Structural

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Engineers
REINFORCED CONCRETE
General

GENERAL CODE REQUIREMENTS

Reinforced concrete is a composite material in which concrete's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are
compensated for by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength or ductility.

Reinforcing schemes are generally designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause
unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made
of steel, polymers, or alternate composite material in conjunction with rebar or not. Reinforced concrete may also be
permanently stressed (concrete in compression, reinforcement in tension), to improve the behavior of the final structure
under working loads.

Concrete Design Properties

The compressive strength of the concrete and concrete testing is one of the most important information in structural
design. It is the strength of the concrete under a compression load. The pressure in terms of stress is measured to find the
compression stress that the concrete can bear.

Compressive strength is initially checked by doing mix design to make sure the grade of concrete considered in the
structural design is achieved. Concrete cube testing or cylinder testing is done to check the development of the strength of
the concrete.

Why compressive strength is important?

Compressive strength is the parameter that represents the concrete in the structural design.
Mainly, there are two materials such as concrete and steel in the mix. Therefore, knowing the
compressive strength is uttermost important for the designer.

The value of f’c shall be specified in construction documents and shall be in accordance below:
a. Limits in Table 1.1
b. Durability requirements in Table 1.3
c. Structural strength requirements.

Table 1.1 Limits for f’c

Minimum Maximum
Application Concrete
f’c (MPa) f’c (MPa)
General Normal-weight and
17 None
lightweight
Special moment
frames and Normal-weight 21 None
special structural Lightweight 21 35[1]
walls
[1]
The limit is permitted to be exceeded where demonstrated by experimental evidence that
members made with lightweight concrete provide strength and toughness equal to or exceeding
those of comparable members made with normal weight concrete of the same strength.

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REINFORCED CONCRETE
General
Components of Concrete

The basic components of concrete are cement, water, and aggregates (sand and gravel). Cement and water form a paste
that fills the space between the aggregates and binds them together. Chapter 3 of the ACI Code and Section 426 of
Nationals Structural Code of the Philippines (2015) contains the minimum requirements for these components and other
materials that are commonly used in concrete.

Cement

Cement shall conform to one of the following specifications listed in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Specifications for Cementitious Materials

Cementitious Materials Specification
Portland cement ASTM C150M
Blended hydraulic cements ASTM C595, excluding Type IS (S ≥ 70)
and Type IT (S ≥ 70)
Expansive hydraulic cement ASTM C845M
Hydraulic cement ASTM C1157M
Fly ash and natural pozzolan ASTM C618
Slag cement ASTM C989M
Silica fume ASTM C1240

All cementitious materials specified in above table and the combinations of these materials shall be included in
calculating the w/cm of the concrete mixture.

Figure 1.1 Philippine Cement

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General
Table 1.3 Requirements for Concrete by Exposure Class
Exposure Maximum Minimum Additional Requirements
Class water/cement f’c (MPa)
w/cm Air Contents Limits in cementitious
materials
F0 n/a 17 n/a n/a
F1 0.55 24 Table 1.3 n/a
F2 0.45 31 Table 1.3 n/a
F3 0.40[2] 35[2] Table 1.3 NSCP Sect 426.4.2.2(b)
Cementitious materials [3] =Types
ASTM ASTM ASTM Calcium chloride admixture
C150M C595M C1157M
No Type No Type No Type
S0 n/a 17 restriction restriction restriction No restriction
Types IP, IS, or IT
S1 0.50 28 II [4] [5] with (MS) MS No restriction
designation
Types IP, IS, or IT
S2 0.45 31 V [5] with (HS) HS No restriction
designation
V plus Types IP, IS, or IT HS plus
S3 0.45 31 pozzolan with (HS) pozzolan Not permitted
or slag designation plus or slag
cement [6] pozzolan or slag cement [6]
cement [6]

W0 n/a 17 None
W1 0.50 28 None
Maximum water-soluble chloride ion (Cl-)
content in concrete, percent by weight of Additional provisions
cement [7]
Non-prestressed Prestressed concrete
concrete
C0 n/a 17 1.00 0.06
C1 n/a 17 0.30 0.06 None
C2 0.40 35 0.15 0.06 Concrete cover [8]
[1]
The maximum w/cm limits in Table 1.2 do not apply to lightweight concrete.
[2]
For plain concrete, the maximum w/cm shall be 0.45 and the minimum f’c shall be 31 MPa.
[3]
Alternative combinations of cementitious materials to those listed in Table 1.2 are permitted when tested for sulfate resistance and meeting the
criteria in NSCP Section 426.4.2.2(c).
[4]
For seawater exposure, other type of Portland cements with tricalcium aluminate (C3A) contents up to 10 percent are permitted if the w/cm
does not exceed 0.40.
[5]
other available types of cement such as Type 1 or Type III are permitted on Exposure Classes S1 or S2 if the C3A contents are less than 8
percent for Exposure Class S1 or less than 5 percent for Exposure Class S2.
[6]
Improve sulphate resistance when used in concrete containing Type V cement. Alternatively, the amount of the specific source of the pozzolan
or slag cement to be used shall be at least the amount tested in accordance with ASTM C1012 and meeting the criteria in Section 426.4.2.2(c).
[7]
Water-soluble chloride ion content that is contributed from the ingredients including water, aggregates, cementitious materials, and admixtures
shall be determined on the concrete mixture by ASTM C1218M at age between 28 and 42 days.
[8]
Concrete cover shall be in accordance with NSCP Section 420.6

Aggregates

Aggregates shall conform to:

1. Normal weight aggregate: ASTM C33M
2. Lightweight aggregate: ASTM 330M

The nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate shall not be larger than:

1. One fifth (1/5) the narrowest dimension between sides of forms; or

2. One third (1/3) the depth of slab; or
3. Three fourths (3/4) the minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcing bars or wires, bundles of bars, or
prestressing tendons or ducts.
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General
Water

In general, water that is drinkable can usually be used for making concrete. Non-potable water may also be suitable for
concrete. However, tests should be performed to determine if desired properties can be achieved.
The chemical balance of water is key for creation of a strong concrete mixture. As a result, drinking water is the only safe
option. All chemical components are regulated and the supply is monitored and tested.
Mixing water shall conform to ASTM C1602M. Water shall not contain deleterious amounts of chloride ion.

