FACILITATED DIFFUSION to “talk” to each other, coordinating

• A passive transport aided by their activities.

proteins
• Cells most often communicate with
each other by chemical signals.
For instance, the fight-or-flight
response is triggered by a
signaling molecules called
epinephrine.

EVOLUTION OF CELL SIGNAING

• One topic of cell “conversation is
sex – at least for the yeast
saccharomyces cerevisiae
Yeast identify their mates by
chemical signaling.

Two sexes or mating types of

yeasts: 𝒂 and a

• Cells of mating type 𝒂 secrete a

signaling molecules called 𝒂 factor,
which can bind to specific receptor
proteins on nearby a cell.
• a cells secrete a factor, which
binds to receptors on 𝒂 cells.
• Once received at the yeast cell
surface, how is the mating signal
CELL COMMUNICATION changed, or transduced, into a
form that brings about the cellular
responses of mating? The received

CELL MESSAGING
• Hormonal signaling and the
subsequent response by cells and
tissues throughout the gazelle’s
body illustrate how cell-to-cell
communication allows the trillions
of cells in a multicellular organism
 signal is converted to a specific LOCAL AND LOCAL-DISTANCE
cellular response in a series of SIGNALING
steps called a signal transduction • Eukaryotic cells may communicate
pathway. by direct contact
• Both animal and plant cells have
cell junctions where signaling
QUORUM SENSING substances dissolved in the cytosol
• A phenomenon where the can pass freely between adjacent
concentration of signaling cells.
molecules, sensed by bacteria,
allows them to monitor the local
density of cells.
• Allows bacterial populations to
coordinate their behaviors so they
can carry out activities that are
only productive when performed by
a given number of cells in
synchrony
• E.g. biofilm formation
(aggregation of bacterial cells
adhered to a surface; the cells in
the biofilm generally derive
nutrition from the surface they are
on.

FRUITING BODY
FORMATION OF
MYXOBACTERIA

• Can communicate between

membrane-bound cell-surface
molecules through cell-cell
recognition

LOCAL SIGNALING
• Messenger molecules are secreted
by the signaling cell
• Travels only short distances such
as local regulators.
• One class of local regulators in
animals, growth factors, consists
of compounds that stimulate
nearby target cells to grow and
divide.
1. Paracrine signaling – numerous
cells can simultaneously receive
and respond to the molecules of
 growth factor produced by a single vessels but more often reach their
cell in their vicinity. target by moving through cells or
2. Synaptic signaling – occurs in by diffusing through the air as a
animal nervous system gas.
- an electrical signal along a
nerve cell triggers the secretion
of neurotransmitter molecules
carrying a chemical signal
- these molecules diffuse across
the synapse, the narrow space
between the nerve cell and its
target cell (often another nerve
cell), triggering a response in
the target cell.

THREE STAGES OF CELL SIGNALING

1. Reception – is the target cell’s
detection of a signaling molecule
coming from outside the cell.
- a chemical signal is “detected”
when the signaling molecule
binds to a receptor protein
located at the cell’s surface or
inside the cell.
2. Transduction – the binding of the
signaling molecules changes the
LONG-DISTANCE SIGNALING receptor protein in some way,
initiating the process of
• Hormonal o endocrine signaling
transduction.
allows cells to release hormone
- It converts the signal to a form
molecules, which travel via the
that can bring about a specific
circulatory system to other parts of
cellular response.
the body, where they reach target
- It occurs in a single step but
cells that can recognize and
more often requires a
respond to the hormones.
sequence of changes in a
• Plant hormones (or plant growth
series of different molecules
regulators) sometimes travel in
 called signal transduction G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTORS
pathway. • A cell-surface transmembrane
- The molecules in the pathway receptor that works with the help of
are often called relay a G protein, a protein that binds
molecules. the energy-rich molecule GTP.
3. Response – any imaginable • Use in different signaling
cellular specific activity. molecules such as yeast mating
- E.g. catalysis by an enzyme, factors, epinephrine and many
rearrangement of the other hormones, and
cytoskeleton, or activation of neurotransmitters.
specific genes in the nucleus.

RECEPTORS IN THE PLASMA

MEMBRANE
• Transmembrane receptor transmits
information from the extracellular
environment to the inside of the
cell by changing the shape or
aggregating when a specific ligand
binds to it.
3 major types of cell-surface
transmembrane receptors:
- G protein-coupled receptors
(GPCRs)
- Receptor tyrosine kinases
(RTKs)
- Ion channel receptors (ICRs)
RECEPTOR TYROSINE KINASES
• a kinase is an enzyme that
catalyzes the transfer of phosphate
groups.
• The part of the receptor protein
extending into the cytoplasm
functions as a tyrosine kinase, an
enzyme that catalyzes the transfer
of a phosphate group from ATP to
the amino acid tyrosine on a
substrate protein.
• Thus, RTKs are membrane
receptors that attach phosphates
to tyrosines.
ION CHANNEL RECEPTORS
• A type of membrane receptor
containing a region that can act as
a “gate” when the receptor
changes shape also known as
Ligand-gated ion channel.
- When a signaling molecule
binds as a ligand to the
receptor protein, the gate
opens or closes, allowing or
blocking the flow of specific
ions, such as Na+ and Ca2+,
through a channel in the
receptor. INTRACELLULAR RECEPTORS
TRANSDUCTION: Cascades of molecular
interactions relay signals from receptors to
target molecules in the cell.
- The transduction signaling is
a multistep pathway
- Steps often include activation
of proteins by addition or
removal of phosphate groups
or release of other small
molecules or ions that act as
messengers.
SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS
• Triggers when specific signaling
molecules binds to a receptor in
the plasma membrane
• The sign-activated receptor
activates another molecule, so on,
until the protein that produces that
final cellular response is activated.
• The molecules that relay signals
are proteins

• Signal transduction triggers a

change in shape of proteins,
which is usually by
phosphorylation.
PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION AND
DEPHOSPHORYLATION
• Protein kinase – an enzyme that
transfers phosphate groups from
ATP to a protein, through a
phosphorylation process
- These proteins are relay
molecules in signal
transduction pathways
• Protein phosphatase – an - Provides mechanism for
enzyme that can rapidly remove turning off the signal
phosphate groups from proteins, transduction pathway when the
through dephosphorylation process initial signal is no longer
present.
SMALL MOLECULES AND IONS AS
SECOND MESSENGERS
• Aside from proteins, many
signaling pathways also involve
small, non-protein, water-soluble
molecules or ions called second
messengers
• E.g. cyclic AMP (cAMP)
Calcium ions (Ca2+)

CYCLIC AMP (cAMP)

• Second messenger that carries the
signal in glycogen breakdown
initiated by epinephrine
• cAMP activates the HOW CERTAIN MICROBES CAUSE
serine/threonine kinase (protein DISEASE?
kinase A) • Vibrio cholerae causing cholera –
• activated protein kinase A then due to water contamination
phosphorylates various proteins • the bacteria form a biofilm on the
lining of small intestine and
produce toxin, which chemically
modifies a G protein involved in
regulating salt and water secretion.
• Because G protein can’t hydrolyze
GTP to GDP, it remains in an
active form, continuously
stimulating adenyl cyclase to make
cAMP.
• The resulting high conc. of cAMP
causes the intestinal cells to
secrete large amounts of salts into
the intestines, with water following
osmosis.
• Infected person quickly develops
profuse diarrhea.

END OF FIRST PART

Note: The next part was discussed
AFTER the midterms.
 CALCIUM IONS AND INOSITOLS
TRIPHOSPHATE (IP3)
Calcium ions can function as a second
messenger because its conc. in the
cytosol is normally much lower than the
outside of the cell.
Ca2+ are actively transported out of the cell
and are actively imported from the cytosol
into the ER, mitochondria, and chloroplast.

In response to a signal relayed by a signal

transduction pathway, the cytosolic
calcium level may rise, usually be a
mechanism that releases Ca2+ from the
cell’s ER.
The pathways leading to calcium release
involve still other second messengers,
Inositol triphosphate and diacylglycerol
(DAG).
 A signal pathway activates a transcription
factor that turns a gene on.

RESPONSE

• Cell signaling leads to regulation of

transcription or cytosolic activities
• Many signaling pathways
ultimately regulate protein
synthesis, usually by turning
specific genes on or off in the
nucleus.
 THE SPECIFICITY OF CELL
SIGNALING AND COORDINATION
OF THE RESPONSE

Liver cells and heart muscles cells are

both in contact with hormones in the
blood. But both cells may respond
Example: Signaling pathway begins with differently to the same signals.
binding the epinephrine which then Ex. Epinephrine stimulates the liver cell to
activates the enzyme that catalyzes break down glycogen, but main response
glycogen breakdown called signal of the heart cell to epinephrine is
amplification. contraction, leading to rapid heartbeat.
How do we account for this difference?

THE SPECIFICITY OF CELL SIGNALING

Different kinds of cells turn on different set

of genes, different kinds of cells have
different collections of proteins.
 • Apoptosis in the Soil Warm
Caenorhabditis elegans

APOPTOSIS integrates multiple cell-

signaling pathways.
Cells that are infected, damaged, or have
reached the end of their functional life
span often undergo “programmed cell
death”

APOPTOSIS
• Controlled cell suicide
• Cellular agents chop up the DNA
and fragment the organelles and
other cytoplasmic components.
• The cell shrinks and becomes
lobed (a change called blebbing)
• The cell’s part are packaged up in
vesicles that are engulfed and
digested by specialized
scavenger cells, leaving no trace.
• Protects neighboring cells from
damage that they would otherwise
suffer is a dying cell merely leaked
out all its contents, include many
digestive enzymes.
• In vertebrates, apoptosis is NUCLEUS
essential for normal development
of the nervous system, for normal
operation of the nervous system,
and for normal morphogenesis of
heads and feet in humans and
paws in other mammal.

THE CHROMOSOME
OVERVIEW • Centromere/primary constriction
• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) - Site of constriction
- Genetic material of all - Where the kinetochore would
organisms attach to
• Kinetochore
- site of spindle fiber attachment
• Telomeres
- At the tip of the chromosome
arms which provide
chromosome stability

• Nucleosome
- Basic unit of the chromatin

SIGNIFICANCE OF HOMOLOGOUS
CHROMOSOMES
• Homologous chromosomes have
important genetic similarities. They
contain identical gene sites along
their lengths; each site is called a
locus (pl. loci)
• Thus, they are identical in the traits
that they influence and in their
genetic potential. In sexually
reproducing organisms, one
member of each is derived from
the maternal parent (through the
ovum) and the other member is
derived from the paternal parent
(through the sperm).
CHROMOSOME AND ITS PARTS
• Chromosome
- carrier of genes
- Made up of
very long DNA
packaged with
histones
- compact
THE CELL CYCLE
 INTERPHASE MITOSIS
G1 – cell increases in volume/double its • means of replacing worn out
mass; organelles are formed tissues permits growth for asexual
(mitochondria, chloroplasts, Golgi reproduction
apparatus) • During mitosis, sister chromatids
are pulled apart and directed
• At a point during G1, all cells follow
toward opposite poles, after which
one of two paths.
cytoplasmic division creates two
- They either withdraw from the
new cells with identical genetic
cycle, become quiescent
information.
(dormant), and enter the G0
• In diploid organisms, mitosis
stage. Cells that enter G0
produces two daughter cells with
remain viable and metabolically
full diploid complements.
active but are not proliferative
- or they become committed to
proceed through G1, initiating
DNA synthesis, and completing
the cycle.

S phase – active synthesis of DNA and

histones (components of chromatin)
G2 – active synthesis of RNA and proteins
for chromosome synthesis mitotic spindles
are formed

• Once G1, S, and G2 are

completed, M phase is initiated.
 CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINT

CYTOKINESIS

ABNORMALITY IN THE CELL CYCLE

• p53 gene (in humans)
“tumor-suppressor”
• When the normal p53 gene
product is present, a proliferative
cell that has incurred severe
damage to its DNA will be targeted
for programmed cell death
(apoptosis) at the G1/S1
checkpoint
• Cells that escape from these
controls and continue to proliferate
(multiply rapidly) can produce
malignant tumors (cancer).
MEIOSIS *Chiasma (pl. chiasmata) –
• sex cells/gametes point of crossing
• in human, each sex cell contains over/exchange
23 chromosomes (n); occurs - Diplonema – the longitudinal
during gametogenesis separation of homologues in a
• keeps the chromosome number bivalent starts from the
constant (generation after centromere and proceeds
generation) towards both ends except at
• produces gametes or spores that the chiasma
are characterized by only one - Diakinesis – terminalization of
haploid set of chromosomes. the chiasmata between
• See figures: homologues
• The spindle fiber has formed;
GENETIC VARIATION THROUGH MEIOSIS Prophase I is completed.
• an enormous amount of genetic
variation is produced among
members of a species.

Source of variations:
• Meiosis produces haploid gametes
with many unique combinations of
maternally and paternally derived
chromosomes
• Source of variation is created by
the meiotic event referred to as
crossing over, which results in
genetic exchange between
members of each homologous pair
of chromosomes.

MEIOSIS I (REDUCTIONAL DIVISION)

• Separation of homologous
chromosomes
• Produces two cells with haploid (n)
chromosome number
• See figure
• PROPHASE I
- Leptonema – the chromatin in
the nucleus appear as long thin
threads with many bead-like
structures (chromomeres)
- Zygonema – synapsis or
pairing of homologous
chromosomes begins. The MEIOSIS I
paired chromosomes form a • Metaphase I
bivalent consisting of 4 - Bivalents align at the equatorial
chromatids. plane (metaphase plate)
- Pachynema – crossing over • Anaphase I
generates further genetic - The univalent separate from
variation if the exchange is each other
between non-sister chromatids.
 • Telophase I THE EUKARYOTIC CHROMOSOME
- Nuclear membrane and STRUCTURE
nucleolus reappear forming 2 • Nucleosome – basic unit of the
haploid daughter nuclei. chromatin
- Cytokinesis may then follow. In - Beads on a string appearance
some, no cytokinesis takes of the nucleosome fiber
place after meiosis I.

MEOISIS II (EQUATIONAL DIVISION)

• Characterized by the separation of
sister chromatids
• 4 haploid cells are produced via
process that is identical to mitosis
• See figure

THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF HEREDITY

• Chromosomes – carriers of genes
• Genes – fragments of
deoxyribonucleic acid

THE CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF THE

GENETIC MATERIAL
• DNA and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
are POLYNUCLEOTIDES
• Nucleotides are consist of a
phosphate group, pentose sugar,
and nitrogen base
 • Nitrogen Bases
• Purines known as double cyclic
ring structure while pyrimidines
only one cyclic ring structure

• It follows the Chargaff’s Rule

STRUCTURE OF DNA

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE

STABILITY OF THE DNA
• Covalent bond present, namely
phosphodiester bond between
the sugar and phosphate groups of
the backbone and the N-
glycosidic bond between the
sugar and the nitrogen base.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DNA • Many hydrogen bonds between
• Most DNA are double-stranded base pairs
wherein the strands are said to be • Hydrophobic interactions
antiparallel between the stacked nitrogen
THE 3-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE OF
THE DNA
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF THE DNA
• Proposed by Watson and Crick
(1953)
- A DNA polymer consists of
nucleotides linked by a 3’-5’,
phosphodiester bond
- DNA base composition follows
Chargaff’s rule
- Purified native DNA can be
denatures by gentle heating.
The denatured DNA exhibits
marked changes in physical
properties, but there would be
no cleavage of covalent bonds.
- The x-ray diffraction patterns of
DNA fibers indicate the helical
structure of the molecule

DNA AS THE GENETIC MATERIAL

• Hermann Joseph Muller pointed
out that the genetic material should
have the following characteristics:
- the molecule must be able to
duplicate itself with
extraordinary fidelity. The
reported error rate is one or
less per one million copy
- the molecule structure must be
very stable so that errors or
mutations occur at a very, very
low frequency.
- When there has been an error
or mutation, the error/mutation
is duplicated as faithfully as the
original. This accounts for the
inheritance of mutations that
consequently allows for natural
selection to work.
- It must have the capacity to
carry all necessary biological
information.
- It must be able to transmit this
information from generation to
generation
- The information stored and
carried in the molecule must be
decoded and translated into
action.
- Genotype plus the environment
produce the phenotype
 • The DNA • Transfer RNA (tRNA) – reads the
- DNA content in all diploid mRNA during translation,
tissues of an organism and translates it into amino acids.
of species is relatively • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – RNA
constant. found in ribosomes.
- The amount of DNA in
haploid tissue is half of
what was found in a newly
formed diploid cell of the
same individual
- The amount of DNA
doubles during the
interphase period of cell
growth then, gets equally
distributed to the two
daughter nuclei at
anaphase
- Cells which have extra sets
of chromosomes, such as
polyploids, have a
proportional increase in
DNA content (same as with
polytemy)
- Another evidence is the
parallelism of the ultraviolet
absorption of DNA specific
wavelengths and the
induction of mutation
- Transformation and
transduction in bacteria
provides the direct and
conclusive evidence that
DNA is the genetic material
THE CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE OF THE DNA BIOLOGY
• See figure
RNA molecules are chains of nucleotides.
RNA vs DNA
- Sugar in RNA is ribose,
DNA is deoxyribose
- It is single stranded.
- 4 nitrogenous bases are:
- Adenine, guanine, cytosine
and uracil (replace thymine)

TYPES OF RNA
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) – made
when DNA is transcribed into RNA
REPLICATION MODEL OF DNA REPLICATION
The Basic Principle: Base Pairing to • DNA replication is
Template Strand semiconservative
• Proved by Matthew Meselson and
• Now our model for DNA is, in
Franklin Stahl
effect, a pair of templates, each of
• The parental molecule unwinds,
which is complementary to the
and each strand then serves as a
other.
template for the synthesis of a new
• We imagine that prior to
strand according to base-pairing
duplication the hydrogen bonds are
rules.
broken, and the two chains unwind
and separate.
• Each chain then acts as a template
for the formation on to itself of a
new companion chain, so that
eventually we shall have two pairs
of chains, where we only had one
before.
• Moreover, the sequence of the
pairs of bases will have been
duplicated exactly.

DNA REPLICATION IN PROKARYOTES

• DNA unwinds at the origin of
replication
• Helicase opens up the DNA-
forming replication forks; these are
extended bidirectionally
• Single-strand binding proteins coat
the DNA around the replication fork
to prevent rewinding of the DNA
• Topoisomerase binds at the region
ahead of the replication fork to
prevent supercoiling
• Primase synthesizes RNA primers
complementary to the DNA strand
• DNA polymerase starts adding
nucleotides to the 3’-OH end of the
primer.
• Elongation of both the lagging and
the leading strand continues.
• RNA primers are removed by
exonuclease activity
• Gaps are filled by DNA pol by
adding dNTPs (dinucleotide
triphosphates)
• The gap between the two DNA
fragments is sealed by DNA ligase,
which helps in the formation of
phosphodiester bonds.
ENZYMES/PROTEINS INVOLVED IN DNA REPLICATION IN EUKARYOTES
REPLICATION IN PROKARYOTES

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC

AND EUKARYOTIC DNA REPLICATION
ONE GENE – ONE ENZYME HYPOTHESIS
• Formulated by George W. Beadle
& Edward Tatum

• Every gene controls a particular

enzyme and that the ultimate
products of a metabolic process
was affected by a stepwise
succession of enzymes, each
produces by particular gene.
 TRANSCRIPTION mRNA – provides the template that
Initiation of transcription contains the nucleotide code for the amino
- RNA polymerase attaches itself acid sequence of a protein. Three
to a specific sequence in the DNA called adjacent nucleotides in the mRNA
the promoter located upstream to the comprise a codon, which specifies an
gene being transcribed (i.e. Pribnow box amio acid.
(TATAAT) – promoter in prokaryotes, is
The genetic code chart shows what
located -10 to the initiation site (+1), this is
amino acids are coded for different codon.
accomplished with the help of the
polypeptide sigma factor (𝜎). It recognizes tRNA – transfer amino acids from the
the promoter so the RNA polymerase can cytoplasm to the ribosome
selectively bind to it. - it assumes a cloverleaf
configuration
Elongation of the Transcript
- has an anticodon arm that
-The RNA polymerase moves
contains 3 nucleotides (anticodon) that are
along the anticoding (antisense) strand of
complementary to the codon of the mRNA
the DNA (3’-5’). It separates the two
strands while complementing DNA rRNA (ribosomal RNA) – forms when
template nucleotides with RNA nucleotide complexed with ribosomal proteins
as it goes along the gene. As soon as the
segment is transcribed the DNA strands TRANSCRIPTION IN PROKARYOTES
reanneal (Double-helical DNA from two E. coli – RNA polymerase consists of 4
species is unwound (denatured), cut, and distinct polypeptides: 𝜶𝜷𝜷′ 𝜸
mixed. Complementary pieces bind (called a – involved in the assembly of the
reannealing), forming some hybrid tetrameric core (𝜶𝟐 𝜷𝜷′ ) of RNA
DNAs—one strand from each species.). polymerase
Termination of transcription B – contains the ribonucleotide
- When RNA polymerase reaches triphosphate binding site
the termination point, protein factor rho (𝜌)
binds to the enzyme and dissociate it from B’ – contains the DNA binding site
the DNA to stop transcription.
Y – mediates the binding of RNA
polymerase to the promoter in the DNA.

PROMOTERS IN PROKARYOTES
1. Pribnow box (TATAAT) – -10
consensus sequence
2. TTGCA – -35 consensus sequence
The y subunit initially recognizes
and binds to the -35 sequence

Pribnow box – rich in AT

- Facilitates localized
unwinding of the DNA
 - Forms a transcription - The G:C rich region can base pair
bubble involving 18 and form a hairpin-like structure which
nucleotide pairs retards the movement of RNA polymerase
along the DNA.
*Once RNA synthesis is
initiated, the sigma subunit
dissociates from RNA
polymerase core enzyme.

Rho – dependent termination – requires

a protein rho
- It has high C and low G
content upstream of the
terminator and this signals
TERMINATION OF TRANSCRIPTION rho to bind to mRNA
*RNA polymerase encounters a - Downstream from the rho
termination signal binding site is a sequence
1. rho (p) – independent terminator – that causes RNA pol to
contains a G:C rich region followed by six pause
or more A:T base pairs with a A’s present
in the template strand
 - Rho moves along the
mRNA and catches up with
the RNA pol
- Rho causes RNA
polymerase to separate
from the DNA thus
terminating the transcription
process.

TRANSLATION
Activation of Amino Acids
ESJRAKSDF - amino acids are attached to their
respective tRNAs via the action of the
enzyme amino-acyl synthetase at the
expense of ATP
Initiation of translation
1. Initiation factor 1 (IF1) – stimulates the
dissociation of the small and large subunit
of ribosome.
2. Initiation factor 3 (IF3) -binds to the
30s subunit to prevent the reassociation of
the 30s and 50s subunit and binds the 30s
subunit to the start codon of the mRNA
3. Initiation factor 2 (IF2) – attaches the
first amino-acyl tRNA (formylates
methionine or fmet) to the 30s subunit
Elongation of the peptide chain
1. Elongation factor Tu (EFTu) and GTP
– set the fmet in the P-site
*After that, a new acid-tRNA complex
enters the A-site complementary to the
succeeding codon.
2. Peptidyl transferase – catalyzes the
formation of the peptide bind between the
fmet and the amino acid carried by the
tRNA in the A site
Termination of translation THE GENETIC CODE
- UAG, UGA, UAA (STOP CODONS) - The sequence of
nucleotides in
1. Release factor 1: UAA and UAG
deoxyribonucleic acid
2. Release factor 2: UAA and UGA
(DNA) and ribonucleic acid
-effect breakage of the bond between (RNA) that determines the
the growing polypeptide chain and the amino acid sequence of
tRNA it is attached to, releasing the proteins.
polypeptide product from the ribosome
3. Release factor 3: aids either RF1
or RF2 to bind to the ribosome with
the use of GTP
 POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL
MODIFICATION
• pre-mRNA undergo modification
before exits the nucleus and being
ready for translation.
• mRNA have intron (non-coding)
and exons (coding gene).
• Introns are excised by intron
splicing using a protein polypeptide
called spliceosome.
• A 5’ methylated cap and 3’ poly-A
tail are added on the mRNA for
further modification.

GENETIC REGULATION
Regulation occurs at least at two levels
Transcriptional and post-
transcriptional level
In prokaryotes and viruses, transcription is
the primary target for regulation.
Different ways by which enzymes are
synthesized:
Parts:
1. Constitutive
2. Inducible 1. Regulator (lacI) gene
- codes for the repressor protein
OPERON
2. Promoter (P) site
- Genetic regulatory system
- binding site of the RNA pol
found in prokaryotes and
3. Operator (O) site
the bacterial viruses
binding site for the repressor
(bacteriophages) that
4. Structural genes (lac Z, lac Y, lac
attack bacteria. It is a
A)
cluster of genes that share
- lacZ – codes for the enzyme 𝛽-
regulatory elements and
galactosidase (breakdown lactose
are usually functionally
into glucose and galactose)
related.
- lac Y – codes for 𝛽-galactoside
- Can be inducible or
repressible. permease (allows entry of 𝛽-
galactoside (lactose) into the cell).
INDUCIBLE OPERON - lac A – codes for 𝛽-galactoside
(LACTOSE OPERON) transacetylase (aids for the
- Effector molecules induce reaction)
weakly transcribed
molecules to be active REPRESSIBLE OPERON
- e.g. lactose operon (TRYPTOPHAN OPERON)
Parts:
1. Regulator (trp R) gene – codes for
the aporepressor
2. Promoter (trpP)
3. Attenuator (trp L) site
4. Structural genes (trp E, trp D, trpC,
trpB, trpA)
 MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES • Consist of membranous tubules
and sacs called cisternae
(reservoir for a liquid)
RIBOSOME: PROTEIN FACTORIES • ER membrane separates the
- Carry out protein synthesis internal compartment of the ER,
- A complex of ribosomal called the ER lumen (cavity) or
RNA and protein cisternal space, from the cytosol.
Types of proteins based on Two types of ER
cytoplasmic locales:
• Smooth ER – lacks ribosomes
- Free ribosomes – • Rough ER – studded with
suspended in cytosol ribosomes
- Bound ribosomes –
attached to the outside of
the ER or nuclear envelope

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
SMOOTH ER
• Regulates protein traffic and
• Synthesis of lipids (oils,
performs metabolic functions in the
phospholipids, and steroids)
cell including protein synthesis,
protein transport, lipid metabolism • Metabolism of carbohydrates
and movement, poison • Detoxification of drugs and poisons
detoxification (add hydroxyl groups to drug
• Includes nuclear envelope, molecule)
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi • Storage of calcium ions (pumps
apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles calcium ions from cytosol into the
and vacuoles, and plasma ER lumen, in muscle cells)
membrane ROUGH ER
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: • Many types of cells secrete
BIOSYNTHETIC FACTORY proteins produced by ribosomes
• Endoplasmic “within the attached to the ER
cytoplasm” • E.g. pancreatic cells – synthesize
• Reticulum “little net” the protein insulin in the ER and
secrete this hormone into the
bloodstream
GOLGI APPARATUS:
SHIPPING AND RECEIVING CENTER
• Warehouse for receiving, sorting,
and some manufacturing
• Modified and stored the proteins
produced by ER before sending to
other destinations
• Specialized for secretion
Two sides of a Golgi Stack

• Cis face – receiving

department
• Trans face – shipping
department

THE GOLGI APPARATUS

LYSOSOME: DIGESTIVE A macrophage
COMPARTMENTS engulfed a
particle
• A membranous sac of hydrolytic
enzymes that an animal cell uses
to digest (hydrolyze)
macromolecules.
• Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal
membrane are made by ER then Particle
transferred to the Golgi apparatus.
Phagocytosis – a process of
engulfing smaller organisms or food Autophagy – hydrolytic enzymes are
particles
used to recycle the cell’s own organic
e.g. macrophages – a type of white material (from damages organelle)
blood cells
 VACUOLES: DIVERSE MAINTENANCE sunlight to drive the synthesis of sugars
COMPARTMENTS from CO2 and H2O.
Food vacuoles – formed by phagocytosis
MITOCHONDRIA: CHEMICAL ENERGY
Contractile vacuoles – freshwater CONVERSION
protists pump excess water out of the cell Found nearly in all eukaryotic cells (plants,
to maintain suitable conc. of ions and animals, fungi, and protists)
molecules in the cell.
• Enclosed by two membranes, each
Central vacuoles – found in mature plant a phospholipid bilayer with a
which develops by the coalescence of unique collection of embedded
smaller vacuoles. Enlarge as it absorbs proteins
water enabling the cell to become larger. • Outer membrane is smooth but the
inner membrane is convoluted with
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM: A REVIEW
infoldings called cristae

Two compartments:
MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLAST
Both convert energy to forms that cells Intermembrane space – narrow region
can use to work between inner and outer membranes
Mitochondria – sites for cellular Mitochondrial matric – enclosed by the
respiration (metabolic process that uses inner membrane containing enzymes,
oxygen to generate ATP by extracting DNA, and ribosomes
energy from sugars, fats, and other fuels.
Chloroplasts – found plants and algae,
sites for photosynthesis (converts solar
energy to chemical energy by absorbing
CHLOROPLAST: CAPTURE OF LIGHT
ENERGY
• Contains the green pigment
chlorophyll, along with enzymes
and other molecules for
photosynthesis
Thylakoids – flattened,
interconnected sacs
Granum – stack of thylakoids
Stroma – fluid outside the thylakoids,
which contains the chloroplast, DNA,
ribosomes, and enzymes
- Closely related with plant
organelles called plastids
- E.g. amyloplast (colorless
organelle that stores starch
or amylose)
• Chromoplast (has pigments that
give fruits and flowers their orange
and yellow color)

PEROXISOME: OXIDATION
• Contains enzymes that remove
hydrogen atoms from various
substrates and transfer them to
oxygen (O2) thus producing
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as by-
product.
 • Oxygen is used to break fatty acids Components of the Cytoskeleton
down to smaller molecules
• Microtubules – thickest
transported to mitochondria for
cellular respiration • Microfilaments – or actin
filaments, thinnest
• Detoxify alcohol and other harmful
compounds by transferring • Intermediate filaments – fibers
hydrogen from the poisons to with diameters in a middle range
oxygen MICROTUBULES
• H2O2 is toxic but it converted to Centrosomes and Centrioles
water
• Glyoxysomes convert fatty acids to • In animals, microtubules grow out
sugar from a centrosome, a “microtube-
organizing center” (located near
CYTOSKELETON: SUPPORT AND the nucleus)
MOTILITY • Microtubules function as
• Gives mechanical support to the compression-resisting girders of
cell and maintain its shape. the cytoskeleton
• Important for animal cells because • Centrosome contains a pair of
they lack cell walls. centrioles (composed of nine sets
• Skeleton that provides anchorage of triplet microtubules arranged in
for many organelles a ring.
• Dynamic (it can quickly dismantle
in one part of the cell and CILLIA AND FLAGELLA
reassembled in a new location, • Locomotor appendages
changing the shape of the cell). • Controlled by the specialized
• Motility happens when arrangement of microtubules
cytoskeleton interacts with motor sheathed (encased) in an
proteins. extension of the plasma membrane
• e.g. flagellated sperm, algae, and
some plants.
ciliated lining of the trachea
(windpipe) and oviducts
CYTOSKELETON: SUPPORT AND
MOTILITY
SKERNGJSDFGA