MOTIVATION

The word ‘motivation’ has its origin in the Latin word ‘movere,’ meaning "to
move." Psychologically, it means an inner or environmental stimulus to
action, forces or the factors that are responsible for initiation, sustaining
(and restraining/abstaining from) behaviour, motivations may be diverse,
multiple and dynamic.
Meaning and concept-
Motivation is the process of initiating a conscious and purposeful action
Motive means an urge (drive or force) or combination of urges, to induce
conscious or purposeful action.
Motivation is a goal directed and need satisfying behavior. It explains why
people do the things they do. It influences a person to do a thing in a certain
way.
Motive is something (a need or desire) that causes a person to act.

KEY CONCEPTS OF MOTIVATION

There are certain terms which you will commonly come across when you
learn this lesson on motivation such as needs, goals, incentives etc. Let us
understand some of these concepts.
(a) Needs and Motives
A need is a condition of lack or deficit of something required by the
organism.In order to maintain homeostasis or balance the organism finds it
necessary to satisfy the needs.
The needs are of different types. The need for food or water is a
physiological need, which arises out of lack or deficit of food or water in the
organism. The needs for excretion and urination are also physiological
needs. They are due to the organism’s necessity to eliminate waste matter
from the body. The need for contact with other persons is a social need. The
other social needs include need for prestige, status, affection, self-esteem,
and so on. A person becomes more aware of his needs when they are not
fulfilled. In other words, when you are hungry, you need food, and, when
you are thirsty you need water. In these cases you are in a state of
deprivation and your bodily system suffers from some kind of imbalance.
The needs may be broadly categorised as, primary or physiological
needs and secondary or social needs. Needs for food, water, sex, sleep
and rest, and elimination are primary needs. Needs for achievement,
affiliation, power are examples of social needs.

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Needs may be divided into two broad catagories- 1)biological needs
2)socio-psychological needs
The term ‘motive’ refers to goal directed behaviour and energising
conditions within the organism that drive behaviour. It is generally used to
refer to certain conditions which, besides arousing, predispose a person to
respond, or behave in a way appropriate to that motive. Motives direct the
activity of the individual towards person’s goals.
(b) Goals
Thinking about the goal motivates a person to organize his or her action. If
hunger is a need, eating food is a goal. Thus goal is related to the need
state. However, in certain cases, behaviour is also guided by intrinsic goals.
It means behaviour does not always need external goal. It may be satisfying
and enjoyable in itself. Some people may like to sing, dance or play just for
the sake of singing, dancing or playing. They like such activities. Thus goals
can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
(c) Incentives
Incentives refers to the goal objects which satisfy the needs. Incentives vary
in quality and quantity which make them less or more satisfying and
attractive. Thus one can put in greater amount of effort to attain a more
attractive incentive. As a matter of fact many incentives assume
considerable significance in the lives of people and they do every thing
possible to attain those incentives.
(d) Instincts
Instinct is an old concept in the field of motivation. It is defined as an innate
biological force that predisposes the organism to act in a certain way. At one
time all behaviours were supposed to be results of certain instincts. Some of
the instincts identified by early psychologists are fight, repulsion, curiosity,
self abasement, acquisition etc. It was thought that instincts were inherited
and compelling sources of conduct, but can be modified by learning and
experience. This term is no more used in relation to human behaviour.
Animal behaviour is sometimes explained using this term. In current usage
'instinct' is reserved for innate response tendencies found among animals.

Definitions:
Motivation may be defined as goal seeking or goal directed behavior or
activity. Behavior is a function of the person, which is interaction within a
situation

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Motivation is also defined as a stage of the organism in which bodily energy
is mobilized and selectively directed towards parts of the environment
This definition breaks in to two parts:1. Mobilization of bodily energy or drive
and 2. Direction
“Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish
desired goods.” —William G. Scott

Features of motivation
Following are the outstanding Features of the concept of motivation:
1. Motivation is a personal and internal feeling:
Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which generates within an
individual.
2. Motivation is need based or goal oriented
If there are no needs of an individual, the process of motivation fails. It is a
behavioural concept that directs human behaviour towards certain goals.
3. Motivation is a continuous process:
Because human wants are unlimited, therefore motivation is an ongoing
process.
4. Motivation may be positive or negative:
A positive motivation promotes incentives to people while a negative
motivation threatens the enforcement of disincentives.
5. Motivation is a planned process:
People differ in their approach, to respond to the process of motivation; as
no two individuals could be motivated in an exactly similar manner.
Accordingly, motivation is a psychological concept and a complex process.