What happens when there is too much water in your concrete mix?
Once cured, concrete with too much water will also have a much greater risk of shrinkage and cracks,
especially in freeze/thaw climates, meaning that it will be particularly weak.
Water cement ratio (w/cm) is the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of cement added to concrete. The
water cement ratio formula directly affects the strength & durability of the concrete. The typical water-
cement ratio varies between 0.40 - 0.60 for different grades of concrete mix.

Admixture

Admixtures are ingredients other than cement, aggregates, and water that are added to concrete mix immediately before
or during mixing. Reducing the cost of concrete construction, economically achieving desired properties in concrete, and
maintaining the quality of concrete during mixing, transporting, placing, and curing.

Admixture shall conform to:

1. Water reduction and setting time modification: ASTM C494M

2. Producing flowing concrete: ASTM C1017M
3. Air entrainment: ASTM C260M
4. Inhibiting chloride-induced corrosion: ASTM C1582M

The following are brief descriptions of some common admixtures:

 Air-entraining admixtures. These admixtures purposely introduce microscopic air bubbles in concrete to improve its
durability when exposed to repeated freeze-thaw cycles. They also increase resistance to scaling due to exposure to
deicing chemicals and improve the workability of fresh concrete.
 Superplasticizers. These high-range water reducers that can greatly reduce water demand and cement content without
sacrificing workability. Using a water reducer can also lead to accelerated strength development of the concrete; these
permits formworks to be reduced earlier and, thus, reduced overall construction time.
 Corrosion inhibitors. These are usually in parking structures, marine structures, and other structures exposed to
chlorides, which can cause corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete.
 Retarders. These are used to delay the chemical reaction that takes place when the concrete starts the setting process.
It is commonly used to reduce the effect on high temperatures that could produce a faster initial setting of concrete. It
is required for transporting ready-mix concrete to delay the setting.
 Accelerators. Used to increase the rate of concrete strength development, or to reduce concrete setting time to allow
earlier formwork removal.

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Engineers
REINFORCED CONCRETE
General
Testing Concrete
Test for Wet Concrete
Slump Test – standard method in determining the relative consistency of concrete. Performed to check the workability of
concrete. A good workable concrete has good strength.

What is Workability of Concrete?

Workability is a complex property of concrete which is defined as the ease with which it can be
mixed, transported and placed in position within a homogeneous state. Workability depends upon
the quantity of water, aggregate grade and percentage of fine materials in the mix.

Procedure in conducting Slump Test:

a) A standard slump cone is filled in three layers, rodding each layer 25 times.
b) The concrete is smoothed off at the top of the cone.
c) The cone is then lifted vertically, permitting the concrete to slump downward.
d) Measure the distance between the original and final surface of the concrete (slump).

Figure 1.2 Slump test

Table 1.4 Recommended Slump for Various Types of Construction

Slump, in (mm)
Type of Construction Max Min
Reinforced foundation, walls and footings 5 (127) 2 (51)
Plain footing and caissons 4 (102) 1 (25)
Slabs, beams and reinforced walls 6 (152) 3 (76)
Building columns 6 (152) 3 (76)
Pavements 3 (76) 2 (51)
Heavy mass construction 3 (76) 1 (25)
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Engineers
REINFORCED CONCRETE
General
Factors which influence the concrete slump test:

1. Material properties like chemistry, fineness, particle size distribution, moisture content and temperature of
cementitious materials. Size, texture, combined grading, cleanliness, and moisture content of the aggregates,
2. Chemical admixtures dosage, type, combination, interaction, sequence of addition and its effectiveness,
3. Air content of concrete,
4. Concrete batching, mixing and transporting methods and equipment,
5. Temperature of the concrete,
6. Sampling of concrete, slump-testing technique, and the condition of test equipment,
7. The amount of free water in the concrete, and
8. Time since mixing of concrete at the time of testing.

Compaction Factor Test – the degree of compaction achieved by a standard amount of work is measured. The apparatus
is consists of two conical hoppers placed over one another over a cylinder. The upper hopper is filled with fresh
concrete which is then dropped into the second hopper and into the cylinder which is struck off flush. The
compacting factor is the ratio of the weight of concrete to the weight of an equal volume of fully compacted
concrete. The compacting factor for concrete of medium workability is about 0.9.

Other tests that are commonly employed to check the workability of concrete.
1. Flow test
2. Kelly ball test
3. Vee-Bee consistometer test.
4. K-Slump Test

Test for Hardened Concrete

Compressive Strength – the most important property of concrete. The characteristic strength is measured by the 28 day
cylinder strength.

Tensile Strength – is about a tenth of compressive strength. It is determined by loading a concrete cylinder across a
diameter.

Flexure Test – a plain concrete specimen is tested to failure in bending. The theoretical maximum tensile stress at the
bottom face at failure is calculated. This is called the modulus of rupture. It is about 1.5 times the tensile stress
determined by tensile strength.
Test Cores – cylindrical cores are cut from the finished structure with a rotary cutting tool. The core is soaked, capped
and tested in compression to give a measure of the concrete strength in the actual structure. The ratio of core height
to diameter and location where the core is taken affect the strength. The strength is lowest at the top surface in
increases with depth through the element. A ratio of core height-to-diameter of 2 gives a standard cylinder test.

Non-destructive test
Rebound Hardness Test – the Schimdt hammer test is used in the rebound hardness test in which a metal hammer held
against the concrete is struck by another spring-driven metal mass and rebounds. The amount of rebar is recorded on a
scale and this gives an indication of the concrete strength. The larger the rebound number, the higher the concrete
strength.

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REINFORCED CONCRETE
General
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test – in the ultrasonic pulse velocity of ultrasonic pulses that pass through a concrete section
from a transmitter to a receiver is measured. The pulse velocity is correlated against strength. The higher the velocity
is, the stronger is the concrete.

Other Non-destructive Test – equipment has been developed to measure:

 Crack widths and depths.
 Water permeability and the surface dampness of the concrete
 Depth of cover and the location of reinforcing bars.
 The electrochemical potential of reinforcing bars and hence the presence of corrosion.

Evaluation and Acceptance of Concrete

Compliance Requirements (Section 426.12.3.1.b)

Strength level of a concrete mixture shall be acceptable if (1) and (2) are satisfied:

1. Every arithmetic average of any three consecutive strength test equals or exceeds f’c
2. No individual strength test (average of two cylinders) falls below f’c by more than 3.5 MPa, when f’c is 35 MPa or
less; or by more than 0.10f’c when f’c is more than 35 MPa.

Strength Test
The average strength of two cylinders made from the same sample of concrete and tested at 28 days or at
test age designated for determination of f’c.

Example 1.1 Acceptance of Concrete

The following table lists strength test data for 5 truckloads (batches) of concrete delivered to the job site. For each
batch, two cylinders were cast and tested at 28 days. The specified strength of the concrete is 27.6 MPa.
Determine the acceptability of the concrete based on the strength criteria of Sect 426.12.3 of NSCP C101-15,

Average of 3 Consecutive
Cylinder 1 Cylinder 2 Strength Test Tests
Test No. (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
1 28.4 29.4 28.9 -
2 26.5 28.2 27.4 -
3 30.5 30.7 30.6 29.0
4 25.3 26.4 25.8 27.9
5 31.9 31.5 31.7 29.4

Calculation and Discussion

The average of the two-cylinder breaks for each batch represents a single strength test result. Even though the
lowest of the five strength test results (25.3 MPa) is below the specified strength of 27.6 MPa, the concrete is
considered acceptable because it is not below the specified value by more than 3.5 MPa for concrete with an f’c
not more than 35 MPa; i.e., not below 24.1 MPa.

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General

Example 1.1 Acceptance of Concrete

(Cont …)

The second acceptance criterion, based on the average of three (3) consecutive tests, is also satisfied
by the three consecutive strength test averages shown. The procedure to evaluate acceptance based
on 3 strength test results in a row is shown in the right column.
Third row = (28.9 + 27.4 + 30.6)/3 = 29.0 MPa
Fourth row = (27.4 + 30.6 + 25.8)/3 = 27.9 MPa
Fifth row = (30.6 + 25.8 + 31.7)/3 = 29.4 MPa

Thus, based on code acceptance criteria for concrete strength, the five strength tests results are
acceptable, both on the basis of the individual test results and the average of three consecutive test
results.

Frequency of Testing (Section 426.12.2)

Samples for preparing strength test specimens of each concrete mixture placed each day shall be taken in accordance
with:
1. At least once a day;
2. At least once for each 110 m3 of concrete;
3. At least for each 460 m2 of surface area for slabs or walls.

On a given project, if the total volume of concrete is such that frequency of testing would provide fewer than five strength
tests for a given concrete mixture, strength test specimens shall be made from at least five randomly selected batches or
from each batch if fewer than five batches are used.

If the total quantity of a given concrete mixture is less than 38 m 3, strength tests are not required if evidence of
satisfactory strength is submitted to and approved by the building official.

Concrete Mixture
Concrete mix shall be established so that concrete satisfies the following:
1. Can be placed readily into form and around reinforcement under anticipated placement without segregation or
excessive bleeding.
2. Meet requirements for assigned exposure class in accordance with either NSCP Sections 426.4.2.1(a) or
426.4.2.1(b)
3. Conform with strength test requirements for standard-cure specimens

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Table 1.5 Typical Concrete Mixture Ratio
20mm
Strength Cement Sand Gravel
Type – Ratio Uses
(MPa) (kgs) (kgs) (kgs)
M5 – 1/5/10 Blinding 5 146 751 1502
M7.5 – 1/4/8 Kerb backing, blinding 7.5 180 740 1480
M10 – 1/3/6 Oversite below suspended floor, drainage 10 235 721 1443
backing
M15 – 1/2/4 Footing for small walls, floor slab 15 335 688 1376
M20 – 1/1.5/3 Single story foundations, internal floor slab 20 427 657 1315
M25 – 1/1/2 Foundations, mass concrete and trench fill 25 589 603 1207
M30 – 1/0.75/1.5 Driveways, paths, garage base, structural use 30 726 557 1115
M35 – 1/0.5/1 External slabs heavy duty applications, 35 946 484 969
structural RC
M40 – 1/0.25/0.5 Structural RC floors, beams, columns 40 1357 347 695

Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall be deformed reinforcement, except that plain reinforcement shall be permitted for spirals or
prestressing steels.

Test on rebars is guided by Philippine National Standard (PNS) PNS – 49:2020 “Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement –
Specification” by the Bureau of Product Standard covering the following grades of steel rebars

Grade 230 For both weldable and non-weldable

275
415 Hot rolled steel rebars

It specifies the requirements for hot-rolled deformed steel bars in cut lengths and coils for concrete reinforcement. These
bars are rolled from billets of properly identified heats of mold-cast or strand-cast steel.

Marking
PNS 49 states that the Manufacturer’s identifying mark, bar size and grade shall be clearly embossed in each bar. The
system of marking shall be as given and as shown below.

Figure 1.3 Reinforcing bar markings

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a. Manufacturer’s identifying mark – logo or symbol registered or to be registered with the Philippine Patent Office
and published in Official Gazette
b. Bar size – Arabic number reflecting the nominal diameter.
c. Grade – dash (parallel to the rib) or the grade number itself.

No dash – grade 230

1 dash – grade 275
2 dashes – grade 415
No W – non-weldable
W – weldable

Color codes painted on the surface of the ends of each bar may also be used.

