test is 18,000 which take 5 hrs.

Flame retardant/flame resistance test of fabric:

Flame-retardant fabrics are functional textile fabrics woven from materials that are inherently
flame retardant or treated with a flame retardant finish. They are effective in preventing the
spread of flame. Flame retardant fabrics are not flame retardant in the sense that they do not burn
when they come into contact with an ignition source, but rather that they slow down the spread
of flame when a fire occurs and do not form a large area of combustion; and when they leave the
flame, they can quickly self-extinguish and no longer burn or ignite; they also have good durable
washing properties.
Commonly used textile flame retardant materials: permanent flame retardant polyester, modified
acrylic, aramid, aramid, polyimide, carbon fibre, glass fibre, pre-oxygenated fibre
Combustion test method:
The combustion test method is mainly used to determine the burning extensiveness (charring
area and length of damage), renewal time and negative combustion time of a specimen. A
specimen of a certain size is ignited in a prescribed combustion chamber with a prescribed fire
source for 12 s. After removal of the fire source, the renewal time and negative combustion time
of the specimen are measured. After the negative ignition has ceased, the length of damage is
measured according to the prescribed method. Depending on the position of the specimen in
relation to the flame, it can be divided into the vertical method, the 45° tilt method and the
horizontal method
Figure: Combustion test
Vertical method:
This method provides for the specimen to be placed vertically (the length of the specimen is
perpendicular to the horizontal line) and the burning source to ignite the specimen below the
specimen. The specimen is tested for minimum ignition time, renewal time, flame retardation
time, flame spread rate, char length (damage length), char area (damage area) and other
indicators related to flame retardancy. The vertical burning method is mainly used for testing the
flame resistance of textiles for clothing, curtains and other fabrics.

Figure: Multi-purpose Textile Flammability Tester TF319

45° burning method:
This test method provides for the specimen to be placed at an angle of 45° (the length of the
specimen is at an angle of 45° to the horizontal) and for the burning source to ignite the specimen
on the upper or lower surface below the specimen and measure the time required for the
specimen to burn upwards for a certain distance, or the time required for the specimen to burn
upwards, the flame retardant time, the rate of flame spread, the length of charring, the charred
area or the number of times the specimen needs to be exposed to the flame at a certain distance
from the lower end of the specimen. The 45° tilt method is mainly used for testing the flame
resistance of fabrics such as carpets.

Figure: 45 Degree Flammability Tester

Oxygen Limiting Index (LOI) method:

The oxygen limit index method is a widely used method for testing the burning properties of
textiles, which refers to the minimum oxygen concentration required to maintain the burning
state of the material in the oxygen and nitrogen gas mixture under the specified experimental
conditions, expressed as LOI, LOI is the percentage of the volume of oxygen in the gas mixture.
Clamp on the burning cylinder perpendicular to the upward flow of oxygen and nitrogen gas
flow, ignite the upper end of the specimen, observe its combustion characteristics, and the
prescribed limit value to compare its continued combustion time or length of damage. By testing
a series of specimens in different oxygen concentrations, the minimum oxygen concentration
value expressed as a percentage of oxygen to maintain combustion can be measured, with 40-
60% of the specimens tested exceeding the specified renewal and negative ignition times or
lengths of destruction.
Figure: Oxygen Limiting Index (LOI) tester

Smokiness test method:

According to the long-term accumulation of various types of fire information, analysis of the
smoke and toxicity of combustion materials, the harm is often more serious than the flame and
heat generated during combustion, is the main cause of human death. There are special
instruments and equipment for this type of test, both at home and abroad, and the principle is
mostly based on the light transmission method. The smoke density is measured by the
transmittance and time curve can be derived from a variety of parameters, including optical
density, maximum smoke density, average smoke rate and light transmission rate, from the
maximum to 75% (than the optical density) of the time required, so that a more comprehensive
evaluation of the smoke of flame retardant textile materials. These instruments and test methods
are often used in the construction and transport sectors to study and select flame retardant
materials.
Measurement of fastness of light, washing and rubbing . Estimation of
damage to material causes by physical and chemical treatment viz. singeing
scouring, bleaching, determination of size and filling.

What is Color Fastness?

