Received March 23, 2022, accepted April 10, 2022, date of publication April 18, 2022, date of current

version April 28, 2022.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3168727

A Comprehensive Analysis of Wireless Charging

Systems for Electric Vehicles
NAOUI MOHAMED 1 , FLAH AYMEN 1 , TURKI E. A. ALHARBI 2 , CLAUDE ZIAD EL-BAYEH 3 ,
SBITA LASSAAD1 , SHERIF S. M. GHONEIM 2 , (Senior Member, IEEE), AND URSULA EICKER4
1 ResearchUnit of Energy Processes Environment and Electrical Systems, National Engineering School of Gabes, University of Gabés, Gabés 6029, Tunisia
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Taif University, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
3 Department of Electrical Engineering, Bayeh Institute, Amchit 110393, Lebanon
4 Canada Excellence Research Chair Team, Concordia University, Montreal, QC H3G 1M8, Canada

Corresponding author: Naoui Mohamed ([email protected])

This work was supported in part by the Canada Excellence Research Chair in Smart, Sustainable and Resilient Communities and Cities;
in part by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery under Grant RGPIN-2016-06727; and in
part by the Taif University Researchers Supporting, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia, under Project TURSP-2020/34.

ABSTRACT In the coming years, major transportation sectors will be electrified, in which more accessible
and easy solutions for charging Electric Vehicles (EVs) become vital. Wireless charging is considered one
of the best and easiest methods to charge EVs anywhere, even during the driving of cars. To get accurate
charging power rates while charging wirelessly, advanced mathematical models are needed to accurately
present the charging power. Such models must take into consideration all the coils parameters, shapes, the
used compensation topology, and if the system is static or dynamic. This paper presents a comprehensive
analysis of the wireless charging systems adapted for EVs by stating the most common charging topologies,
and architectures, and by concentrating on the corresponding mathematical models used to calculate the
given electrical power as a function of the EV’s situation on streets and its speed. Then, it is possible to
evaluate the EV autonomy, and an accurate approximation can be determined when EV is on a wireless
charging road. Even with the citation and comparison between the two studied models, this paper opens some
perspectives for energy transmitter tools and tries to explain how renewable energy can help the deployment
of this technology.

INDEX TERMS Dynamic mode, electric vehicle, modeling, static mode, topologies, wireless recharge,
renewable energy.

ABBREVIATIONS k Magnetic coupling constant.

EVs Electric Vehicles.
Ls Secondary inductance (H).
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicles.
Lp Primary inductance (H).
WPT Wireless Power Transfer.
Zp Primary impedance ().
IPT Inductive Power Transfer.
Zs Secondary impedance ().
V2G Vehicle to Grid.
Ip Primary current (A).
WCSEV Wireless Charging System for Electric
Is Secondary current (A).
Vehicle.
Vp Primary voltage (V).
W-V2G Wireless Vehicle to Grid.
Vs Second voltage (V).
S-WCSEV Static Wireless Charging System for EV.
I1 Source current (A).
D-WCSEV Dynamic Wireless Charging System for EV.
I2 Load current (A).
DS-WCSEV Dynamic and Static Wireless Charging
Cs Secondary capacitance (F).
System for EV.
Cp Primary capacitance (F).
Q1 Primary and secondary quality factors.
LIST OF SYMBOLS Q2 secondary quality factors.
M Mutual inductance (H).
Ps Secondary power (W).
 Oscillation angular frequency (rad/sec).
Pp Primary Power (W).
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and La Primary leakage inductance (H).
approving it for publication was Asad Waqar Malik . Lb Secondary leakage inductance (H).