Grade 230 – white

Grade 275 – yellow
Grade 415 – green
Weldable Grade – red (additional color code)
Quenched and tempered – silver

Table 1.6 Nominal Dimension and Unit Mass of Reinforcing Bars

Nominal Cross-
Nominal Diameter Nominal Perimeter Sectional Area Unit Mass
(mm) (mm) (mm2) (kg/m)
10 (9.5) 31.7 78.54 (79) 0.617 (0.618)
12 (12.7) 37.7 113.10 (113) 0.888 (0.890)
16 (15.9) 50.3 201.06 (201) 1.578 (1.580)
20 (19.1) 62.8 314.16 (314) 2.466 (2.465)
25 (25.4) 78.6 490.88 (491) 3.853 (3.851)
28 (28.7) 88.6 615.75 (616) 4.834 (4.831)
32 (32.3) 100.5 804.25 (804) 6.313 (6.310)
36 (35.8) 113.1 1017.88 (1019) 7.990 (7.986)
40 125.7 1256.64 9.865
50 157.1 1963.50 15.413

Acceptance Requirements
NSCP Section 420.2.2.5b states that ASTM Grade 280 reinforcement is acceptable if it satisfies items (i) and (ii) below
and ASTM Grade 420 reinforcement if items (i) through (iii) are satisfied.

(i) Actual yield strength based on mill test does not exceed fy by more than 125 MPa
(ii) Ratio of the actual tensile strength to actual yield strength (TS/YS) is at least 1.25
(iii) Minimum elongation in 20 mm shall be at least 14 percent for bar sizes 10mmø through 20mmø, at least 12
percent for bar sizes 25mmø through 36mmø, and at least 10 percent for bar sizes 40mmø to 58mmø.

Concrete Cover
Concrete cover refers to the thickness of the concrete layer that surrounds and protects the reinforcing steel bars (rebar)
within a reinforced concrete structure. It acts as a barrier against external elements such as moisture, chemicals, and
environmental factors, safeguarding the rebar from corrosion and ensuring the structural integrity of the entire system.

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Table 1.7 Specified Concrete Cover For Cast-In-Place Non-Prestressed Concrete Member
Concrete Exposure Member Reinforcement Specified
Cover(mm)
Cast against and permanently in contact All All 75
with ground
20mmø through 58mmø 50
Exposed to weather or in contact with All bars
ground
16mmø bar, MW200 or 40
MD200 wire, and smaller
Slabs, joists, and walls 40mmø and 58mmø bars 40
Not exposed to weather or in contact with
36mmø bars and smaller 20
ground
Beams, columns, Primary reinforcement, 40
pedestals, and tension stirrups, ties, spirals, and
ties hoops

Loads
Forces or other actions that result from the weight of all building materials, occupants and their possession, environmental
effects, differential movements, and restrained dimensional changes. Permanent loads are those loads in which variations
over time are rare or of small magnitude. All other loads are variable loads.

Dead Loads
Dead loads consist of the weight of all materials or construction incorporated into the building or other structure,
including but not limited to walls, floors, roofs, ceilings, stairways, built-in partitions, finishes, cladding and other
similarly incorporated architectural and structural items, and fixed service equipment, including the weight of the crane.

In the absence of definite information regarding dead loads, Table 1.7 is permitted by the code to be use as minimum
values. The code also states that floor in office buildings and other buildings where partition locations are subject to
change shall be designed to support, in addition to all other loads, a uniformly distributed dead load equal to 1.0 kPa
(Section 204.3).

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Table 1.8 Minimum Design Dead Loads (kPa)
Component Load Component Load
CEILING Urethane foam with skin 0.0009
Acoustical fiber board 0.05 Plywood (per mm thickness) 0.0060
Gypsum board (per mm thickness) 0.008 Rigid insulation, 13 mm 0.04
Mechanical duct allowance 0.20 Skylight, metal frame, with 10 mm 0.38
Plaster on tile or concrete 0.24 wire glass
Plaster on wood lath 0.38 Slate, 5 mm 0.34
Suspended steel channel system 0.10 Slate, 6 mm 0.48
Suspended metal lath and cement 0.72 Waterproofing membranes
plaster Bituminous gravel-covered 0.26
Suspended metal lath and gypsum 0.48 Bituminous smooth surface 0.07
plaster Liquid, applied 0.05
Wood furring suspension system 0.12 Single-ply sheet 0.03
COVERINGS, Roof and Wall Wood sheathing (per mm thickness) 0.0057
Asphalt shingles 0.10 Wood shingles 0.14
Cement tiles 0.77 FLOOR FILL
Clay tiles (for mortar add 0.48 kPa) Cinder concrete, per mm 0.017
Book tile, 50mm 0.57 Lightweight concrete, per mm 0.015
Book tile, 75mm 0.96 Sand, per mm 0.015
Ludowici 0.48 Stone concrete, per mm 0.023
Roman 0.57 FLOOR AND FLOOR FINISHES
Spanish 0.91 Asphalt block (50 mm), 13 mm 1.44
Composition mortar
Three-ply ready roofing 0.05 Cement finish (25 mm) on stone- 1.53
Four-ply felt and gravel 0.26 concrete fill
Five-ply felt and gravel 0.29 Ceramic or quarry tile (20 mm) on 0.77
Copper or tin 0.05 13 mm mortar bed
Corrugated asbestos-cement roofing 0.19 Ceramic or quarry tile (20 mm) on 1.10
Deck, metal 20 gage 0.12 25 mm mortar bed
Deck, metal 18 gage 0.14 Concrete fill finish (per mm thick) 0.023
Fiberboard, 13 mm 0.04 Hardwood flooring, 22 mm 0.19
Gypsum sheathing, 13 mm 0.10 Linoleum or asphalt tile, 5 mm 0.05
Insulation, roof boards (per mm Marble and mortar on stone concrete 1.58
thickness) fill
Cellular glass 0.0013 Slate (per mm thickness) 0.028
Fibrous glass 0.0021 Solid flat tile on 25mm mortar base 1.10
Fiberboard 0.0028 Subflooring, 19 mm 0.14
Perlite 0.0015 Terrazzo (38 mm) directly on slab 0.91
Polystyrene foam 0.0004 Terrazzo (25 mm) on stone-conc fill 1.53
Component Load Component Load
Terrazzo (25 mm) on 50mm stone-conc 1.53 FRAME WALLS
Wood block (75 mm) on mastic no fill 0.48 Exterior stud walls:
Wood block (75 mm) on 13mm mortar 0.77 50x100 @ 400mm, 15mm gypsum 0.53
base insulated, 10 mm siding
FRAME PARTITIONS 50x150 @ 400mm, 15mm gypsum 0.57
Movable partitions 0.24 insulated, 10 mm siding
Movable partitions (steel) 0.19 Exterior stud wall with brick veneer 2.30
Wood or steel studs, 13 mm gypsum 0.38 Window, glass, frame and sash 0.38
board each side Clay brick wythes
Wood studs, 50x100 unplastered 0.19 100 mm 1.87
Wood studs, 50x100 plastered one side 0.57 200 mm 3.74
Wood studs, 50x100 plastered two sides 0.96 300 mm 3.51
400 mm 7.48