Colour fastness is defined as property of pigment or dye to retain its original hue, especially
without fading, running, or changing when wetted, washed, cleaning, when exposed to light,
heat, or other influences.
Measurement of fastness of light:
The influence of light on the fading of dyes is a complex phenomenon influenced by many
variables, making predictive tests for color fastness to light difficult to establish. The depth of
shade, presence of unwanted chemicals, humidity, temperature, presence of atmospheric
impurities and spectral quality and intensity of the incident light all have a bearing on the end
result. There are a large number of different light fastness tests available on the market. Each has
its advantages and disadvantages. The most commonly used are the xenon arc and MBTF lamp;
however, carbon arc and natural sunlight are also used.
Light Fastness Measurement Methods:

1. Direct method: Sunlight method:

Samples are placed in a glass cabinet and exposed to sunlight from 9 am to 3 pm.
2. Laboratory instrument method:
 Fade-o-meter
 Weather-o-meter
Colour Fastness to Light with the Microsol Light Fastness Tester:
The testing is done step by step. Following step is maintained during measure the color fatness to
light:
1: Cut the four pieces of test specimens according to the length and width wise and attached with
the specimen holder.
2: Then the holder set in to the Microsol light fastness tester.
3: Then the experiment continued at 72 hours according to the buyer’s requirement.
4: After 72 hours later the specimen taken from the light fastness tester.
5: Then the test specimen compare with the Blue scales machines have either a carbon-arc lamp
or xenon-arc lamp as the light source.
Measurement of fastness to washing:
Preparation for Testing:
>Cut the specimen to the size of 10 cm x 4 cm.
>Cut the standard covering fabric to the sample size.
>Stitch all the 4 sides by sandwiching the test specimen between the two standard covering
fabric.

Testing Procedure:
1: Take soap solution in the ratio of 1:50 (For 1 gm of material 50 ml of soap solution) in the
pots of laundrometer
2: Set the laundrometer at 60°C
3: Then introduced the weighed previously prepared specimen in to the pots.4)
4: Start the machine and run it for 30 min.
5: After 30 min take out the specimen and wash with water., then dry in the air oven at
temperature at 50 ° C.
6: Take out the soap solution from the laundrometer and compare the same with fresh soap
solution and observe for colour bleeding
7: Compare the tested specimen with fresh sample and observe the colour fastness to washing
with the help of grey scale
Measurement of fastness of rubbing:
Testing Procedure:
Dry sampling:
>Cut the specimen having dimension more than 8 x 20 cm.
>Mount the specimen on the emery paper platform of the instrument lightly avoiding wrinkling
or fold.
>Cut a white cotton fabric having a size of 5 x 5 cm (approximate)
>Fix the test specimen to the rubbing finger with the help of specimen holder.
>Place the rubbing finger (with rubbing white cotton) over the sample and give 10 rubs/second
by rotating the handle in clockwise only.
> After 10 rubs remove the white piece and compare it with original white fabric and assessing
the staining on white cloth with the help of grey scale.
Wet sampling:
1: Cut the specimen having dimension more than 8 x 20 cm.
2: Mount the specimen on the emery paper platform of the instrument lightly avoiding wrinkling
or fold.
3: Cut a white cotton fabric having a size of 5 x 5 cm
4: Wet the white fabric with water and squeeze excess water.
5: Fix the test specimen to the rubbing finger with the help of specimen holder.
6: Place the rubbing finger (with rubbing white cotton) over the sample and give 10 rubs/second
by rotating the handle in clockwise only.
7: After 10 rubs remove the white piece and compare it with original white fabric and assessing
the staining on white cloth with the help of grey scale.
8: After the test dry the white fabric in white condition.
9: Then assess for staining with the help of grey scale.

Estimation of damage to material causes by physical and chemical treatment viz. singeing
scouring, bleaching, Determination of size and filling:
Estimation damage of material for singeing:
A. Incomplete Singeing
The most common causes of incomplete singeing are as follows:
 Too low flame intensity
 Too fast fabric speed
 Too far distance between the fabric and the burner
 Inappropriate (i.e. less severe) singeing position
 Too much moisture in the fabric incoming for singeing.
If the fabric incoming for singeing has too much moisture in it, a significant amount of thermal
energy will be used up in evaporating the fabric moisture rather than burning the protruding
fibres, resulting in incomplete singeing.
B. Uneven Singeing Across the Fabric Width
The most common causes of width ways uneven singeing are as follows:

1: Non-uniform moisture content across the fabric width

2: Non-uniform flame intensity (uneven flame height) across the fabric width
3: Uneven distance between the burner and the fabric
a) This may be due to misalignment or improper setting of the guide rollers
4: Uneven smoke evacuation over the burners

C. Uneven Singeing Along the Fabric Length

The most common causes of lengthways uneven singeing are as follows:
1: Non-uniform moisture content along the fabric length
2: Non-uniform flame intensity along the fabric length
3: Variation in gas-air mixture supply
4: Increasing or decreasing thermal energy of the flames during production
5: Change in fabric speed during singeing
6: Change in the distance between the fabric and the burner along the length

D. Horizontal Singeing Stripes

The most common causes of horizontal singeing stripes are as follows:
1: Rollers with an un-centered rolling action
2: Sudden fabric tension increase

E. Vertical Singeing Stripes

This may be caused by:
 Total or partial blockage of flame outlet
F. Over-singing or Thermal Damage of the Fabric
The most common causes of over-singeing or thermal damage of the fabric are as follows:
1: Too high flame intensity
2: Too slow fabric speed or too long contact time between fabric and flame
3: Too close distance between the fabric and the burner or too deep penetration of the singeing
flame into the fabric
4: Inappropriate (i.e. too severe) singeing position
G. Formation of Small Beads of Molten Material
This may be cause by:
1: Insufficient energy supply, when the thermal energy is not supplied quickly enough to be able
to ignite the thermoplastic fiber rather than melting it.

Estimation damage of material for scouring:

 Strength loss of the fabric.
 Wet loss of the fabric.
 Yarn distance is bigger then before scouring.
Estimated damage of material for bleaching:
Damages of Bleaching: A number of varieties of product easily oxidized by cellulose which is
known as oxy-cellulose. Now a day’s scouring and bleaching is a combination process. Loss of
strength is the causes of formation of oxy-cellulose. There are three point at which oxidizing
agent can attack the glucose molecule.
 Harsh Feeling: As stabilizer if we use sodium silicate then this silicate is precipitate on
the fabric and that’s why fabric become harsh.
 Chloramines Reaction: Chloramines reaction will occur in hypochlorite bleaching. So
antichlor treatment is done. For that the permanency of whiteness is damaged and fabric
becomes yellowish.

 Uneven Bleaching:
1: For all types of machine faults.
2: Faults in bleaching agent.
3: In efficient dosing.
4: Inadequate raw materials.
5: Alkalinity may remain: To destroy alkalinity we used acetic acid. Dye hydrolysis and dye
wastage causes of alkalinity and also reduced the fastness.
6: Residual peroxide causes uneven dyeing. Dye wastage and shade variation.
7: Iron stain.
Estimation of Damage:
Physically: By testing strength before and after bleaching.
Chemically: There are several methods. These are,
1: Fluidity test.
2: Copper number test.
3: Methylene blue test.

Carpet testing-carpet thickness, compression and durability, identification of

fabric.

Carpet thickness testing:

\
Carpet is a floor-covering textile having surface formed from yarns or fibers projecting from a
substrate. Fabric thickness is a parameter of fabric which involves handle, creasing, wrinkle
resistance, thermal resistance and other fabric properties. A carpet is compressible and therefore
it is necessary to specify at what pressure its thickness is to be measured.
Anderson and Clegg state:
Thickness as estimated by eye is similar to that measured by an instrument at low pressure, and
by measuring thickness at increasing and decreasing pressures in the range exerted by a human
foot, pressures of the order of 0-12 lb/in2 normally being encountered, we can obtain a measure
of the behavior of carpets to imposed loads. Essentially the determination of fabric thickness
consists of the precise measurement of the distance between two plain parallel plates when they
are separated by the cloth, a known arbitrary pressure between the plates being applied and
maintained. It is convenient to regard one of the two plates as the pressure foot and the other as
anvil. The Shirley thickness tester has such two parallel plates. The upper plate serves as a collar
and supports for the additional load which produce pressure. The dial gauge is graduated in mm
which indicates the thickness of the carpet.
Working procedure of carpet thickness testing:
1: At first we will take our sample carpet and cuts it with a knife.
2: Place the carpet on the lower plate and bring down the upper plate on it.
3: Load the dead weight on the collar and takes the reading from the dial gauge.
4: Now add the other additional weights one after another on the collar to increase the weight.
And take the readings from the dial gauge.
5: After taking the last reading we will wait for 5 mins for the action of the weights on the carpet.
6: Then we will again unload the weights from the collar one by one and take the reading of the
thickness.
7: From the beginning thickness and the last thickness of the carpet after compression we will
find out the compression of the carpet and the recovery percentage.

Carpet durability testing:

Carpets can work wonders at home. Compared to having tiles or vinyl flooring, carpets provide a
soft haven for kids to play; thus, reducing risks of serious injuries, while acting as shock
absorbers for your feet. Nothing could compare to the cozy relaxing ambiance carpets from the
local carpet stores can bring to any room.
Durability must be the first thing to consider and this can be accomplished through getting the
right balance of three factors: twist, fiber and density.

Carpet Fiber
The manufacturing of carpets involves converting of the main material, natural or synthetic,
fibers into yarns or locked to form the surface we walk on with a backing to hold them together.
The present places to buy carpet near me market offers 4 types of fibers namely wool, nylon,
polyester and polypropylene.
Nylon is the most popular among the cheapest place to buy carpet due to its ability to withstand
the average wear and tear. It is a man-made fiber that comes in different colors, but also gives the
same softness as wool at a lesser cost.
Carpet Density
Density is the measure of the number of piles in a carpet and the distance of each tuft. In other
words, density means quality. The higher the density the better quality you can expect from your
carpet. Using your fingers, inspect the density by pressing it until you feel its backing. You can
also ask the experts from top “carpeting stores near me’ search results for guidance.
Carpet Twist
Twist refers to the way the filaments were woven into a yarn and how this is then twisted to form
the pile. It determines the way carpets can resist any change whether in its appearance or its
texture. If you are looking for the best quality, look for tighter twists.
Now that you know what to look for, go to the exact place of “where to buy carpet near me” top
search results. Unlike shopping for other items for your home, getting the right carpet cannot be
done by only basing it on how it looks. There are factors which need to be considered to make
sure that you are not only taking home the softest carpet, but also one that carries the most value
for your money.
Carpet compression testing:
Compression testing measures how a carpet deforms and recovers when subjected to a
compressive force. This is important because carpets are often subject to foot traffic and
furniture loads, which can compress the fibers and backing over time.
 Pile Type and Density: The type of pile and density can affect compression resistance.
Denser carpets and those with higher-quality fibers often perform better.
 Backing Material: The backing material can influence how the carpet compresses and
recovers.
 Usage Environment: Consider the intended use and environment of the carpet when
interpreting compression test results. For example, carpets used in commercial settings
may require better performance characteristics than those used in residential settings.
Procedure:
 Place the Sample: Position the carpet sample on a flat, rigid surface that is aligned with
the testing machine.
 Apply the Load: Apply a specified static load to the carpet through the loading platen.
The load is typically expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) or Newton’s per square
millimeter (N/mm²).The load is applied for a standard period, often 24 hours, to simulate
long-term compression.
 Measure the Indentation: After the load is removed, measure the depth of the indentation
left in the carpet. This measurement indicates how much the carpet has compressed under
the load.
 Recovery Test (Optional): In some cases, a recovery test is conducted to evaluate how
well the carpet rebounds after the load is removed. The sample is left to recover for a
specified period, and the indentation depth is measured again.
Nonwoven bonded web tensile strength evaluation

Introduction:
Nonwoven bonded fabrics are made by mechanically, chemically, or thermally bonding fibers
together. Unlike woven or knitted fabrics, nonwovens do not have a distinct yarn structure but
are formed from randomly oriented fibers. The bonding method can significantly influence the
material's properties, including tensile strength.
Tensile strength testing for nonwoven bonded web:
Preparing the Sample:
 Sample Size and Shape: Prepare samples of a standard size and shape, typically
rectangular strips. Common dimensions are 25 mm x 200 mm or 50 mm x 200 mm, but
these can vary based on the testing standards you are following.
 Ensure that the samples are cut neatly to avoid any irregularities that could affect the test
results.
Testing Standards
Refer to recognized testing standards such as:
 ASTM D5034: Standard Test Method for Breaking Strength and Elongation of Textile
Fabrics (Grab Test).
 ISO 10319: Geotextiles - Wide-width tensile test.
 ISO 9073-3: Textiles - Nonwoven fabrics - Part 3: Determination of tensile strength.
These standards will provide guidelines on sample preparation, testing conditions, and
calculation methods.
Testing Procedure:
Equipment: Use a universal testing machine (UTM) equipped with appropriate grips for
nonwoven materials. Ensure that the machine is calibrated and functioning correctly.
Procedure:
1: Clamp the sample securely in the testing machine.
2: Apply a tensile load at a controlled rate. The rate of extension and the load application should
be according to the testing standard being used.
3: Record the maximum load applied before the sample breaks. This is the breaking strength.
Calculating Tensile Strength
Breaking Strength:
The breaking strength is the maximum load the material can withstand before failure.
Tensile Strength:
Calculate tensile strength by dividing the breaking strength by the cross-sectional area of the
sample.
Tensile Strength=Breaking Strength / Cross-Sectional Area
The cross-sectional area is typically calculated from the width and thickness of the sample.

Spectroscopy and Chromatography

Spectroscopy:
An instrument that is used for measuring the properties of light in a certain portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum is known as a spectroscope. Spectroscope is also known as optical
spectroscope, spectrophotometer or spectrograph. Usually, the spectrometer present in the
spectroscope will produce spectral lines and help them to measure wavelengths and intensities of
light.
Types of Spectroscopy:
Here, a few important types of spectroscopy with their properties and applications are explained
below.
IR Spectroscopy
Infrared spectroscopy will mainly deal with the electromagnetic spectrum lying in the infrared
region. They mainly work on absorption spectroscopy. IR spectroscopy is mainly used for
identifying the chemical composition of the material. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)
spectrometers mainly use IR spectroscopy techniques. The electromagnetic spectrum of infrared
is mainly classified into three types namely, near-infrared, far-infrared and mid-infrared. The
near-infrared ranges between 14000-4000 cm-1, which will help to study overtone or harmonic
vibrations. The mid-infrared ranges from 4000-400 cm-1, which will help to study the
fundamental vibrations and associated rotational-vibration structure. The mid-infrared ranges
from 400-10 cm-1, which will help to study microwave regions that have low energy and may be
used for rotational spectroscopy.
UV Spectroscopy
Ultraviolet spectroscopy is also known as absorption spectroscopy or reflectance spectroscopy.
The electromagnetic spectrum of the ultraviolet region lies adjacent to the infrared region. UV
spectroscopy is mainly used for bacteria culture, drug identification and to check nucleic acid
purity.
Mass Spectroscopy
Mass spectroscopy is mainly useful for studying the protein-protein interaction. So, Mass
spectroscopy can be used for identifying bimolecular or proteins present in biological samples.
The detector of this mass spectroscopy will analyses the substance based on mass and charge
ratio. Here, ion deflection is mainly based on mass, velocity and charge.
Raman Spectroscopy
Usually, Raman spectroscopy works based on the absorption of photons. The Raman
spectroscopy will analyze the material based on the scattering of photons at a higher or lower
frequency. While photons incident the molecules or atoms, they may either gain energy or lose
energy based on the vibration or rotation of the molecules. If most of the incident photons get
scattered by the sample without the changes in frequency, then the scattering process is known as
Rayleigh scattering. Usually, the Raman spectra will be the monochromatic visible laser. The
scanning optical monochromator with a phototube is used as a detector for analysing the
radiation.
Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Fluorescence Spectroscopy is one of the important types of electromagnetic spectroscopy. They
are mainly used for the fluorescence of a sample. Usually, UV lights are used in fluorescence
spectroscopy. Fluorescence spectroscopy is mainly used for analysing organic components in
biochemical, medical, and chemical research fields. By using microfluorimetry, fluorescence
spectroscopy can be adopted for the microscopic level. By using the Atomic Fluorescence
Spectroscopy (AFS) techniques, we can find the compound present in air or water, or other
media.
FTIR Spectroscopy
FTIR Spectroscopy is also known as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. This technique is
obtained by an infrared spectrum of absorption or emission of a solid, liquid or gas. FTIR
spectroscopy is widely used for analysing nano and biological materials, water content
determination in plastics and compositions, detectors in chromatography...etc.

Application of Spectroscopy:
1: Spectroscopy is mainly used for studying the structure of molecules and atoms. Spectroscopy
will use a large wavelength to investigate the structure and electron configurations of atoms and
molecules.
2: Spectroscopy can also be used for finding the unknown chemical composition of materials.
Spectroscopy’s emission spectrum will help to concentrate on a few parts per million of a trace
element in a material.
3: The study of the spectral emission lines will help astronomers to study distant galaxies. This
will help to analyse the universe in all directions. Astronomers will also use the doppler shift of
spectral lines for observations. Usually, a doppler shift will occur when the source of radiation
like stars, nebula moves relative to an observer.
Examples of Spectroscopy Applications:
 Monitoring diffused oxygen content in freshwater and aquatic ecosystems.
 Determining the atomic structure of a sample.
 Determining the metabolic structure of a muscle.
 Studying spectral emission lines of distant galaxies.
 Altering the structure of drugs to improve the effectiveness.
 Space exploration
 Characterization of proteins
 Respiratory gas analysis in hospital.

Chromatography

Chromatography is the technique for the separation, purification, and testing of compounds.
The term “chromatography” is derived from Greek, chroma meaning, “colour,” and graphein
meaning “to write.”
In this process, we apply the mixture to be separated on a stationary phase (solid or liquid) and a
pure solvent such as water or any gas is allowed to move slowly over the stationary phase,
carrying the components separately as per their solubility in the pure solvent.

Principles of Chromatography:
Chromatography is a separation method where the analyte is combined within a liquid or gaseous
mobile phase., which is pumped through a stationary phase. Usually one phase is hydrophilic and
the other is lipophilic. The components of the analyte interact differently with these two phases.
Depending on their polarity they spend more or less time interacting with the stationary phase
and are thus retarded to a greater or lesser extent. This leads to the separation of the different
components present in the sample. Each sample component elutes from the stationary phase at a
specific time called as retention time. As the components pass through the detector their signal is
recorded and plotted in the form of a chromatogram.
Types of Chromatography
The four main types of chromatography are
1. Adsorption Chromatography
In the process of adsorption chromatography, different compounds are adsorbed on the adsorbent
to different degrees based on the absorptivity of the component. Here also, a mobile phase is
made to move over a stationary phase, thus carrying the components with higher absorptivity to a
lower distance than that with lower absorptivity. The main types of chromatographic techniques
that are used in industries are given as under.

.
2. Thin Layer Chromatography
In the process of thin-layer chromatography (TLC), the mixture of substances is separated into
its components with the help of a glass plate coated with a very thin layer of adsorbent, such as
silica gel and alumina, as shown in the figure below.
The plate used for this process is known as chrome plate. The solution of the mixture to be
separated is applied as a small spot at a distance of 2 cm above one end of the plate. The plate is
then placed in a closed jar containing a fluid termed as an eluant, which then rises up the plate
carrying different components of the mixture to different heights.
3. Column Chromatography
Column chromatography is the technique used to separate the components of a mixture using a
column of suitable adsorbent packed in a glass tube, as shown in the figure below. The mixture is
placed on the top of the column, and an appropriate eluant is made to flow down the column
slowly.
Depending upon the degree of adsorption of the components on the wall adsorbent column, the
separation of the components takes place. The component with the highest absorptivity is
retained at the top, while the other flow down to different heights accordingly.

4. Partition chromatography
In this process, a continuous differential partitioning of components of a mixture into a stationary
phase and mobile phase takes place. The example of partition chromatography can be seen in
paper chromatography. In this process, chromatography paper is used as a stationary phase
which is suspended in a mixture of solvents that act as a mobile phase.

Here, we put a spot at the base of the chromatographic paper with the mixture to be separated
and as the solvent rises up this paper, the components are carried to different degrees depending
upon their retention on the paper. The components are thus separated at different heights.
What is Differential Extraction?
Differential extraction is the method of separation of any organic component present in an
aqueous solution. In this process, we use an organic solvent for which the solubility of the
desired compound is more than compared to that in water. Also, the organic solvent is chosen
such that it is immiscible with the aqueous solution so that it can form layers and can be
separated easily using a separating funnel.
The organic compound is later recovered by the process of distillation or evaporation. The
process of continuous extraction is used in cases when the solubility of the compound is less in
the organic solvent.
Applications of Chromatography:
In bio analytical chemistry, chromatography is mainly used for the separation, isolation and
purification of proteins from complex sample matrices. In cells for example, proteins occur
alongside numerous other compounds such as lipids and nucleic acids. In order to be analysed,
these proteins must be separated from all the other cell components. Then the proteins of interest
might have to be isolated from other proteins and purified further.

Chromatography is an essential part of almost any protein purification strategy. A number of

different chromatographic techniques are used for the purification and analysis of proteins. They
can be classified according to the physical principle involved in the separation process. Typical
examples include reversed phase chromatography, ion exchange chromatography, affinity
chromatography and size exclusion chromatography.

E-Textiles

E-textiles, also known as electronic textiles or smart textiles, are fabrics that enable digital
components (including small computers), and electronics to be embedded in them.
Electronics in textiles is an emerging interdisciplinary field of research that brings together
specialists in information technology, Microsystems, materials and textiles. E-textile is short for
electronic or electro-textile. E-textiles are also called conductive clothing, electronic clothing,
and soft circuits. The wearable electronic textiles arena has generated a massive demand and
significant opportunities stem from increased consumer demand for lightweight electronic
devices integrated with clothing.
Properties of e-textiles:
1: Flexible
2: No wires to snag environment
3; Large surface area for sensing
4: Invisible to others
5: Cheap manufacturing
6: Permeability
7: Strength
8: Thermal Resistance
9: Electrical resistance
\
Types of electronic textiles:
The field of electronic textiles can be divided into two main types:
1: Electronic textiles with classical electronic devices such as conductors, integrated circuits,
LEDs, and conventional batteries embedded into garments.
2: Electronic textiles with electronics integrated directly into the textile substrates. This can
include either passive electronics such as conductors and resistors or active components like
transistors, diodes, and solar cells.
Most research and commercial e-textile projects are hybrids where electronic components
embedded in the textile are connected to classical electronic devices or components. Some
examples are touch buttons that are constructed completely in textile forms by using conducting
textile weaves, which are then connected to devices such as music players or LEDs that are
mounted on woven conducting fiber networks to form displays. Printed sensors for both
physiological and environmental monitoring have been integrated into textiles including cotton,
Gore-Tex, and neoprene.
Manufacturing of Electronic Textiles:
A thread can be made to conduct electricity by either coating it with metals like copper or silver.
It can also be made conductive by combining cotton or nylon fibers with metal fibers when it is
spun.
Inputs for electronic textiles:
To obtain information for wearable devices components such as sensors are often used, for
instance, environmental sensors, antennas, global positioning system receivers, sound sensors
and cameras. Such sensors can be divided on active and passive (Langenhove & Hertleer, 2004)
(Seymour, 2009). Active inputs are controlled by a user via a tactile or acoustic feedback system,
which provides an intuitive interaction with the garment. Passive inputs collect biometric data
from the human body as well as environmental data collected via wireless transmission system.
Construction of electronic textiles:
 Lily Pad Arduino
 Fabric kit.
 Aniomagic
 Flora
Conductive fabrics and textiles are plated or woven with metallic elements such as silver, nickel,
tin, copper, and aluminum these are: electro-nylon, electr-onylon nickel, clear-mesh, soft-mesh,
electro-lycra and steel-cloth. All these textiles show amazing electrical properties, with low
surface resistance15, which can be used for making flexible and soft electrical circuits within
garments or other products, pressure and position-sensing systems. They are lightweight,
flexible, durable, soft and washable (some) and can be sewn like traditional textiles, which
makes them a great replacement for wires in computational garments.
Conductive threads and yarns have a similar purpose to wires and that is to create conductive
paths from one point to another. However, unlike wires they are flexible and can be sewn, woven
or embroidered onto textile, allowing for soft circuits to be created. Conductive threads and yarns
offer alternative ways of connecting electronics on soft and flexible textiles medium as well
offering traditional textile manufacturing techniques for creating computational garments.

Figure: conductive threads

Conductive coatings are used to convert traditional textiles into electrically conductive materials.
The coatings can be applied to different types of traditional fibers, yarns and fabrics, without
changing their flexibility, density and handling.

Conductive ink is an ink that conducts electricity, providing new ways of printing or drawing
circuits. This special ink can be applied to textile and other substrates. Conductive inks contain
powdered metals such as carbon, copper or silver mixed with traditional inks.
Advancement:
Some of the most advanced functions that have been demonstrated in the lab include:
 Organic fiber transistors: The first textile fiber transistor that is completely compatible
with textile manufacturing and that contains no metals at all.
 Organic solar cells on fibers
Applications of Electronic Textiles:
The use of fabric as station to deploy electrical components results in wearable electrical/
computing devices. Early electric and electronic textiles had components added to existing
garments. Later, functionality was added by incorporating conducting yarns into fabrics to
produce sensors, switches, and actuators.
EXO Technologies has developed heated gloves for use by skiers, motorcyclists, and the
military. The heating elements are knitted from novel polymeric Fabric yarn.

Figure: EXO heated glove

The main important stakeholders for wearable electronics in textiles are end users and a short
overview of the major application of wearable electronics is given as under:
1. Retailer Support
A successful embedded electronics for retailer support should cover the needs in logistics, such
as stock control, quality insurance control and anti-theft protection. For this purpose, there are
several integrated RF indent-tags already in use. These tags consist mainly of an RF antenna
used to transfer energy to the indent-tag and to establish a communication link between the tag
and the control equipment. The most primitive tags consist of a simple antenna-capacitor
resonance circuit. The more complex ones contain simple micro-controllers and non-volatile
memories.
2. Service Support
Service support is more important in developed countries like Europe and United States. Here
consumer tends to sort clothes into different categories before washing. Therefore, the washing
machines are able to treat the clothes in very different ways. Naturally, it happens rarely that a
black sock is hiding in a white shirt. This results in coloured shine on the originally white
clothes. The consumer can avoid such accidents if the washing machine recognizes type, number
and required optimal treatment of the clothes to be washed. In case of conflict, an error message
is generated.
3. User Convenience
Built-in electronics may control and support more advanced textile functionalities like
temperature, moisture, etc. For that purpose, secure heating and cooling elements are necessary.

Figure: Smart clothes

4. User Interfacing
User interfacing enables the interfacing between the user and electronic belongings or external
(out of body) networks and terminals. Sound, gesture and temperature may control such
interfaces. Suitable components are microphones, loudspeaker, textile keyboards, flexible
displays and more complex devices.
5. Appliance Networking
The networking between different electronic modules is a key feature necessary for the
application of user interfaces. One scenario might be the connection of a cellular phone ported in
the right pocket, with a personal digital assistant (PDA) in the left pocket, Bluetooth interface in
the trousers and the user interface integrated into the coat.
6. Networking with External Networks
The networking with external networks can be done in real time or by batch processing, online
and offline. Another offline method might be the use of exchangeable storage elements like
multimedia cards, etc. Wearable computers have the potential to enhance the day-to-day
activities of the user.
There are also lots of scopes and application is going on around the globe in the recent area due
to its state-of-art and portable quality. Now electronic textiles are widely used in military
applications, medical applications, fashion and accessories. In current pandemic situation
(Covid-19) where thermal scanning is an important aspect, temperature sensing integrated textile
can be very useful for detecting fever of any individual.
References:
 https://www.testextextile.com/the-testing-of-water-permeability-and-waterproofing-of-
fabrics/
 https://textilelearner.net/air-permeability-test-for-fabric/#google_vignette
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/crease-recovery
 https://textilestudycenter.com/pilling-test-of-fabric/
 https://textilelearner.net/color-fastness-to-light/\
 https://www.textilesphere.com/2020/04/colour-fastness-in-textile-testing.html
 https://textilelearner.net/how-to-determine-carpet-thickness/
 http://candlflooring.com/determine-carpet-durability/?
fbclid=IwY2xjawFXVQ1leHRuA2FlbQIxMAABHakA6mIt5JPfmIAifuAhuer_im-
AmZQQ3k4_QpSDgSiIzl5f9ZT3JGp64A_aem_WH6NbCmkgctaShsh3BOltQ
 https://www.vedantu.com/physics/spectroscopy
 https://byjus.com/chemistry/differential-extraction-chromatography/
 https://textilelearner.net/electronic-textiles/
 https://www.fibre2fashion.com/industry-article/3474/singeing-fundamentals
 http://www.definetextile.com/2014/01/faults-damages-of-bleaching.html