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
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RL Load (). for all-electric vehicles to facilitate the charging process and
η The efficiency of the power transfer (%). improve drivers’ satisfaction.
η2 Efficiency of the second part. Despite the significant development of the charging solu-
η1 Efficiency of the primer part. tion, this system still contains many defects and problems
Z1 The global impedance of the primary coil (). that have been developed and are still scalable. Major related
V1 Source voltage (V). drawbacks were treated in [17]. In this work, the authors
Rs Secondary resistance (). analyzed the discrepancies in the loop design of the coils and
Rp Primary resistance (). the electromagnetic shielding elements for wireless charging
nc Number of receiver coils. systems and showed the negative effect of electromagnetic
r1 Primary radius (m). interference on the system’s efficiency. Also, in [8], the
r2 Secondary radius (m). authors presented the problem of coils position, the impact of
h Height (m). the number of receiver coils, and the influence of the distance
µ0 Permeability of free space (H/m). between the transmitter and receiver. The authors pointed
out that these elements have negative impacts on the quality
of given electrical power. Also, they explained that the coil
I. INTRODUCTION parameters concerning the used metal type, have significant
The number of electric vehicles (EVs) has been steadily impacts on efficiency. On the other side, it is essential to men-
growing since the beginning of the 21st century [1]. However, tion that the automotive interior will be influenced by the high
the limitations of the charging time of the battery [2] and frequency resonant provided by the transmitter. Especially,
the autonomy are a hindrance to the use of the technol- if the wireless charging tool is used, when the EV is charging.
ogy [3]. The direct consequence is the intrusion of chargers Many research papers are developing new technologies and
and power cables into our daily lives, which increasingly methods to improve the conditions for using wireless charge
tends to limit the mobility offered by vehicles [4]–[6]. Much systems.
research effort has gone into solving these problems, and In [18] and [19], the authors investigated dynamic and
wireless power transfer (WPT) to EVs has become evident static modeling to improve the efficiency of the EV wireless
and feasible to solve this problem [7]–[9]. Many years ago, charging systems. The inspected model relied on the mutual
WPT systems using high intensity, time-varying electromag- inductance related to primary and secondary coils. It was
netic fields were presented. But at that time, there was little studied only for the case of superimposing the receiver and
need for the WPT, because cable power distribution systems transmitter coils. They also referred to the thermal concerns
were generally more efficient and less expensive for electrical of automotive interior and the problem of preventing thermal
devices. Today, wireless short-range power transfer devices failure within high-power ferrite structures of EV wireless
using electromagnetic induction are used more and more in charging inductive power transfer.
industrial products for contactless charging [10]. However, All these wireless power transfer technologies and solu-
due to the limitation of the transfer distance of the energy, tions must be summarized, discussed, and explained to
this technology cannot charge EVs to cover distances of more understand their architectures and topologies. Furthermore,
than one-fifth (1/5) the dimension of the power transmit- by knowing the efficiency of each topology, it is important
ter [11]. An improved method based on resonant coupling to determine the mathematical model and its parameters that
showed efficient results for extending the transfer distance can be used for each application.
to more than 2 or 3 times the size of the transmitter or One of the main objectives of our work in this paper is to
receiver [12]. discuss the WPT systems, give the possible used topologies,
A few years later, the Wireless power transfer transmission and recommend possible shapes that can be applied. On the
for EVs evolved, which can overcome the disadvantages other hand, our analysis shows a detailed mathematical inves-
of wired chargers and remove specific barriers to vehicle tigation of the WPT functionally, considering all the possible
electrification and long-term mobility [13]. Aside from being operation modes, whether static or dynamic. The present
more convenient than wired chargers, WPT allows for sub- work defines all the possible variables and parameters that
stantial reductions in the size of the onboard EV battery [14]. can be used to build a solid mathematical model in both static
Also, electric buses were considering the stationary WPT and dynamic situations. The proposed mathematical model
charging method. The onboard battery can be reduced by at can be firstly used to calculate the quantity of power trans-
least two-thirds [15] due to passengers’ regular loading and ferred from the transmitter to the receiver. Then, we expose
unloading at bus stations. Because of these in-route costs, and explain the needed equations for dimensioning and sizing
it is possible to hold a much smaller onboard battery and the coil transmitters or receivers. Hence, the obtained model
still meet the vehicle route specifications [1]. Adding to the estimates the potential stored energy and guesses the EV’s
Wireless Power Transfer technology, the Inductive Power autonomy.
Transfer (IPT) techniques are widely available in the market, The remainder of the paper is presented as follows.
while resonance IPT techniques are emerging in the consumer Section 2 is related to the wireless charging system and the
market [16]. Furthermore, the car industry plans to use IPT different types of WPT for EVs. In Section 3, we discuss

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FIGURE 2. Dynamic wireless power transfer for a receiver coil for each car.
FIGURE 1. Classification of the wireless charger number by region for
2017-2026 [2].

the evolution of static and dynamic models for the most

commonly used WPT. In Section 4, a comparison of different
models in scientific research is shown. Section 5 discusses
the future applications and concepts of wireless charging
systems for EVs (WCSEV). Finally, Section 6 illustrates the
conclusion and outlines some future trends.

II. WIRELESS CHARGING SYSTEMS FOR EVs FIGURE 3. (a) Inductive power transfer (b) Capacitive wireless power
The EV charging systems and techniques were primarily transfer, (c) Magnetic wireless power transfer.
developed to solve the problems of low autonomy of the car
and increase the range anxiety to cover the road distance
for a specific trip. Major EV manufacturers have developed all weather conditions. This type of charging achieves 80% to
various solutions to help charge EVs during their trips, such as 90% efficiency compared to traditional charging cable tools.
installing charging stations, charging points, and even wire- Charging, therefore, takes longer than if the car was plugged
less charging pads buried under the highways. Also, several in. For example, fully charging a battery pack should take
attempts to eliminate the connected charger solutions require around one-hour using cables and 1.11 hours using wireless
the EVs to stop for several minutes or hours and charge charging (at an efficiency of 90%) [21], [22]. A simple block
using physical connection cables. Therefore, it becomes nec- diagram for the wireless charging systems (WCs) is shown
essary to shift to wireless charging solutions to increase the in Fig. 2. On the grid side, a high-frequency inverter (HF
satisfaction of the EV owners and reduce their stress while inverter) is connected to the Xformer inverter. Then, the
waiting for their cars to charge. Hence, some of the presented power is delivered to the transmitter [23].
solutions in this paper are based on the wireless charging Three main methods for developing wireless charging sys-
methods to reduce all the previously cited weaknesses of tems for electric vehicles (WCSEV) have been used since
using physical charging cables. Wireless charging is a viable the advent of wireless charging: (a) inductive power transfer
option when drivers cannot be counted on to charge their EVs (IPT), (b) conventional capacitive wireless power trans-
regularly, such as in shared vehicle systems or fleets [20]. fer (CWPT), and (c) magnetic gear wireless power trans-
This wireless charging method was firstly used in homes, fer (MGWPT). Some review papers on the wireless power
and then it became a public solution placed in many parking transfer (WPT) technologies for battery-operated electric
zones. Fig.1 presents the projected wireless charger system, vehicles (BEVs) can be found in references [24]–[28].
sales by region, for 2017 to 2026 [2]. Fig. 3 presents the three major wireless charging methods.

A. THE WIRELESS CHARGING SYSTEM DESCRIPTION 1) INDUCTIVE POWER TRANSFER

Using induction charging technology, electric car manufac- The traditional inductive power transfer was created in
turers intend to make it easier for future owners of these 1914 by Nikola Tesla to transmit electricity wirelessly. Mag-
vehicles to charge their batteries. The system is based on a netic induction WPT is a well-known technique that has long
first plate placed on the ground that incorporates a primary been used in transformers, in which a primary coil and a
coil that will emit an alternating magnetic field to a second secondary coil are inductively coupled [29]. For example,
plate with a secondary coil installed under the electric or plug- through the use of a common permeable magnetic core. The
in hybrid vehicle. This system works when the car is parked energy transmission by induction in air, in which the primary
over the primary coil, and the two plates are perfectly aligned; coil and the secondary coil are physically separated, has also
wireless charging allows a battery to be refilled safely under been a technique known for over a century. The close-coupled

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WPT technique’s power transmission efficiency decreases

when the distance in the air is superior to the diameter of
the coil, and the coils are not aligned within the distance.
The efficiency of energy transmission is determined by the
coupling factor and the quality of the inductors. This tech-
nique outperforms the magnetic resonance method in terms
of efficiency. This technology is available in the market, such
as charging smartphones wirelessly. With an array of coils,
the close-coupled WPT technique also offers some flexibility
regarding the location of the receiver coil relative to the
transmitter [30].

2) CAPACITIVE WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER

The capacitive coupling of the WPT system has two cir-
cles of electrodes and does not use coils as in the case of
magnetic-type WPT systems [31], [32]. Energy is diffused
through an induction field produced by the coupling of the
two sets of electrodes. The capacitive coupling system has
the following advantages: (i) The capacitive coupling system
offers flexibility for horizontal positioning with an easy-to-
use charging system for end-users, (ii) a very thin electrode
(less than 0.2 mm) can be used between the transmitter and
receiver of the system, (iii) no heat generation in the wireless
power transmission area. The temperature does not rise in this
area, so the battery is protected against heat even when placed
nearby [33]. The emission level of the electric field is low
due to the structure of the coupling system. The electric field
emanates from the electrodes and provides the transmission FIGURE 4. Latest architectures of wireless power transfer in 2020.
of energy. The low-cost structures and simplicity of capacitive
wireless power transfer (CWPT) technology benefit low-
power applications, such as pacemakers, neurostimulators, TABLE 1. Comparison of different WPT architectures for EV applications.
cochlear implants, etc., [31]–[33]. In the CWPT, instead of
using coils or magnets, coupling capacitors pass power from
the source to the receiver. Via power factor correction cir-
cuitry, the principal AC voltage is applied to an H-bridge
converter [32], [34], [35].

3) MAGNETIC WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER

TABLE 2. Performance of WPT in EVs.
The magnetic gear wireless power transfer (MGWPT) differs
from the capacitive and inductive power transfers [29]. Mag-
netic resonance WPT is also referred to as weak coupling
WPT. The theoretical principle of this magnetic resonance
method was developed in 2005 by the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, and it was validated experimentally in 2007.
The method uses a coil and a capacitor as a resonator, in which
electrical energy is transmitted through electromagnetic res-
onance between the transmitter and the receiver coils [36].
By matching the resonant frequency of the two coils with a 4) COMPARING DIFFERENT NEAR-FIELD TRANSMISSION
high factor, significant amounts of electrical energy can be TECHNIQUES
transmitted. The magnetic coupling between the transmitter The development of wireless charging systems has been
and the receiver coils is weak. This technique also provides accelerating since 2009. Each system has some advantages
flexibility in the location of the receiver coil relative to the and disadvantages, and the characteristics of each system
transmitter coil. Applied technical details can be found in of the near-field transmission techniques are compared in
many technical publications, such as in [37]. Tables 1 and 2, and Fig. 4 [38]–[43].

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FIGURE 5. WPT topologies: (a) SS, (b) SP, (c) PS, and (d) PP.

TABLE 3. Parameters of compensation topologies.

FIGURE 6. Features of compensation topologies.

TABLE 4. A brief comparison of various coil shapes [44].

B. COMPENSATION TOPOLOGIES & COILS PARAMETERS the transmitter and receiver [51]. Table 4 lists the specifi-
In the WPT systems, four resonant circuit topologies can cations for each model [44], as well as the advantages and
be used [44]. After inserting the capacitor on each side, disadvantages of each model [52]. Multiple wireless power
their indexation is completed. Therefore, the topologies can transfer structures for motorized applications are evaluated
be described as follows: Series-Series (SS), Series-Parallel in the literature to assess magnetic couplings and feasibility.
(SP), Parallel-Series (PS), and Parallel-Parallel (PP). These Most of these studies focused on structures with circular
designs can be shown in Fig. 5 [45], [46]. The inductances designs, and recently [53] and [54] tested a circular planar
and capacitors (C1 , C2 ) are determined to cancel the reac- structure for a 2 kW inductive power transfer. It has been
tive part of the transferred power. The primary and sec- demonstrated that the null zone is the least one that faces
ondary circuits (L, C) of the coupler are used to enhance the other models. The performance of resonant coupling
the transfers and minimize the apparent power of the input power transmission is primarily determined by the perfor-
source while ensuring active power transmission to the load mance of the used resonators. A good resonator for WPT
[47], [48]. The principal disadvantages are the high values should have a high Q factor and a high coupling coefficient,
of voltage or current related to the resonance components. which is the ratio of mutual inductance to self-inductance
The additional benefits and features of various compensation [55]. The comparison of different types of resonators is listed
networks used in the inductive power transfer for EVs are in Table 5, [56].
shown in Table 3, and each topology feature can be shown in
Fig. 6 [21], [49], [50]. III. EVOLUTION OF WPT STATIC & DYNAMIC MODELS
The manipulation of the energy from wireless charging mod-
C. COIL DESIGN FOR CHARGING SYSTEMS els must be studied according to the load position and spec-
In wireless power transfer, an air-core wireless transformer ifications. Generally speaking, there are two types. The first
proposal is used to transfer electrical power from the source one is linked to a static position, and the second one is linked
to the receiver sides. Fig. 7 depicts the various designs for to a dynamic position [57]. Here, the nomination of static
the WPT system; numerous planar coil shapes, including or dynamic is related to the receiver’s position facing the
circular, rectangular, and hybrid configurations, were used to transmitter, (i.e., if it is in stationary or displacement modes).
recover performance and solve misalignment issues among To study properly the charging system, it is essential to

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TABLE 5. Comparisons of different resonators.

FIGURE 8. Distance between the center of the two coils in static mode.

FIGURE 9. A simplification design for an IPT.

transfer system using IPT can be presented in Fig. 9. The

input and output voltages of the IPT are denoted by VP
and VS .
The induced and reflected voltages in this model are
described in terms of mutual inductance M , angular fre-
quency ω, and primary and secondary currents Ip and Is . The
magnetic coupling coefficient is related to mutual inductance,
as in Eq. (1). The reflected impedance Zr from secondary to
primary can be calculated as in Eq. (2), [61]. Where, Zs is the
secondary system’s impedance, which is determined by the
compensation topology chosen.
FIGURE 7. Different coil shapes for the receivers and transmitters.
M
k = p (1)
define the corresponding mathematical equations and model Lp Ls
for each case and present the relationship between different ω2 M 2
parameters and variables that can affect the functionality of Zs = (2)
Zr
this system [58]. The current passing through the secondary winding is
defined in Eq. (3). As a result, the voltages across the primary
A. STATIC WIRELESS CHARGING SYSTEM FOR EV and secondary windings are given by Eq. (4).
(S-WCSEV)
jωMIp
The S-WCSEV defines the case where the receiver coil Is = (3)
placed under the vehicle is aligned with the transmitter coil Zs
(
placed on the road, as in Fig. 8. This applies to stationary Vp = jωLp Ip − jωMIs
(4)
EVs. Then, it is possible to define if the received power is Vs = jωMIp − jωLs Is
maximum or minimum [50]. It depends on the position center
The primary and secondary frequencies are the same as
of the two coils. In [59], the authors showed that when the
calculated in Eq. (5). The primary and secondary power levels
distance between the centers’ increased, the received power
are defined by Eq. (6).
decreased [13]. If the receiver radius is more significant than
the distance between the two middles, the transferred power 1 1
ω= √ =p = 2πf (5)
is null. Fig. 8 shows the distance between the two coils. It is Cs Ls Cp Lp
mentioned that two coils are aligned if D1 = 0, [5]. (
Pp = Vp Ip
(6)
1) A PRIMARY MODELING FORM Ps = Vs Is
A primary modeling form of the S-WCSEV was studied With wireless charging systems to recover multiply all
in [60], in which the authors considered static modeling to receivers (coil and capacitor) are typically designed iden-
improve the WPT. Hence, a simplified model of this power tically, the total impedance reflected from all sensors (coil

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TABLE 6. Parameters of the secondary impedance. when a resistive load is attached, taking the mutual inductance
parameter as a function of the primary current into account.
Eq. (11) is used to express the global impedance of the
primary coil. As a result, the equivalent primary current can
be calculated as in Eq. (13).
!
2 (ωM )
2
Pwr = IP (10)
RL
(M ω)2
Z1 = j
+ jω (La + M )
jω (Lb + M ) − ωCs + Rs + RL
j
− + Rp (11)
ωCp
I1 = V1 /Z1 (12)
where, Cp and Cs , are the primary and secondary capacitance
dimensions that must be evaluated using a null imaginary part
of Z1 . The equation can then be used to express the corre-
sponding Eq. (13) of the related capacitance. Using Eq. (14),
the energetic yield of the WPT system can be calculated. The
resistance value has a significant impact on the yield because
FIGURE 10. Design of SS topology with the load.
it is assumed to be a real load within the overall system. It is
found that the system transmission strength is only affected
by the reciprocal inductance between the primary and sec-
and capacitor) is defined by Eq. (7). The number of receiver
ondary side coils. The reduction of variable parameters sim-
coils is denoted by n. The equivalent coupling coefficient and
plifies the study of transmission power stability; hence, the
mutual inductance are then determined by Eq. (8) and (9).
system efficiency is given by Eq. (15). In Eq. (15), RL is the
n
X ω2 M 2 secondary-side load impedance, whereas Rs and Rp represent
Zri = n (7) the internal impedances of the secondary and main sides,
Zs
i=1 respectively. The load and internal impedance are constant
( √
kn = k n when the charging system is definite. As a result, it is possible
(8) to deduce that the system efficiency is solely determined by
0≤k≤1
√ mutual inductance between the primary and secondary side
Mn = M n (9) coils.
Table 6 also shows the reproduced resistance and reactance 1
Cp = CS = 2 (13)
estimated from Eq. (2) at the secondary resonant frequency, ω (Lb + M )
which depends on the utilized compensations.


 IE2 RL
η


 = 2 2 2
2) A SECOND MODELING FORM

IEP RP + IEs Rs + IEs RL (14)
A second modeling method was presented in [62], [63], 
|I | R + RL

 P = S

in which the authors studied the static case and looked for 

the parameters that can be optimized to boost the system. |I2 | ωM
The model is based on the mutual inductance calculation RL
η=  2
 (15)
step, considering the position, and primary and secondary coil RL + RS + RP (Rs +R2L )
(ωM )
parameters. Based on these studies, the SS architecture is the
most commonly studied form with the corresponding topol- Fig. 11 depicts the construction of the Series-Parallel (SP)
ogy shown in Fig. 10. Parameters are calculated considering and Parallel-Parallel (PP) topologies, which exist in addi-
variable characteristics, such as resistances, inductances, and tion to the SS topology [59]. The parameter calculation
mutual inductance. is the same as for the SS topology, and it is defined in
It was stated that La = Lp − M and Lb = Ls − M , respec- Tables 7, 8, and 9 [60].
tively, present the primary and secondary winding leakage
inductances. The primary voltage of the coil is denoted Vp in B. DYNAMIC WIRELESS CHARGING SYSTEM FOR EV
this model, and it is supplied by a sinusoidal voltage source (D-WCSEV)
denoted V1 . In this case, RL denotes a serial resistive load that The dynamic model of the wireless charging mode presents
is used to generate the final expression of the global yield the case where the vehicle is charged 8even in motion on
value, as in Eq. (15). Eq. (10) depicts the power consumption the road. The dynamism of the charging mode increases the

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TABLE 8. Efficiency, maximum efficiency, and quality factors expressions

for SS and PS topologies [59].

TABLE 9. Efficiency, maximum efficiency, and quality factors expressions

for SP and PP topologies [59].

FIGURE 12. The simplified inductive power transfer circuit.

FIGURE 11. Compensation topologies: (a) SS, (b) SP, (c) PP, (d) PS.
vehicle speed, the parameters of the coil, and the selected
TABLE 7. Expressions for the first and secondary capacitors using compensation topology. Two versions exist for this situation
different topologies. related to the form of the transmitter coil’s position and
conditions [13], [64].

1) A PRIMARY MODELING METHOD

The first mathematical presentation of the D-WCSEV
dynamic model was defined in [20], [56]. The authors used
the coupler design, and the choice of operating frequency,
which are explained in Fig.12, [65], [66].
It is possible to combine the primary and the secondary
coil into a new impedance noted Zr as in Fig. 12. Then, all
the necessary parameters needed to calculate the efficiency
of this system can be expressed by Eq. (16) to Eq. (21).
complexity of its mathematical model and topology as the
 ω = √1

vehicle’s speed parameters are considered due to the vehicle’s
0
movement. This results in a complex mathematical model pLC (16)
which will expose the obtained power as a function of the M = K L1 L2 = kL


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where,
q
r12 = r12 +r22 +h2 +D12 +2D1r2 −2D1r1 −2r1 r2 (25)
Hence, Eq. (26) and (27) are the new expressions for power
and the efficiency of the energetic yields, respectively.
V 2 .ω2
2
µ0 r1 r2
 ZZ  
1
Pwr = 1 2 . dθdϕ (26)
ZLa . RL 4π r12
RL
η= " # (27)
Rp .(Rs +RL )2
FIGURE 13. Position map of two-wired rings in space. RL + Rs +  
u0 r1 r2 RR
h i 2
ω. 4π r
1
dθ dϕ
12

ω2 M 2 C. PROPOSED GENERAL MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR


 Zr =

DS-WCSEV

(r2 + RL ) (17)
U2 In this subsection, we propose a new general mathemat-
 RL = out

ical model that describes and evaluates the efficiency of

Pout
( both dynamic and static wireless charging systems for EVs
Pout = |i2 |2 RL (DS-WCSEV). The proposed model works perfectly when
(18)
P2 = |i2 |2 (r2 + RL ) the EV is in a dynamic mode (moving on the road) or in a sta-
tionary mode (parked). This new mathematical model com-
The efficiency of the second and first parts can be calcu-
bines the two previous wireless charging systems, S-WCSEV
lated in Eq. (19) and (20), respectively. The overall efficiency
and D-WCSEV. In this model, all the previously cited param-
is given by Eq. (21).
eters and variables for both S-WCSEV and D-WCSEV are
Pout considered. The new model takes into account the vehicle
η2 = (19)
P2 speed, the coils size, and electrical parameters and considers
P2 any misalignment cases. The shape of the coils, as well as
η1 = (20)
P1 the distance between the transmitter and the receiver, are
RL also taken into account [71]. Eq. (28) to (31) expose all the
η = η1 η2 = (21)
r1 (r2 +RL ) necessary expressions that evaluate this wireless charging
h i
(r2 + RL ) 1 + ω2 M 2 system.

2) A SECONDARY MODELING METHOD 1) MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE DS-WCSEV

Typically, there is a horizontal offset and varied height in To begin, the flux relationship between the two receiver and
wireless EV charging [67]. These issues might reduce the transmitter coils is suggested in Eq. (28). The coefficient
system’s efficiency and create power fluctuations. As a result, presents the percentage of transferred flux from the emitter to
optimizing EV wireless charging equipment entails resolving the receiver. It is determined by the quantity of the parameter
these challenges. Fig. 13 depicts the actual position of two D1 as shown in Fig. 8. The expression of φ1 is given by
coils in space, and Eq. (22) is used to define the new expres- Eq. (29). Generally speaking, is between 0 and 1, and it is
sion of the mutual inductance of the two coils [68]–[70]. closely related to the D1 value as it is presented in Eq. (30).
µ0 r1 r2 sin θ sin ϕ cos α+cos θ cos ϕ
ZZ  
M= dθdϕ (22) φ2 = β · φ1 (28)
4π r12 φ1 (t) = L1 i1 (t) + Mi2 (t) (29)
where,

 0 < β < 1 if 0 < D1 < coilradius

r12 = [G + H + F]1/2 β=1


 if D1 = 0 (30)
 G = r 2 + r 2 + h2 + D12 − 2hr cos ϕ sin α β=0 if D1 > coilradius
 

1 2 2
(23)


 H = 2D1r 2 cos ϕ cos α − 2D1r 1 cos θ The exact expression of, on the other hand, is dependent
F = −2r1 r2 (cos θ cos ϕ cos α + sin θ sin ϕ)

on the duration of flux transmission, denoted by Ttransfer and
If α, ϕ, and θ parameters are not varying, Eq. (24) can presented in Eq. (31). Where Dcoil is the coil diameter, and
be used to express the new mutual inductance. Thus, D1 Sp is the vehicle’s speed. For the static mode, Sp 6= 0, and the
is a variable according to the receiver’s motion face to the transmission time will be endless [72]. ∂ is constant, which is
transmitter. equal to 10−5 , µ is constant and equal to 3600.
µ0 r1 r2 ∂Dcoil
ZZ    
1
M= dθdϕ (24) Ttransfer = µ (31)
4π r12 Sp
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TABLE 10. Real and simulated values for the static mode operation.

D. FULL RESONANT SYSTEM AND CONTROL

In general, to improve the WPT, two factors must be con-
FIGURE 14. Physical material for the wireless power transfer system. sidered. The first is the inverter control frequency fs , which
must be well controlled and regulated for the inverter to
work at resonance (fs = f0 ), therefore, allowing maximum
where, power transfer. Changes in Inductively Coupled Transformer
 
2π
 (ICT) settings for different coupling instances will modify the
 β = sin2 t
Ttransfer (32) system’s overall resonant frequency. Aside from frequency
   regulation, which is done with a constant input voltage in
t 0, Ttransfer
mind, the output power must also be controlled. The power
As a result, the voltage output on the secondary coil is in the entire system is regulated by operating on the input
defined as in Eq. (33). By multiplying V2 (t) by the number voltage. This outer loop, which is slower than the internal
of coil receivers (nc ), Eq. (34) is obtained. frequency regulation loop, is not addressed in our research.
 
di1 (t)

di1 (t) The Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) approach is
 V2 (t) = β Rs i1 (t) + Lp +M no longer widely employed in WPT systems. The authors


dt dt (33) of [73], [74] developed a circuit for using the MPPT regime
r 2N 2
 L1 (µH ) = to regulate the IPT frequency while the car is moving. In this


( 8r + πω example, an MPPT algorithm is incorporated into MATLAB
V2nc (t) = nc V2 (t) and implemented without being tied to a specific circuit.
(34)
P2 (t) = V2nc (t) · i2 (t) Furthermore, while the authors of [75] acknowledged the
MPPT approach for frequency management, their controller
2) EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION is not described [55]. Fig. 15 depicts a generally closed-loop
To validate our proposed mathematical model, practical system, and Fig. 16 depicts the frequency regulation loop in
experiments and tests are conducted using a real prototype detail. However, there is another way to simplify this MPPT
that we have built-in our laboratory, as presented in Fig.14. technique for our frequency regulation in [44]. The goal is
To prevent the risk of instability, the terminals of each trans- to get feedback from the system’s DC input, as it is always
mitter module are coupled in parallel to the filter output done in a photovoltaic system when the MPPT process is
through an AC bus line composed of an aluminum bar [12], used, as shown in Fig. 16. The DC input power applied to
[18]. Several tests are done for both static and dynamic the MPPT algorithm is calculated using the input DC voltage
operation modes. Results demonstrate the validity of our Ui and the current of the DC input Ii . Fig. 16 depicts the
proposed mathematical model, as shown in Tables 10 and 11. simulation of a case for the entire IPT system utilizing closed-
Tables 10 and 11 present the real power values measured loop control. In this scenario, the EV’s reference position
within the experimental test in our laboratory and the esti- (d = 0.15m, sh = 0) was taken into account, and the needed
mated values using our proposed mathematical model from power for the load is 3 kW. As a result, the resonant frequency
Eq. (28) to (34). Results show that the error is about 2% that maximizes transferred power is f0 = 30kHz. The fre-
for the worst case. The same situation is validated for the quency determined by the controller should be equal to f0 .
dynamic operation mode, where the error is also minimal. The inverter’s duty cycle is D = 0.5, and the load is the battery
Table 11 shows the dynamic mode operation results. We have model depicted in Fig. 16. The fluctuation range is defined by
supposed that the vehicle will pass through 26 transmit- the lower and upper limit frequencies [25 kHz, 35 kHz]. As a
ted coils, and we have evaluated the given power via the result, all potential k scenarios for frequency regulation are
used mathematical model and via practice results. We have included in this frequency spectrum.
obtained 11.55 W using the simulation model and 11.63 W
using the real prototype, as in Fig. 14. Some figures in IV. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT MODELS IN RESEARCH
Table 11 show the transmitter’s position facing the receiver In this paper, we show several mathematical models of wire-
and the given voltage form in the measurement instrument in less charging systems. The best choice of the mathematical
the same table. model can be related to simplicity and efficiency. The given

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TABLE 11. Real and estimated values for the dynamic mode operation.

TABLE 12. Comparison between three mathematical models.

FIGURE 15. Closed-loop for an IPT system with frequency and power
controllers.

D-WCSEV, and DS-WCSEV, as in Table 12. A production

review of D-WCSEV and S-WCSEV has been demonstrated
in Tables 13, 14, and 15, [13], [64]–[66], [68], [69].

V. FUTURE APPLICATION CONCEPTS OF WPT

A. WIRELESS VEHICLE TO GRID (W-V2G)
Fig. 17 depicts the introduction of a wireless V2G to feed
the grid. Unlike plug-in V2G, the major site of the wire-
less transformer is implanted on the road or parking sur-
face with bidirectional power converters. The receiver coil
is situated beneath the car, and the remaining bidirectional
power converters are mounted in the vehicle’s body. The
FIGURE 16. Closed-loop for an IPT system with a frequency controller by architecture is completely self-contained and provides addi-
MPPT. tional insulation between the source and receiver sides via the
wireless transformer. The architecture enables surplus energy
statistics prove the best choice too. Based on other research to be supplied to EVs to reduce stress or obtain energy in
papers and our proposed model in this paper, we evaluate and static or dynamic modes to remedy peak demand energy.
compare the three chosen mathematical models, S-WCSEV, In addition, in a dynamic V2G service, this technology can

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TABLE 13. A synopsis of the study and development of (D-WCSEV).

FIGURE 17. Bidirectional power transfer applications for wireless

charging systems, including renewable energy sources.

TABLE 16. Comparison of wireless V2G vs plug-in V2G.