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CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS

Hollow Concrete Masonry Units Unplastered. Add 0.24 kPa
for each face plastered
Grout Wythe thickness (mm)
Spacing 100 150 200
16.5-kN/m3 Density of Unit
No grout 1.05 1.15 1.48
800 1.40 1.53 2.01
600 1.50 1.63 2.20
400 1.79 1.92 2.54
Full 2.50 2.63 3.59
19.6-kN/m3 Density of Unit
No grout 1.24 1.34 1.72
800 1.59 1.72 2.25
600 1.69 1.87 2.44
400 1.98 2.11 2.82
Full 2.69 2.82 3.88
21.2-kN/m3 Density of Unit
No grout 1.39 1.44 1.87
800 1.74 1.83 2.39
600 1.53 1.96 2.59
400 2.13 2.20 2.92
Full 2.84 2.97 3.97

Live Loads
Live loads refer to the transient or moving loads that structures experience due to human occupancy, furniture, vehicles,
and other temporary factors. Live loads vary in magnitude and location over time, as the intended use and occupancy of
the structure influences them.

Unit live loads as set forth in Table 1.8 shall be used to design floors. These loads shall be taken as minimum live loads of
horizontal projection to be used in the design of buildings for the occupancies listed. Where it can be determined in
designing floors that the actual live load will be greater than listed in the table, such live load shall be used in the design.

Where uniform floor loads are involved, consideration may be limited to full dead load on all spans in combination with
full live load on adjacent spans and alternate spans (called pattern loading for continuous beam and checkered loading
for slab).

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Table 1.9 Minimum Uniform and Concentrated Live Loads (kPa)
Use or Occupancy Uniform Load1 Concentrated
Load
Category Description kPa kN
1. Access floor system Office use 2.4 9.02
Computer use 4.8 9.02
2. Armories --- 7.0 0
Fixed seats 2.9 0
3. Theaters, assembly areas3 and Movable seats 4.8 0
auditoriums Lobbies and platforms 4.8 0
Stage areas 7.2 0
4. Bowling alleys, poolrooms, and --- 3.6 0
similar recreational areas
5. Catwalk for maintenance access --- 1.9 1.3
6. Cornices and marquees --- 3.64 0
7. Dining rooms and restaurants --- 4.8 0
8. Exit facilities5 --- 4.8 06
General storage and/or repair 4.8 ---7
9. Parking garages and ramps Public parking and ramps 4.8 ---7
Private (residential) or pleasure type motor
vehicle storage 2.4 ---7
Wards and rooms 1.9 4.52
10. Hospitals Laboratories and operating rooms 2.9 4.52
Corridors above ground floor 3.8 4.5
Reading rooms 2.9 4.52
11. Libraries Stack rooms 7.2 4.52
Corridors above ground floor 3.8 4.5
Light 6.0 9.02
12. Manufacturing Heavy 12.8 13.42
Building Corridors above ground floor 3.8 9.0
Call centers and business processing offices 2.9 9.0
13. Office Lobbies and ground floor corridors 4.8 9.0
Other offices 2.4 9.02
Press rooms 7.2 11.02
14. Printing plants Composing and linotype room 4.8 9.02
Basic floor area 1.9 06
15. Residential8 Exterior balconies 2.94 0
Decks 1.94 0
storage 1.9 0
16. Restrooms9 --- --- ---
17. Reviewing stands, grandstands,
bleachers, and folding and telescopic --- 4.8 0
seating
18. Roof decks Same as area served or occupancy --- ---
19. Schools Classrooms 1.9 4.52
Corridors above ground floors 3.8 4.5
Ground floor corridors 4.8 4.5
20. Sidewalks and driveways Public access 12.0 ---7
Light 6.0 ---
21. Storage Heavy 12.0 ---
Retail 4.8 4.52
22. Stores Wholesale 6.0 13.42
23. Pedestrian bridges and walkways
--- 4.8 ---
Notes for Table 1.9
6
1
See NSCP Section 205.5 for live load reduction Individual stair treads shall be designed to support a 1.3 N concentrated
load placed in a position that would cause maximum stress. Stair stringer s
2
See Section 205.3.3, first paragraph, for area of load application may be designed for the uniform load set forth in the table.
7
3
Assembly areas include such occupancies as dance halls, drill rooms, See NSCP Section 205.3.3, second paragraph, for concentrated loads, See
gymnasiums, playgrounds, plazas, terraces, and similar occupancies that Table 1.9 for vehicle barriers.
8
are generally accessible to the public. Residential occupancies include private dwellings, apartments, and hotel
4 guest rooms.
For a special-purpose roofs, see NSCP Section 205.4.4 9
Restroom loads shall not be less than the load for the occupancy with which
5
Exit facilities shall include such uses as corridors serving an occupant load they are associated, but need not exceed 2.4 kPa
of 10 or more persons, exterior exit balconies, stairways, fire escaped and
similar uses.

