ECS Assignment

Question 1) How are AM/FM transmitters classified on basis fo frequency?

Sol. · AM Transmitters:

 Operate between 530 kHz and 1700 kHz.

 Better for long-range transmission.
 More vulnerable to noise and interference.

· FM Transmitters:

 Operate between 88 MHz and 108 MHz.

 Provide better sound quality and are more resistant to interference.
 Shorter broadcast range, more line-of-sight-dependent.

· AM transmitters are often used for long-distance communication, such as talk radio or international
shortwave broadcasts.
· FM transmitters are popular for local broadcasts such as commercial music radio stations,
community radio, and personal short-range applications like driving range transmitters or wireless
speakers.

Question 2) How does low level transmitter differentially from high level transmitter?

Sol. 1. Low-Level Transmitter:

 Modulation: In a low-level transmitter, the modulation (AM, FM, or any other type) occurs at
a lower power stage. This means the carrier signal and modulating signal are combined and
modulated before significant amplification occurs.
 Power Amplification: After modulation, the combined signal is amplified to the desired
power level for transmission. Both the carrier and the modulating signal are weak at the
point of modulation, and they undergo power amplification afterward.
 Efficiency: This type of transmitter is generally less efficient because the power amplifiers
must handle both the carrier and modulated signal together, which can lead to distortion or
non-linearities if the amplification is not properly managed.
 Complexity: Low-level transmitters tend to have more complex amplification stages because
the modulated signal is amplified with care to avoid distortions.

Applications: Used in small-scale systems or applications where power levels are

lower, such as low-power FM transmitters or short-range communication systems.

2. High-Level Transmitter:

 Modulation: In a high-level transmitter, the carrier signal is amplified to a high power before
modulation occurs. The modulating signal is combined with the carrier at a later stage, after
the carrier has been fully amplified.
 Power Amplification: The carrier is amplified first, and modulation occurs at the high power
stage just before the signal is transmitted. The modulating signal only affects the already
amplified carrier, reducing the need for amplification of the modulated signal.
 Efficiency: This type is generally more efficient because the modulation is applied directly to
the already amplified carrier, allowing for more efficient use of power amplifiers. The power
amplifiers deal with the carrier independently, resulting in less distortion.
  Complexity: High-level transmitters have simpler modulation circuits but require a more
robust power amplification system to handle the carrier before modulation.

Applications: Commonly used in high-power broadcasting, like radio and television transmitters,
where large coverage areas and efficient power use are critical.

Question 3) What are the 2 drawbacks of the TRF design? How does each limit performance that
can be achieved?

Sol. 1. Poor Selectivity at High Frequencies

 Explanation: TRF receivers rely on several stages of RF amplification, each tuned to the same
frequency. The tuning circuits in TRF designs typically have limited ability to differentiate
between closely spaced signals (selectivity), particularly at higher frequencies. As frequency
increases, it becomes harder to achieve the necessary narrow bandwidth because the tuning
circuits become less effective at rejecting adjacent channels.
 Performance Limitation: The poor selectivity means that the TRF receiver can pick up signals
from adjacent frequencies, resulting in interference. This makes it difficult to isolate and
clearly receive a desired station, especially when multiple strong signals are present close in
frequency.

2. Instability Due to Multiple Tuning Stages

 Explanation: In TRF designs, each amplification stage requires manual tuning to the same
frequency, and the stages are not inherently isolated from one another. This can lead to
feedback between stages, which causes instability, making the tuning process difficult. The
higher the frequency, the more sensitive the stages become to feedback and instability.
 Performance Limitation: The instability can lead to oscillations or distortion, which severely
affects signal clarity and overall performance. Additionally, the need for precise manual
tuning across multiple stages increases the complexity for the user and makes the design
impractical for modern applications.

Question 4) What are the stages of the super heterodyne reciever? What is the role of each?

Sol. A superheterodyne receiver is a type of radio receiver that converts a received

signal to an intermediate frequency (IF) to make it easier to process. It is widely used
in communication systems because it improves selectivity and sensitivity. The
superheterodyne receiver works in several stages:

1. Antenna Stage

 Role: The antenna captures the radio frequency (RF) signals from the air, which could be
from various stations or frequencies.

2. RF Amplifier

 Role: This stage amplifies the incoming RF signal while minimizing noise. Amplifying the
signal at an early stage helps improve the signal-to-noise ratio and reduces the impact of
unwanted signals.
3. Mixer

 Role: The mixer combines the incoming RF signal with a signal from the local oscillator to
convert the RF signal to an intermediate frequency (IF). This process is called heterodyning.
The IF is usually fixed and is chosen because it is easier to filter and amplify compared to the
original RF.

4. Local Oscillator

 Role: The local oscillator generates a stable frequency signal that is mixed with the RF signal.
By adjusting the frequency of the local oscillator, the receiver can "tune" to different RF
signals, effectively selecting the desired station.