TABLE 14. Development in stationary wireless charging systems

(S-WCSEV).

for high-frequency inverters. Engineers have begun using

solar electricity for energy in automotive parking lots and
pavements for static and dynamic charging. In addition to
saving energy, this can reduce the complexity, size, and fail-
ure of the entire charging station circuit by eliminating the full
rectifier block. Renewable energy types such as solar, wind,
and others can be stored in batteries and utilized to charge
EVs in DC format using a wireless charging system, as shown
in Figure 17. In 2015, this scheme was suggested in a paper
by Vithayasrichareon et al. [96]. The paper [97] released
in the same year described the experimental set-up of a
solar-powered wireless charging prototype. But they showed
some significant disadvantages for both papers, such as high
TABLE 15. Research and development of dynamic and stationary wireless input current, low performance, and lower transfer efficiency
charging systems are summarized (DS-WCSEV). for both SS and LLC topologies [98]. So, both of them were
concentrating on a charging device for a set distance. And
in 2020, on its campus, Delft University launched a solar-
powered bicycle charging station, the first of its kind [99].
Another disadvantage was the incorporated pseudo-wireless
charging kickstand, as well as the lower performance. The
lack of an input current ripple mitigation device resulted in
severe ohmic losses in both situations, necessitating a large
coil value for the transmitter and receiver. Furthermore, the
receiver position resulted in a large leakage flow to the bicy-
cle’s body. As a result, a novel wireless charger powered by
renewable energy can be created using an optimal input fil-
serve as a buffer or backup for mobile energy storage [95]. ter design and carefully constructed transmitter and receiver
Table 16 proves the comparison of wireless V2G vs. plug-in coils with adequate mutual inductance.
V2G.
C. WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER IN THE SPACE SECTOR:
B. INTEGRATION WITH RENEWABLE ENERGY ORBITAL SOLAR POWER PLANTS
Using typical wireless charging techniques, alternating elec- An orbital solar power plant involves placing solar panels
tricity from non-renewable sources was employed as the in space at an altitude of approximately 36,000 kilometers
device input. The alternating value is then rectified to DC (Fig. 18). This location would allow photovoltaic cells to

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N. Mohamed et al.: Comprehensive Analysis of Wireless Charging Systems for Electric Vehicles

FIGURE 19. Example of application in the medical field: Explanatory

diagram of a pacemaker.

threads are passed through the skin. To address this issue,

a new resonant converter with a coreless transformer was
developed, allowing for the provision of a prototype of such
FIGURE 18. Functional diagram of an orbital solar power plant. a cardiac assist device. The transferred power is 10 W, and
the operating frequency is 205.1 kHz [103]. Transcutaneous
absorb a large amount of solar irradiance at all times and energy transfer is also intended for use in the creation of
thus obtain optimum performance. This project was planned an implanted mechanical heart. The primary coil must be
over forty years ago by the famous scientist Peter Glaser. This placed near the secondary coil to have a good connection.
idea has been analyzed by NASA and the European Space The coreless transformer is made up of two circular spiral
Agency. Research from these institutions confirms the feasi- coils held together by amorphous radial fibers. These fibers
bility of this project, the only existing barrier being econom- provide flexibility to the coils and contain magnetic elements
ical. The Japanese space agency, JAXA, has been working that are thought to assist energy transfer by focusing the
since 1998 to launch a prototype solar power plant in geo- flux through the coils. Transcutaneous energy transfer is
stationary orbit and hopes for a launch in 2040 [100]. Given used to deliver electrodes to generate electrical stimulation
that the sun’s life expectancy is estimated at 5 billion years, to restore movement to paralyzed limbs caused by a spinal
we can say that the wireless transmission of electricity from cord injury. The primary coil is shaped like a solenoid and
space could revolutionize our transport habits and encourage is wrapped around the limb. Secondary coils with spiral
the development of new technologies as well as complete forms are connected to electrodes. To obtain a portable and
the current network. Apart from that, one cannot deny the autonomous implantable system, the electronic circuits of the
difficulties which govern this technology. The assembly of implant must be small and consume little power. The most
the solar panels requires a large number of rocket launches important aspect in the design of electronic implants in the
which poses an economic barrier. biomedical field is therefore the energy supply [103]. The
system is mainly composed of a part going into the human
D. WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER IN THE MEDICAL FIELD body (internal unit) and an external control unit or external
The recharging and operation of various devices and devices controller, as shown in Fig. 19, [104].
remotely represent a great interest in the medical field. Cer-
tain implanted medical devices require a high level of power VI. CONCLUSION
for their operations, especially in the transcutaneous transfer This paper summarizes different wireless charging system
in cardiac battery systems. This is why it is interesting to topologies that can be used for EV applications. It starts
replace traditional magnetic induction, which allows effi- with a short overview of EV architectures and cites some
cient transfer of energy. This energy capture device can be statistics regarding the usage of wireless charging systems
implanted deep into the body cavity, several inches below the in industries. Also, it presents different coil shapes, mathe-
skin. Likewise, the energy source can be several centimeters matical models, different architectures, and topologies of the
from the surface of the skin, facilitating, in particular, the WPT for both dynamic (EV is moving) and static (EV is
installation of ventricular assistance devices, cardiac pace- parked) modes. In addition, this paper shows all the essential
makers, defibrillators, the restoration of the motor functions parameters and variables that help in building a solid math-
of organs affected as a result of an accident or an illness, ematical model for the wireless charging system. Moreover,
stimulation of the muscles, and alleviation of the effects of the authors of this work propose a new general mathematical
certain types of illness (Visual prostheses used to restore model that can work for both dynamic and static modes with
vision loss, diagnosis of the gastrointestinal tract, etc.) [101], high accuracy. For validation purposes of the proposed math-
[102]. The use of cardiac assist devices, for example, to ematical model, a real prototype was built in our laboratory
bypass ventricular dysfunctions is beneficial. Conventional in which the results from experiments confirm the validity
methods of supply, on the other hand, may pose additional of our proposed model with a small error margin. Finally,
risks associated with the development of infections when future application concepts of the WPT were presented and

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discussed in which the deployment of WPT systems is possi- [17] M. Frivaldsky and M. Pavelek, ‘‘In loop design of the coils and the
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[88] H. Zeng, S. Yang, and F. Z. Peng, ‘‘Design consideration and com- NAOUI MOHAMED was born in Nefta, Tunis,
parison of wireless power transfer via harmonic current for PHEV and in 1991. He received the degree in electri-
EV wireless charging,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 32, no. 8, cal engineering from the University of Gabès,
pp. 5943–5952, Aug. 2017, doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2016.2616111. Tunisia, in 2015, and the Ph.D. degree from the
[89] A. M. Ahmed and O. O. Khalifa, ‘‘Wireless power transfer for Department of Electrical Engineering, in 2020.
electric vehicle charging,’’ in Proc. 7TH Int. Conf. Electron. From 2016 to 2018, he worked as a Professional
DEVICES, Syst. Appl. (ICEDSA), 2020, vol. 2306, no. 1, pp. 4–17, Engineer in electrical and automatic engineering.
doi: 10.1063/5.0032383. He is currently an Associate Professor in electrical
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mission,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 507–514, Jan. 2007, He has academic experience of three years. He has
doi: 10.1109/TPWRD.2006.876645. published over 30 research articles in reputed journals, international confer-
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for stationary, quasi-dynamic, and dynamic wireless charging public power systems, and renewable energy.
transportation systems,’’ Energies, vol. 9, no. 7, p. 483, Jun. 2016, doi:
10.3390/en9070483.
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of battery-EV state of charge for a dynamic wireless charging system,’’ FLAH AYMEN was born in GabeÌs, Tunisia,
Energy Storage, vol. 2, no. 2, Apr. 2020, doi: 10.1002/est2.117. in 1983. He received the bachelor’s and M.Tech.
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studies from dynamic wireless charging in smart automated high- Tunisia, in 2007 and 2009, respectively, and the
ways,’’ in Proc. IEEE Transp. Electrific. Conf. Expo (ITEC), Jun. 2018, Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electri-
pp. 650–655, doi: 10.1109/ITEC.2018.8450149. cal Engineering, in 2012. He has an academic
[95] F. Mwasilu, J. J. Justo, E.-K. Kim, T. D. Do, and J.-W. Jung, ‘‘Electric experience of 11 years. He has published over
vehicles and smart grid interaction: A review on vehicle to grid and 40 research articles in reputed journals, interna-
renewable energy sources integration,’’ Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., tional conferences, and book chapters.
vol. 34, pp. 501–516, Jun. 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.03.031.

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TURKI E. A. ALHARBI received the B.Sc. SBITA LASSAAD was born in Hammam Lif,
degree (Hons.) in electrical engineering from Tunisia, in 1962. He received the B.E. degree
Umm Al-Qura University (UQU), Makkah, in electrical engineering from the University of
Saudi Arabia, in 2012, the M.Sc. degree (Hons.) in Tunis, Tunis, Tunisia, in 1985, and the D.E.A. and
broadband and mobile communication networks Thesis degrees in electrical engineering from the
from the University of Kent, Canterbury, U.K., École nationale supérieure d’ingénieurs de Tunis,
in 2016, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical and elec- Tunis, in 1987 and 1997, respectively. In 1988,
tronic engineering from the University of Manch- he joined the Department of Electrical Engineer-
ester, Manchester, U.K., in 2021. He is currently ing, National School of Engineering of Sfax, Uni-
an Assistant Professor of wireless communication versity of Sfax, as a Professor Assistant, and
networks with the College of Engineering, Taif University. His current the Department of Electrical Engineering, National Engineering School of
research interests include future key technologies for wireless networks, Gabes, University of Gabés, Gabés, Tunisia, in 1991, where he became an
beyond 5G/6G networks, antenna design, cooperative and energy harvesting Associate Professor, in 1998, and a Professor, in 2009.
networks, NOMA, full-duplex, D2D communication, and SWIPT. He has
received many awards and prizes, including the IEEE UKRI Communica-
tions Chapter Prize for being Top Distinction Student of the M.Sc. degree. SHERIF S. M. GHONEIM (Senior Member,
He also received the Rohde and Schwarz Project Prize from the University IEEE) received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees from
of Kent for the Best Graduation Project in the telecommunications field. the Faculty of Engineering at Shoubra, Zagazig
University, Egypt, in 1994 and 2000, respectively,
and the Ph.D. degree in electrical power and
machines from the Faculty of Engineering, Cairo
University, in 2008. Since 1996, he has been
teaching with the Faculty of Industrial Education,
Suez Canal University, Egypt. From 2005 to 2007,
he was a Guest Researcher with the Institute
of Energy Transport and Storage (ETS), University of Duisburg–Essen,
Germany. He joined the Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of
Engineering, Taif University, as an Associate Professor. His research inter-
ests include grounding systems, dissolved gas analysis, and breakdown in
SF6 gas.
CLAUDE ZIAD EL-BAYEH received the master’s
degree in electrical and electronic engineering
from the Lebanese University Faculty of Engi- URSULA EICKER is currently the Canada
neering II, Lebanon, in 2008, the M.Sc. degree Excellence Research Chair (CERC) for next gen-
in organizational management from the Univer- eration cities at Concordia University Montréal.
sity of Quebec, Chicoutimi, Canada, in 2012, the A German physicist, she has held leadership
Master of Research degree in renewable energy positions at the Stuttgart University of Applied
from Saint Joseph University, Beirut, Lebanon, Sciences and its Centre for Sustainable Energy
in 2014, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engi- Technologies. Since June 2019, she has been
neering and renewable energy from the University leading an ambitious research program to estab-
of Quebec–École de Technologie Supérieure, Montreal, Canada, in 2019. lish transformation strategies toward zero-carbon
From 2008 to 2014, he worked as a Professional Engineer in the field of cities. Her main research interests include urban
electrical installation in buildings. Since 2015, he has been working in the scale modeling, zero carbon buildings, renewable energies, and circular
fields of optimization and energy management for smart buildings, smart economy strategies.
grid, electric vehicles, and renewable energy systems.

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