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General
Table 1.10 Special Loads1
Use or Occupancy Vertical Load Lateral Load
Category Description kPa kN
1. Construction, public access at site (live loads) Walkway 7.2 ---
Canopy 7.2 ---
2. Grandstands, reviewing stands, bleachers, and folding Seats and footboards 1.752 See Note 3
and telescopic seating (live loads)
Catwalks 1.9 ---
3. Stage accessories (live loads) Follow spot, projection, and control 2.4 ---
rooms
Over stages 1.0 ---
4. Ceiling framing (live loads) All uses except over stages 0.54 ---
5. Partitions and interior walls --- --- 0.25
6. Elevators and dumbwaiters (dead and live loads) --- 2*total load ---
7. Cranes (dead and live load) Total load including impact increase 1.25*total load5 0.1*total load6
Exit facilities serving an occupant load --- 0.75 kN/m7
8. Balcony, railings, and guardrails greater than 50 persons
Other than exit facilities --- 0.30 kN/m7
components --- 1.28
9. Vehicle barriers --- --- 27 kN9
10. Handrails --- See Note 10 See Note 10
See NSCP Table
11. Storage racks Over 2.4 m high Total loads11 208-13
1.1 kN plus weight See NSCP Table
12. Fire sprinkler structural support --- of water filled 208-13
pipe12
Notes for Table 1.10
1
The tabulated loads are minimum loads. Where other vertical loads required by the design would cause greater stresses, they shall be used. Loads are in kPa
unless otherwise indicated in the table.
2
Units is kN/m.
3
Lateral sway bracing loads of 350 N/m parallel and 145 N/m perpendicular to seat and footboard.
4
Does not apply to ceilings that have sufficient access from below, such that access is not required within the space above the ceiling. Does not apply to ceilings if
the attic areas above the ceiling are not provided with access. This live load need not be considered as acting simultaneously with other live loads imposed
upon the ceiling framing or its supporting structures.
5
The impact factors included are for cranes with steel wheels riding on steel rails. They may be modified if substantiating technical data acceptable to the building
official is submitted. Live loads on crane support girders and their connections shall be taken as the maximum crane wheel loads. For pendant-operated
travelling crane support girders and their connections, the impact factors shall be 1.10.
6
This applies in the direction parallel to the runways rails (longitudinal). The factor for forces perpendicular to the rail is 0.20 * the transverse traveling loads
(trolleys, cab, hooks, and lifted loads). Forces shall be applied at the top of rail and may be distributed among rails of multiple rail cranes and shall be
distributed with due regard for lateral stiffness of the structures supporting these rails.
7
A load per lineal meter (kN/m) to be applied horizontally at right angles to the top rail.
8
Intermediate rails, panel fillers and their connections shall be capable of withstanding a load of 1.2 kPa applied horizontally at right angles over the entire
tributary area, including opening and spaces between rails. Reactions due to this loading need not be combined with those of Note 7.
9
A horizontal load applied at right angles to the barrier at a height of 450 mm above the parking surface. The force may be distributed over a 300-mm square.
10
The mounting of handrails shall be such that the completed handrail and supporting structure can withstand a load of at least 890 N applied in any direction at
any point on the rail. These loads shall be assumed to act cumulatively with Note 9.
11
Vertical members of storage racks shall be protected from impact forces of operating equipment, or racks shall be designed so that failure of one vertical
member will not cause collapse of more than the bay or bays directly supported by that member.
12
The 1.1-kN load is to be applied to any single fire sprinkler support point but not simultaneously to all support joints.

General My Notes-Reinforced Concrete Section 1.15

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Engineers
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General
Table 1.11 Minimum Roof Live Loads1
Method 1 Method 2
Roof Slope Tributary Area (m2) Uniform Rate of Maximum
0 to 20 20 to 60 Over 60 Load2 Reduction Reduction R
(kPa) r (percentage)
Uniform Load (kPa)
1. Flat3 or rise less than 1-unit vertical in 3-unit
horizontal (33.3% slope). Arch and dome with 1.00 0.75 0.60 1.00 0.08 40
rise less than 1/8 of span.
2. Rise 1-unit vertical to less than 3-unit vertical
in 3-unit horizontal (33.3% to less than 100% 0.75 0.70 0.60 0.75 0.06 25
slope). Arch and dome with rise 1/8 of span to
less than 3/8 of span.
3. Rise 1-unit vertical in 1-unit horizontal (100%
slope) and greater. Arch or dome with rise 3/8 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
of span or greater. No reduction permitted
4. Awning except cloth covered.4 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
5. Greenhouses, lath houses and agricultural 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
buildings.5
1
For special-purpose roofs, see NSCP Section 205.4.4.
2
See NSCP Section 205.5 and 205.6 for live-load reductions. The rate of reduction r in NSCP Equation 205-1 shall be as indicated in the table. The maximum
reduction R, shall not exceed the value indicated in the table.
3
A flat roof is any roof with a slope less than 1-unit vertical in 48-unit horizontal (2% slope). The live load for flat roofs is in addition to the ponding load required
by NSCP Section 206.7.
4
See definition in NSCP Section 202.
5
See NSCP Section 205.4.4 for concentrated load requirements for greenhouse roof members.

Loads Combinations
Where strength reduction or load and resistance factor design is used, structures and all portion thereof shall resist the
most critical effects from the following combinations of factored loads:

1.4(D + F)
1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or R)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (f1L or 0.5W)
1.2D + 1.0W + f1L + 0.5(Lr or R)
1.2D + 1.0E + f1L
0.9D + 1.0W + 1.6H
0.9D + 1.0W + 1.6H

Special Seismic Load Combinations

1.2D + f1L + 1.0Em
0.9D ± 1.0Em

where
f1 = 1.0 for floors in places of public assembly, for live load in excess of 4.8 kPa, and for garage live load, or
= 0.5 for other live loads
D = dead load
E = earthquake load set forth in NSCP Section 208.6.1
Em = estimated maximum earthquake force that can be developed in the structure as set forth in NSCP Section
208.6.1

General My Notes-Reinforced Concrete Section 1.16

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Engineers
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General
F = load due to fluids with well defined pressures and maximum heights
H = load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in soil
L = live load, except roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction
Lr = roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction
P = ponding load
R = rain load on the undeflected roof
T = self-straining force and effects arising from contraction or expansion resulting from temperature change,
shrinkage, moisture change, creep in component materials, movement due to differential settlement, or
combinations thereof
W = load due to wing pressure

Earthquake Load
Structures shall be designed for ground motion producing structural response and seismic
forces in any horizontal direction. The following earthquake loads shall be used in the load
combinations set forth in NSCP Section 203.

𝐸 = 𝜌𝐸 + 𝐸

𝐸 =𝛺 𝐸

where
E the earthquake load on an element of the structure resulting from the
combination of the horizontal component, 𝑬𝒉 , and the vertical component, 𝑬𝒗
𝑬𝒉 the earthquake load due to the vase shear, V, or the design lateral force, Fp
𝑬𝒎 the estimated maximum earthquake force that can be developed in the
structure and used in the design of specific elements of the structure
𝑬𝒗 the load effect resulting from the vertical component and is equal to an
additional of 0.5CaID to the dead load effect, D, for Strength Design, and may
be taken as zero for Allowable Design.
𝜴𝒐 the seismic force amplification factor that is required for structural
overstrength
𝝆 Reliability/Redundancy Factor as given by the following equation

𝟔. 𝟏
𝝆=𝟐−
𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑨𝑩

where
𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 the maximum element-storey shear ratio. For a given direction of
loading, the element-storey shear ratio of the design shear in the most
heavily loaded single element divided by the total storey shear.

General My Notes-Reinforced Concrete Section 1.17

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Engineers
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General
Reduction Factors

Table 1.12 Strength Reduction Factors

Action or Structural Element ø Exceptions
Moment, axial force, or combined moment and 0.65 to 0.90 Near ends of pretensioned members where
axial force In accordance with strands are not fully developed, ø shall be in
NSCP Section accordance with NSCP Section 421.2.3
421.2.2
Shear 0.75 Additional requirements are given in Section
421.2.4 for structures designed to resist
earthquake effects.
Torsion 0.75 ---
Bearing 0.65 ---
Post-tensioned anchorage zone 0.85 ---
Brackets and corbels 0.75 ---
Struts, ties, nodal zones, and bearing areas designed 0.75 ---
in accordance with NSCP Section 423
Components of connections of precast members 0.90 ---
controlled by yielding of steel elements in tension
Plain concrete elements 0.60 ---
Anchors in concrete elements 0.45 to 0.75 ---
In accordance with
NSCP Section 417

Table 1.13 Strength Reduction Factors for Moments, Axial Force. Or Combined Moment and Axial Force
ø
Net tensile strain, 𝜺𝒕 Classification Type of Transverse Reinforcement
Spiral Others
𝜀 ≤ 𝜀 Compression controlled 0.75 0.65

𝜀 < 𝜀 < 0.005 Transition[1] 𝜀 − 𝜀 𝜀 − 𝜀

0.75 + 0.15 0.65 + 0.25
0.005 − 𝜀 0.005 − 𝜀

𝜀 ≥ 0.005 Tension controlled 0.90 0.90

1
For sections classified as transition, it shall be permitted to use ø corresponding to compression-controlled sections.

Fundamental Principles of Strength Design Method

The strength design method is based on the following two fundamental principles:

1. Static equilibrium. The compressive and tensile forces acting on any cross-section of a member are in equilibrium.

The above condition must be satisfied at every cross-section of a member. The basic equilibrium will be used in
determining nominal strengths of reinforced concrete members.

2. Compatibility of strain. The strain in a reinforcing bar that is embedded in concrete is equal to the strain in concrete
at that level.

The above condition implies that there is a perfect bond between the concrete and the reinforcing steel and that both
the materials act together to resist the effects from external load.

General My Notes-Reinforced Concrete Section 1.18

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Engineers
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General
Design Assumptions

The design assumptions used in the strength design method are outlined in NSCP Section 422.2. The assumptions are
applicable in the design of members subject to flexure, axial or combination of both. The nominal strength of a reinforced
concrete member is determined based on these assumptions.

Design Assumption #1
Strain in reinforcement and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the distance from
the neutral axis.

The first design assumption is the traditional assumption made in beam theory: Plane sections that are perpendicular
to the axis of the bending prior to the bending remain plane after bending. This fundamentally implies that the
concrete and the reinforcing steel act together to resist load effects.

Though strictly speaking this assumption is incorrect for reinforced concrete members after cracking because the
strain on the tension side of the neutral axis varies significantly due to presence of cracks. However, experiments
shows that the distribution of strain is essentially linear across reinforced concrete cross-section even near ultimate
strength.

Figure 1.4 The assumed strain distribution

The strain distribution over the depth of a rectangular reinforced concrete section at ultimate strength is represented in
Fig. 1.4. For demonstrative purposes, it is assumed that the strains are compressive above the neutral axis and are
tensile below it. The strains in the concrete and reinforcement are directly proportional to the distance from the neutral
axis, which is located at a distance c from the compression face of the section. The ratio of ec to the strain of
reinforcement at different level can be obtained by similar triangles.

𝜺𝒄 𝜺𝒔𝟏 𝜺𝒔𝟐 𝜺𝒔𝟑 𝜺𝒔𝟒

= = = = Eq. 2.1
𝒄 𝒄 − 𝒅𝟏 𝒄 − 𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟑 − 𝒄 𝒅𝟒 − 𝒄

Design Assumption #2
Maximum usable strain at extreme concrete compression fiber shall be assumed equal to ε u = 0.003.