5. Intermediate Frequency (IF) Amplifier

 Role: After the mixer, the resulting intermediate frequency (IF) signal is amplified. The fixed
IF frequency is easier to filter and process compared to the original high-frequency RF signal,
improving selectivity and reducing interference from other signals.

6. IF Filter

 Role: The IF filter removes unwanted frequencies and ensures only the desired frequency
(narrow band of IF signal) passes through. This improves the receiver’s ability to isolate a
specific signal from adjacent channel signals.

7. Detector/Demodulator

 Role: The detector extracts the original audio or data signal from the modulated IF signal.
This could be amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), or any other
modulation scheme.

8. Audio Amplifier

 Role: The demodulated signal is usually weak and is amplified by the audio amplifier to drive
speakers or headphones, making the sound audible to the listener.

9. Speaker/Output Device

 Role: The final stage converts the amplified audio signal into sound (or data in digital
receivers), making it accessible to the user.

Key Advantages:

 Selectivity: By converting to a fixed intermediate frequency, it becomes easier to use filters

that are specifically designed for that frequency, improving selectivity.
 Sensitivity: Amplification of the signal at multiple stages helps the receiver pick up weaker
signals.

Question 5) what are the performance characteristics of radio reciever?

Sol. 1. Sensitivity

 Definition: Sensitivity refers to the minimum signal strength a receiver can detect and
process to provide a usable output.
 Importance: High sensitivity allows the receiver to pick up weak signals, which is essential in
environments with low signal strength or over long distances.
 Measurement: Usually expressed in microvolts (μV) or dBm (decibels relative to 1 milliwatt),
sensitivity is the signal level required to achieve a specific signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

2. Selectivity

 Definition: Selectivity is the ability of the receiver to differentiate between the desired signal
and other signals (adjacent channels or frequencies).
 Importance: A high selectivity prevents interference from nearby stations or frequencies,
ensuring clear reception of the desired signal.
 Measurement: Typically measured in dB, selectivity is often given in terms of how well a
receiver rejects adjacent-channel interference.

3. Noise Figure (NF)

 Definition: Noise figure quantifies how much additional noise a receiver introduces
compared to an ideal receiver.
 Importance: A low noise figure is critical for amplifying weak signals without adding
significant noise, improving overall sensitivity and signal quality.
 Measurement: Noise figure is expressed in decibels (dB) and should ideally be as low as
possible.

4. Dynamic Range

 Definition: Dynamic range refers to the range between the weakest and strongest signals a
receiver can handle without distortion or overload.
 Importance: A large dynamic range enables the receiver to process weak and strong signals
simultaneously without introducing distortion.
 Measurement: Usually measured in dB, it indicates the receiver’s ability to handle strong
signals while maintaining good sensitivity to weak signals.

5. Image Rejection Ratio (IRR)

 Definition: The ability of a receiver to reject signals at the image frequency (a spurious signal
that can be mistaken for the desired signal).
 Importance: High image rejection minimizes interference from unwanted frequencies,
ensuring clear reception.
 Measurement: Measured in dB, with higher values indicating better rejection of image
signals.

6. Stability

 Definition: Stability refers to how well the receiver maintains its frequency accuracy and
performance over time and environmental conditions.
 Importance: Stable receivers are essential for long-term operations in changing
environments (e.g., temperature fluctuations).
  Measurement: Expressed as frequency drift (in Hz or ppm) over time or due to
environmental factors like temperature.

7. Intermodulation Distortion (IMD)

 Definition: IMD refers to the distortion caused by the interaction of multiple signals at
different frequencies, creating additional unwanted frequencies.
 Importance: A low IMD ensures that the receiver can handle strong nearby signals without
producing interference.
 Measurement: Measured as a ratio (in dB) of the desired signal to the spurious signal
produced by intermodulation.

8. Audio Quality

 Definition: The clarity and fidelity of the sound output of the receiver.
 Importance: Especially important for radio receivers used for broadcasting or
communication, where speech and music quality are critical.
 Measurement: May be described in terms of bandwidth, distortion, or subjective audio
clarity.

9. Bandwidth

 Definition: The range of frequencies the receiver can effectively process without significant
attenuation.
 Importance: The right bandwidth ensures that the receiver captures the entire signal without
too much noise or distortion. Narrow bandwidth improves selectivity, while wider bandwidth
allows more information to pass through.
 Measurement: Typically expressed in Hz or kHz.

10. Frequency Stability

 Definition: The ability of the receiver to maintain a consistent tuned frequency over time
without drifting.
 Importance: Critical for communication receivers, especially in data transmission or where
the frequency needs to be highly precise.
 Measurement: Usually quantified as frequency drift in parts per million (ppm) over a
specified time period.