Objectives of Motivation
i) to encourage a learner in his learning activities.
(E.g.) Prizes, Medals
ii) to act as selectors of the type of activity in while the person desire to
engage.
(E.g.) Selection of courses
iii) Motives to direct and regulate behaviour.
(E.g.) Discipline in school etc.
Process of Motivation: It involves four steps:
1. Motive
2. Behaviour
3. Goal
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4. Feedback
Motive: It indicates the inner state of mind that energizes, activates or
moves a person and directs his behavior towards goals.
Behaviour: Behaviour is the sum of various activities and attitudes of a
person
Goals: Motives generally create a state of disequilibrium physiological or
psychological imbalances within the individual. Attaining the goal restores
this balance.
Feedback: the system of feedback is important to understand and analyze
the motives, behavior, goals and incentives for motivation

Classification of Needs

i). The desire for security : Economic, social, psychological and spiritual
security. Man wants protection for his physical being food, clothing and
shelter. It may also mean an adequate reserve of wealth to secure more
material things in the future. The wish for security may also be satisfied by
spiritual beliefs. In fact, in history whole cultures have put emphasis on
security.
ii). The desire for affection or response : Companionship gregariousness,
and social mindedness, the need for a feeling of belonging.
iii). The desire for recognition : Status, prestige, achievement and being
looked up to Each individual feels the need to be considered important by
his fellowmen.
iv). The desire for new experience : adventure, new interests, new ideas,
new friends and new ways of doing things. Some people primarily want the
thrill of something new, something different.
v. Organic needs : Organic needs like sex, hunger and thirstiness are also
very important for human beings.
The above five categories represent all the powerful motivating forces
stated in general.

Types of Motivation or motives/needs which motivate human being

Motivation can be divided into two different theories known
as intrinsic (internal or inherent) motivation and extrinsic (external)
motivation. •

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 Intrinsic – self generated factors (responsibility, freedom to act, scope
to use and develop skills and abilities, interesting and challenging work,
opportunities for advancement) – they have a deeper and longer-term effect
Extrinsic – what is done for people to motivate them (rewards,
promotion, punishment) – they have an immediate and powerful effect, but
won’t necessarily last long
In other words: Intrinsic motivation comes from a person’s internal desire to
do something. Reasons may be that a particular activity gives him or her
pleasure, helps to develop a particular skill of seems to be the right thing to
do in moral / ethical terms. Extrinsic motivation is generated by external
factors that are less related to the particular task.

Biological motivation--hunger motivation, thirst motivation etc

Social motivation--achievement motivation, power motivation

Needs which motivate Human Beings

i) Organic needs or physiological motives
Man is constructed in such a way that he requires certain things in
order that he may keep living. He is also so constituted that these needs
initiate activity that will eventually satisfy them. These are all basic organic
needs which demand periodic or continued satisfaction. These needs are
called appetites.
Examples: breathing air; appetite of thirst, appetite for sleep or rest etc.
ii) Wants
People have unique personal wants.
Examples: Likes and dislikes for specific food; play etc.,
iii) Emotions as motives
Under the influence of fear, anger etc., people may do many things
that they would not do normally.
Examples: Parents use fear to direct the behaviour of children.
Organisations use fear to produce a desired form of behaviour.
iv) Feelings and attitudes as motives
An individual's experience activity is evaluated by him as pleasant or
unpleasant. When the experience is pleasant, individual has an attitude of
approach to that experience and if it is unpleasant, his attitude is withdrawal.
v) Social motives

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 Most people have a strong desire to achieve social approval. For this,
they try to improve their personality through clothes, possession of things,
knowledge, skills etc.,

vi) Others
Habit: Somebody has settled practice, especially something that
cannot easily be given up.
Established habit becomes almost automatic and requires only a
stimulus to set it in action.
Objective environment: People act differently in different situations.
The objective environment produces a 'set' of 'readiness' to respond in a
particular way.

Techniques for motivating/influencing farmer’s behaviour

Van den Ban and Hawkins (1988) suggested the following techniques for
influencing human behavior in a social system.

Compulsion
In this case, power is exerted by an authority, forcing the farmers or
people to do something. Certain laws and legal provisions come in this
category. For example, our government can give appropriate directions that
the farmers must grow eco-friendly tree species for the protection of
environment and soil erosion.
This method can also be used in preventing the farmers from taking rotation
like wheatrice rotation in Punjab, Haryana etc. But this method is not
suitable for changing the behaviour which requires initiation on the part of
the people.

Exchange
In this method, goods or services are exchanged between the two
individuals / parties or organizations. For instance, state government can
motivate the farmers to grow multi-purpose tree species by providing
marginal land free of cost or at minimal charges through a mechanism of
mutual benefit sharing.
Advice
In this method of influencing the behaviour, advice is given for choosing
solution to a problem. But the extension worker must have adequate
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information about the farmers’ problems and their solutions. The farmers
should also have confidence in the competency of the extension worker
besides sufficient means at their disposal to follow the advice.
Openly influencing a farmer’s knowledge and attitude
This method may be used when we believe that the farmers can not solve
their own problems due to insufficient or incorrect knowledge or unmatched
attitude with their goals. Farmers should trust our expertise and motives and
must be prepared to cooperate with us in our task of changing their
knowledge or attitudes. Long term behavioural changes are possible by
using this method. Moreover, farmers’ self confidence and capacity to solve
other similar problems by themselves in future are increased.
Manipulation
In this case, the farmers’ knowledge level and attitude are influenced
without their being aware of it. This method is used when we believe that it
is necessary and desirable for the farmers to change their behaviour in a
certain direction. The farmers should not actively object to being influenced
in this way and we think that it is unnecessary or undesirable for the farmers
to make independent decisions. For example, by showing the documentary
on ‘Deforestation and environmental degradation’, we may motivate the
farmers indirectly for afforestation, ie manipulating them to grow more trees.
This method can also be used for promoting the adoption of technology

Motivation techniques for rural people (sagar mondal, 2014)

1-demonstration
2-training
3-providing stimulus or incentives
4-use of audio-visual aids
5-visualising success of others (success story)
6-economic gain

Importance of motivation in Extension

Motivation is necessary for mobilising the village people. Most of the
development programmes could not bring the desired results because there
was no motivation. Both the extension workers and rural people are to be
motivated to achieve the results.
Motivation brings need based approach. It is possible for the extension
workers to motivate the people to satisfy the five categories of needs. If
there is a desire for security, the farmers can be motivated to adopt new
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practices by convincing them that the new practice will increase their
income and enhance their security. If they have a desire for new
experience, the extension teaching is oriented towards impairing new skills.
Similarly other desires can be met with.
Motivation helps for the better involvement of farmers in development
programmes.
The role of audio-visuals in motivating farmers needs no emphasis.
The proper selection, combination and use of various audio-visuals for the
appropriate purpose will act as lubricants for motivation.
Various studies conducted in India indicates that economic motivation
is much predominant followed by innovativeness. Among the economic
motives, providing better food, clothing and educating for one's children
seem to be the dominant movies.

Theories of motivation
Theories of motivation- Drive theories, Incentive theories, Opponent
process theory, optimal level theories. Instinct theories, Need
hierarchy theory. Theory of achievement motivation.

Drive theories
These may be described as push theory of motivation. Drive theory explain
Drive-Reduction--internal tensions “push” toward satisfying basic needs

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Incentive theory
Two types of incentives- a) Intrinsic b) Extrinsic

Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and behavior of the

individual as they are influenced by beliefs, such as engaging in activities
that are expected to be profitable. Incentive theory is promoted by
behavioral psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner. Incentive theory is
especially supported by Skinner in his philosophy of Radical behaviorism,
meaning that a person's actions always has social ramifications: and if
actions are positively received people are more likely to act in this manner,
or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this manner.
Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as
drive theory, in the direction of the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli
"attract", a person towards them, and push them towards the stimulus. In
terms of behaviorism, incentive theory involves positive reinforcement: the
reinforcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. As
opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative reinforcement: a
stimulus has been associated with the removal of the punishment—the lack
of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has come to know that if
they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of hunger, or if
they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst

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Opponent-Process Theory
Richard Solomon (1980) has developed a theory of
motivation/emotion that views emotions as pairs of opposites (for example,
fear-relief, pleasure-pain). The opponent-process theory states that when
one emotion is experienced, the other is suppressed. For example, if you
are frightened by a mean dog, the emotion of fear is expressed and relief is
suppressed. If the fear-causing stimulus continues to be present, after a
while the fear decreases and the relief intensifies.
For example, if the dog didn't move, your fear would decrease and relief that
the dog didn't attack would increase. If the stimulus is no longer present,
then the first emotion disappears and is replaced totally with the second
emotion. If the dog turns and runs, you are no longer afraid, but rather feel
very relieved.
Solomon and Corbit (1974) analyzed the emotions present when skydivers
jump from planes. Beginners experience extreme fear as they jump, which
is replaced by great relief when they land. With repeated jumps, the fear
decreases and the post-jump pleasure increases. This process may explain
a variety of thrill-seeking behaviors. It has also been proposed as a model of
drug addiction. The drug initially produces pleasurable feelings, but then a
negative emotional experience occurs. Eventually, the drug user takes
drugs not for their pleasurable effects, but to avoid withdrawal symptoms.
The opponent-process theory is an attempt to link emotional states with
motivation. Although it is an intriguing idea, some researchers have not
found support for the opponent-process theory.

Optimal-level Theory:

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 This is also called as theory of homeostasis. Claud
Bernard coined the word homeostasis to explain the state of equilibrium in
the body. This is a ‘hedonistic’ (hedonism- doctrine that happiness is the
highest good) theory which says that, there is a certain optimal level for
normal functioning of the body.
Maintenance of optimal level leads to equilibrium which gives pleasure.
Disequilibrium leads to displeasure. Hence, every individual strives to avoid
disequilibrium by maintaining optimal level of the needs like food, water,
body temperature, etc.

Instinct theories/Psychoanalytic Theory:

This theory which has been explained by Sigmund Freud, deals with
unconscious motivation. According to Freud, the inborn tendencies called
instincts influence our behaviour.
There are two groups of instincts with opposite nature:
(a) Life instincts (Eros): these instincts have the life energy called Libido-
which motivates the individual towards constructive activities like love,
sympathy/helping others, etc.
(b) Death instincts (Thanatos)-motivate the individual for destructive
activities like murder, suicides, aggression, attack, etc.
Freud has emphasised that the unconscious motives play more dominant
role in determining our behaviour, than conscious or preconscious. He
pointed that, our actions are determined by our unconscious motives.
According to him, our unconscious mannerisms, slips of tongue and pen,
phobias are the result of these hidden motives. These hidden motives may
also drive the people towards various psychosomatic disorders like chronic
headaches, insomnia, gastric troubles, etc. Our motives also appear in the
form of dreams according to Freud
The Needs (content) Theory
 All Needs theories focus on specific needs people want to satisfy.
There are several theories that explain motivation as a result of these
needs.
 The underlying concept is the belief that an unsatisfied need creates
tension and a state of disequilibrium. To restore balance, a goal is
identified that will satisfy the need and a behavior pathway to this goal
is selected.
 All behavior is motivated by unsatisfied needs.

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 People will be better motivated if their work experience satisfies their

needs and wants.
 Needs theories distinguish between primary needs, such as food,
sleep and other biological needs, and secondary psychological needs
that are learned and vary by culture and by individual.
Maslows hierarchy of needs

Maslows hierarchy of needs

 If a lower need is satisfied, it no longer motivates behavior; the next
higher one becomes dominant. (Deficit principle)
 The five needs exist in a hierarchy. Higher needs only become
important when lower needs are satisfied
 Higher-order needs provide greater motivation.
 Different people may have different priorities.
The theory helps managers to identify which particular needs are relevant
for employees and thus to determine appropriate motivators.
Humanistic Theory:
This theory believes in striving tendency of the individual for realizing his
potentialities, especially creative ones, strengthening self-confidence and
attaining the ideal self. There are two important persons related to this
theory— Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
These are:
 Biological motives like hunger, thirst, etc.
 Safety and security needs (protection from external threats)
 Love and belongingness needs (Affection, warmth, etc.)
 Esteem needs (self-esteem, respect, approval, etc.)
 Self-actualisation motive (achieving maximum development of one’s
potentialities).
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maslow has explained that every individual struggles to fulfil basic needs
first, and then followed by safety, love, esteem and finally actualisation
needs.
According to him the needs at one level should be satisfied at least partially,
before the next level needs become active. Most of the people end their
struggle to reach third or fourth level needs. Only a few will aspire for self-
actualisation which is the ultimate goal of life.
Self-actualisation means becoming everything one is capable of, or
becoming what he can, that is, fulfillment of his basic potentialities. Maslow
explains that the self- actualised people experience, what he calls the ‘peak
experiences’, when they fulfill the need for self-actualisation (The triangular
Figure 4.1 signifies the decreasing size of population in their effort to fulfil
the higher order needs).
Carl Rogers, as a humanist believes in the strength and potentialities of
human beings. According to him all human beings have a natural inclination
for learning and a desire to grow and progress known as self-actualizing
tendency.
Every individual will strive to realise his potentialities and to grow to become
a fully functioning person. Hence in the view of Rogers, the motivation for
self-growth and becoming a fully functioning person are important concepts

Theory of achievement motivation.

McClelland’s needs
Based mainly on studies of managers. 3 most important needs:
 achievement – need for competitive success measured against a
personal standard of excellence
 affiliation – need for warm, friendly relationships with others,
interpersonal relationships
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  power – need to control and influence others
The hierarchy of these three groups of needs may differ from individual to
individual. Hence, there are different motivators depending on a person’s
high-priority needs.
Herzbergs two-factor model
There are some factors that result in satisfaction and some factors that just
prevent dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, the opposite of Satisfaction
is No Satisfaction and the opposite of Dissatisfaction is No Dissatisfaction.
 Motivators – factors that really motivate people, also called satisfiers,
provide intrinsic motivation
Examples for Motivators: recognition, growth and career development
opportunities, responsibility, autonomy, self-fulfillment
 Hygiene factors – dissatisfiers; their absence would demotivate
people, but their presence not necessarily improves motivation;
essentially describe the environment, little effect on positive job
attitudes
Examples for Hygiene factors: salary, work conditions, relationships
with superios and peers, company policy
Achievement Motivation
One classification of motivation differentiates among achievement, power,
and social factors (see McClelland, 1985; Murray, 1938, 1943). In the area
of achievement motivation, the work on goal-theory (Pintrich, 2000) has
differentiated three separate types of goals: mastery goals (also called
learning goals) which focus on gaining competence or mastering a new set
of knowledge or skills; performance goals (also called ego-involvement
goals) which focus on achieving normative-based standards, doing better
than others, or doing well without a lot of effort; and social goals which
focus on relationships among people .
In the context of school learning, which involves operating in a relatively
structured environment, students with mastery goals outperform students
with either performance or social goals. However, in life success, it seems

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critical that individuals have all three types of goals in order to be very
successful.
One aspect of this theory is that individuals are motivated to either avoid
failure (more often associated with performance goals) or achieve success
(more often associated with mastery goals). In the former situation, the
individual is more likely to select easy or difficult tasks, thereby either
achieving success or having a good excuse for why failure occurred. In the
latter situation, the individual is more likely to select moderately difficult
tasks which will provide an interesting challenge, but still keep the high
expectations for success.

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