The maximum concrete compressive strain at crushing of concrete has been measured in many tests of both plain and
reinforced concrete members. The test results from a series of reinforced concrete beams and columns specimen
indicate that the maximum concrete compressive strain varies from 0.003 to as high as 0.008. However, the maximum
strain for practical cases is 0.003 to 0.004. Though the maximum strain decreases with increasing compressive
strength, the 0.003 value allowed for design is reasonably conservative.

General My Notes-Reinforced Concrete Section 1.19

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General
Design Assumption #3
Stress in reinforcement fs shall be taken as Es times strain εs. For strain greater than fy/Es, stress in
reinforcement shall be considered independent of strain and equal to fy.

For deformed reinforcement, it is reasonably accurate to assume that below the yield stress, the stress in the
reinforcement is proportional to strain (Hooke’s Law). For practical design, the increase in the strength because of
strain hardening of the reinforcement is neglected for strength computation. See figure below.

Figure 1.5 Stress Strain Relationship for Reinforcement

The force developed in the tensile or compressive reinforcement is a function of the strain in the reinforcement ε s,
such that:

when εs ≤ εy (yield strain):

fs = E s ε s

A s fs = A s E s ε s

when εs ≥ εy:

fs = E s ε y = fy

A s fs = A s fy

where εs is the value from the strain diagram at the location of reinforcement. For design, the modulus of elasticity of
steel reinforcement, Es, is taken as 200,000 MPa (29, 000, 000 psi).

Design Assumption #4
Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in flexural calculations of reinforced concrete.

The tensile strength of concrete in flexure, known as the modulus of rupture, is a more variable property than the
compressive strength, and is about 8% to 12% of the compressive strength. The generally acceptable value is
7.5 𝑓′𝑐 for normal weight concrete. This tensile strength in flexure is neglected in strength design. For practical
percentages of reinforcement, the resulting computed strengths are in good agreement with test results. For very
small percentages of reinforcement, neglecting the tensile strength of concrete is conservative. It should be realized,

General My Notes-Reinforced Concrete Section 1.20

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Engineers
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General
however, that the strength of concrete in tension is important in cracking and deflection (serviceability)
considerations.

Design Assumption #5
Relationship between compressive stress distribution and concrete strain shall be assumed to be
rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic, or any shape that results in prediction of strength in substantial
agreement with results of comprehensive test.

This assumption recognizes the inelastic stress distribution in concrete at high stresses. As maximum stress is
approached, the stress-strain relationship of concrete is not a straight line (stress is not proportional to strain). The
general stress-strain behavior of concrete is shown below.

Figure 1.6 Typical Stress-Strain Curves for Concrete

The shape of the curves is primarily a function of concrete strength and consists of the rising curve from zero stress to
a maximum at compressive strain between 0.0015 and 0.002., followed by descending curve to an ultimate strain
(corresponding to crushing of concrete) varying from 0.003 to as high as 0.008. As discussed in Design Assumption
#2, the code sets the maximum usable strain at 0.003 for design.

Design Assumption #6
Requirements of Design Assumption #5 may be considered satisfied by an equivalent rectangular
concrete stress distribution defined as follows: A concrete stress of 0.85f’ c shall be assumed
uniformly distributed over an equivalent compression zone bounded by edges of the cross-section
and a straight line located parallel to the neutral axis at a distance a=β1c from the fiber of maximum
compressive strain. Distance c from the fiber of maximum compressive strain to the neutral axis
shall be measured in a direction perpendicular to that axis. Fraction β1 shall be taken as 0.85 for
strengths f’c 2400 psi (17 MPa) up to 4000 psi (28 MPa) and shall be reduced continuously at a rate
of 0.05 for each 1000 psi (7 MPa) of strength in excess of 4000 psi, but β1 shall not be less than
0.65.

General My Notes-Reinforced Concrete Section 1.21

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Figure 1.7 Development of Ultimate Strength Theories of Flexure

General My Notes-Reinforced Concrete Section 1.22

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Engineers
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General
The code allows the use of rectangular compressive stress block to replace the more exact stress distribution. The
equivalent rectangular stress block assumes a uniform stress of 0.85f’c over a depth a=β1c. The constant β1 is equal
to concrete with f’c ≤ 4000 psi (28 MPa) and reduces by 0.05 for each additional 1000 psi (7 MPa) of f’c in excess of
4000 psi. For high strength concretes, above 8000 psi, a lower limit of 0.65 is placed on the β1 factor. Variation in β1
vs. concrete strength f’c is shown below.

Figure 1.8 Strength Factor β1

General My Notes-Reinforced Concrete Section 1.23

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General
Ten Basic Rules to Avoid Structural Failures
(Excerpt from Design and Construction Failures, Lessons from Forensic Investigations
by Dov Kominetzky)

1. Gravity always works, so if you do not provide permanent support, something will
fail.
2. A chain reaction will make a small fault into a large failure, unless you can afford a
fail-safe design, where sufficient residual support is available when one component
fails. In the competitive private construction industry, such design procedure is
beyond consideration.
3. It only requires a small error or oversight – in design, in detail, in material strength,
in assembly, or in protective measures – to cause a large failure.
4. Eternal vigilance is necessary to avoid small errors. If there are no capable crews or
group leaders on the job and in design office, then supervision must take over the
chore of local control. Inspection service and construction management cannot be
relied on as a secure substitute.
5. Just as a ship cannot be run by two captains, a construction job cannot be run by a
committee. It must be run by one individual, with full authority to plan, direct, hire,
and fire, and full responsibility for production and safety.
6. Craftsmanship is needed on the part of the designer, the vendor, and the
construction teams.
7. An unbuildable design is not buildable, and some recent attempts at producing
striking architecture are approaching the limit of safe buildability, even with our
most sophisticated equipment and techniques.
8. There is no foolproof design; there is no foolproof construction method, without
guidance and proper and careful control.
9. The best way to generate a failure on you job is to disregard the lessons to be
learned from someone else’s failure.
10. A little loving care can cure many ills. A little careful control of a job can avoid
many accidents and failures.

General My Notes-Reinforced Concrete Section 1.24