11. Squelch

 Definition: A feature that mutes the receiver output in the absence of a sufficiently strong
signal.
 Importance: Prevents noise from being heard when no desired signal is present, improving
user experience.
 Measurement: Usually adjustable by the user to set the threshold at which the audio is
muted.

Question 6) explain the basic phenomenon of an antenna. Define and explain the characteristics
of an antenna.
Sol.

asic Phenomenon of an Antenna

An antenna is a device used to transmit and receive electromagnetic waves. It

converts electrical signals into radio waves for transmission and converts received
radio waves back into electrical signals. Antennas are fundamental to all wireless
communication systems such as radio, TV, cell phones, satellites, and Wi-Fi.

Working Principle:

 When an alternating current (AC) passes through the antenna, it generates an oscillating
magnetic and electric field. These fields propagate outward as electromagnetic waves.
 Conversely, when an electromagnetic wave hits the receiving antenna, it induces an AC in the
antenna, which can then be processed as an electrical signal.

Characteristics of an Antenna

1.

Radiation Pattern:

2.

o Describes how the antenna radiates energy into space. It is usually depicted in a 2D
or 3D plot showing the strength of the radiation at different angles.
o Omnidirectional antennas radiate uniformly in all directions (like a dipole antenna).
o Directional antennas focus energy in a specific direction (e.g., parabolic dish).

3.

Gain:

4.

o Antenna gain is a measure of how well the antenna focuses energy in a specific
direction compared to an isotropic antenna (which radiates equally in all directions).
o High-gain antennas concentrate the signal more tightly, providing greater reach in
one direction but less in others.

5.

Directivity:

6.

o Directivity quantifies how "directional" the antenna's radiation pattern is. An

antenna with high directivity focuses most of its energy in one direction, which can
be useful for long-distance communication.
 7.

Polarization:

8.

o The orientation of the electric field of the radiated waves. Antennas can be linearly
polarized (horizontal or vertical) or circularly polarized. Matching the polarization of
the transmitting and receiving antennas is important for maximizing signal strength.

9.

Bandwidth:

10.

o The range of frequencies over which the antenna can effectively transmit or receive
signals. Wider bandwidth allows the antenna to operate over a broader range of
frequencies.

11.

Impedance:

12.

o The impedance of an antenna is a combination of resistance and reactance.

Matching the impedance of the antenna with the transmission line (typically 50 or
75 ohms) is crucial to minimize signal reflection and power loss.

13.

Efficiency:

14.

o The efficiency of an antenna is the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the
total input power. It is influenced by factors such as material losses, mismatch
losses, and impedance.

15.

Resonant Frequency:

16.

o This is the frequency at which the antenna naturally resonates and radiates most
efficiently. At this frequency, the electrical length of the antenna matches the
wavelength of the signal.
Question 7) what is the span in the electromagnetic spectrum?

Sol. The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum refers to the range of all types of
electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation is energy that travels and
spreads out as it moves, and this energy is measured by its wavelength or frequency.
The EM spectrum spans from very low-frequency radio waves to high-frequency
gamma rays.

Here's a breakdown of the different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, listed

from longest wavelength (lowest frequency) to shortest wavelength (highest
frequency):

1.

Radio Waves

2.
1. Wavelength: >1 meter
2. Frequency: < 300 MHz
3. Uses: Communication (AM, FM radio, TV signals), radar, and GPS.
3.

Microwaves

4.

1. Wavelength: 1 millimeter to 1 meter

2. Frequency: 300 MHz to 300 GHz
3. Uses: Microwave ovens, mobile phones, Wi-Fi, satellite communications.

5.

Infrared (IR) Radiation

6.

1. Wavelength: 700 nanometers (nm) to 1 millimeter

2. Frequency: 300 GHz to 430 THz
3. Uses: Remote controls, night-vision devices, thermal imaging.

7.

Visible Light

8.
 1. Wavelength: 380 nm to 700 nm
2. Frequency: 430 THz to 770 THz
3. This is the range visible to the human eye, from violet (shortest wavelength) to red
(longest wavelength).

9.

Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation

10.

1. Wavelength: 10 nm to 380 nm
2. Frequency: 770 THz to 30 PHz
3. Uses: Sterilization, fluorescent lights, UV tanning.

11.

X-rays

12.

1. Wavelength: 0.01 nm to 10 nm
2. Frequency: 30 PHz to 30 EHz
3. Uses: Medical imaging, airport security scanners.

13.

Gamma Rays

14.

1. Wavelength: <0.01 nm
2. Frequency: >30 EHz
3. Uses: Cancer treatment, nuclear reactions, gamma-ray astronomy.

The entire electromagnetic spectrum spans from long-wavelength, low-energy radio

waves to short-wavelength, high-energy gamma rays. The energy of the radiation
increases as the wavelength decreases, and the frequency increases.

Question 8) what is antenna polarization?How is it defined?

Sol. Antenna polarization refers to the orientation of the electric field (E-field) of the
electromagnetic wave that an antenna emits or receives. In general, an
electromagnetic wave consists of both electric and magnetic fields, but polarization
specifically relates to the electric field's orientation.
The polarization of an antenna is determined by the orientation of its elements (e.g.,
dipole, patch) and the way the electric field is radiated. For instance:

 Linear Polarization: If the antenna's elements are aligned in a vertical or horizontal direction,
it typically radiates a linearly polarized wave.
 Circular Polarization: This occurs when two orthogonal electric fields are present and are out
of phase by 90 degrees.

Importance of Polarization:

Matching the polarization of transmitting and receiving antennas maximizes signal

strength and communication efficiency. A mismatch in polarization can result in
signal loss, often by a factor known as polarization mismatch loss.

Question 9) define gain, directivity, directive gain, power gain and radio intensity.

Sol. · Gain:
Gain refers to the ability of an antenna to direct radiated power in a specific
direction compared to a reference antenna. It is usually expressed in decibels (dB).
Gain incorporates both the directivity of the antenna and its efficiency, representing
how well the antenna converts input power into radiation in a preferred direction.
Formula:

· G=ηDG = \eta DG=ηD

Where:

 · GGG = Gain
 η\etaη = Efficiency
 DDD = Directivity

· Directivity:
Directivity is the measure of how focused the antenna’s radiation is in a particular
direction compared to an isotropic radiator (which radiates equally in all directions).
It only accounts for the directional characteristics of the antenna, without
considering efficiency. Directivity is often expressed as a dimensionless ratio or in dB.
Formula:

· D=U(θ,ϕ)U0D = \frac{U(\theta, \phi)}{U_0}D=U0U(θ,ϕ)

Where:

 · DDD = Directivity
 U(θ,ϕ)U(\theta, \phi)U(θ,ϕ) = Radiation intensity in a given direction
 U0U_0U0 = Radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna (uniform in all directions)
· Directive Gain:
Directive gain is synonymous with Directivity and refers to the measure of how
much power is radiated in a particular direction relative to an isotropic source.
Sometimes, it is used interchangeably with directivity, but technically, directive gain
only relates to the directional properties, while gain also factors in efficiency.

· · Power Gain:
Power gain refers to the increase in power output of an antenna compared to a
reference antenna (often an isotropic radiator or dipole) in a specific direction.
Power gain can be thought of as the ratio of the power radiated in the direction of
interest to the total input power. Like gain, it is typically expressed in decibels.

· · Radiation Intensity (or Radio Intensity):

Radiation intensity is the amount of power radiated from an antenna per unit solid
angle in a specific direction. It is measured in watts per steradian (W/sr). Radiation
intensity is a key concept in understanding the directivity and radiation pattern of
antennas.
Formula:

· U(θ,ϕ)=r2S(θ,ϕ)U(\theta, \phi) = r^2 S(\theta, \phi)U(θ,ϕ)=r2S(θ,ϕ)

Where:

 · U(θ,ϕ)U(\theta, \phi)U(θ,ϕ) = Radiation intensity

 rrr = Distance from the antenna
 S(θ,ϕ)S(\theta, \phi)S(θ,ϕ) = Radiated power density at the point of interest

Question 10) what is half wave dipole? How it is formed? What are the voltage and
current patterns for the half wavelength dipole?

Sol A half-wave dipole is a type of antenna that is commonly used for radio
frequency transmission and reception. Here’s an overview of what it is, how it is
formed, and its voltage and current patterns:

Definition

 Half-Wave Dipole Antenna: A half-wave dipole is an antenna that is typically composed of

two conductive elements (wires or rods) which are each approximately a quarter of the
wavelength (λ/4\lambda/4λ/4) of the frequency being used. When combined, they total a
half wavelength (λ/2\lambda/2λ/2).

Formation

Length Calculation: The length of a half-wave dipole antenna is given by the

formula:
  L=468f(MHz)L = \frac{468}{f(MHz)}L=f(MHz)468

where LLL is the length in feet, and fff is the frequency in megahertz (MHz).
This means that at a specific frequency, the total length of the antenna will
be half of the wavelength of that frequency.




Construction: The antenna can be made from a single wire, two wires, or
rods arranged in a straight line. The two elements are fed at the center with a
transmission line, usually a coaxial cable.

Voltage and Current Patterns

Voltage Distribution: The voltage along the length of a half-wave dipole is

not uniform. It is maximum at the center (the feed point) and decreases to
zero at the ends (the tips of the antenna). This results in a sinusoidal voltage
pattern, as illustrated below:




Current Distribution: In contrast, the current distribution is maximum at the

ends and decreases to zero at the center. This also follows a sinusoidal
pattern, opposite to that of the voltage distribution: