PERIYAR INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

(PRIDE)

PERIYAR UNIVERSITY
SALEM - 636 011.

BACHELOR OF COMPUTER APPLICATION (B.C.A.)

FIRST YEAR
ALLIED - I : ALLIED MATHEMATICS

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Prepared by :
R. VIJAYARAGHAVAN, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil.
Head of Department
Department of Mathematics
Vivekanandha College of Arts & Science for Women
Elayampalayam
Tiruchengode – 637 205.

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 BACHELOR OF COMPUTER APPLICATION (B.C.A.)
FIRST YEAR
ALLIED - I : ALLIED MATHEMATICS
UNIT – 1:
Characteristic equation – Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors – Properities
– Problems – Rank of Matrix – Problems – Solutions of simultaneous equations
using matrices – consistency condition. Polynomial equations – relation
between roots and coefficients imaginary roots and irrational roots – solving
equations under given conditions – transformation of equations.

UNIT – II:
Definition of a derivative , different types of differentiation – standard
formulae – successive differentiation – nth derivative – Leibnitz formula –
problems. Partial differentiation – Euler’s theorem – Curvature – Radius of
curvature in Cartesian co-ordinates.

UNIT - III :
  
2 2 2 a

 sin  cos  tan x e

n n n n ax
Integration by Parts : xdx xdx , xdx , dx ,
0 0 0 0
a

x e
n x
dx Definite integrals – properties – reduction formulae – Problems.
0
Second order differential equations with constant coefficients – Particular
Integrals of type e axV - where V is x or x 2 or cos ax or sin ax

UNIT – IV :
Definition Complete, - Singular and General integrals solutions of
Standard types f (p, q) = 0, f ( x, p, q) = 0, f ( y, p, q) = 0, f ( z, p, q ) = 0, f 1 (x,
p )= f 2 ( x, p) – Clariant’s form – Lagrange’s equation Pp + Qq = R –
Problems.

UNIT - V:
Definition – Laplace transform of standard function simple theorems –
problems inverse Laplace transform – Fourier coefficients – periodic functions
with period 2 p – half range series – cosine series – sine series – problems.

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 BLOCK PLAN (CONTENT )
UNIT - I
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Characteristic Equation
1.2.1 Eigen values and Eigen vectors
1.2.2 Characteristic roots
1.2.4 Cayley – Hamilton’s Theorem
1.2.5 Properties of Characteristics roots
1.2.6 Problems
1.3 Rank of a Matrix
1.3.1 Problems
1.4 Simultaneous equations using matrices
1.4.1 Elementary Transformation
1.4.2 Equivalent matrices
1.5 Relation between the roots and coefficients of an Equation

1.6 Imaginary and irrational roots

1.7 Transformation of equation

UNIT – II
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Successive Differentiation
2.2.1 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION - I
2.3 n-th Derivative
2.3.1 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIN – II
2.4 LEIBNITZ THEOREM
2.4.1 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION - III
2.5 Euler’s Theorem on homogeneous functions
2.5.1 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION - IV
2.6 Curvature and Radius of Curvature
2.6.1 Cartesian Formula for Radius of curvature

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 2.6.2 Parametric formula for Radius of Curvature
2.6.3 SELF ASSESSMENT – V
2.7 UNIT QUESTION
ANSWERS
UNIT – III
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Integration by Parts
3.2.1 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION - I
3.3 Definite Integral
3.3.1 Definition of Definite Integral
3.3.2 Properties of Definite Integral
3.3.3 Self Assessment Question – I
3.4 Bernoulli’s Formula
3.4.1 Reduction Formula
3.4.1 Self Assessment Question – II
3.5 Particular Integral
3.5.1 Self Assessment Question – III
3.6 UNIT QUESTION
ANSWERS
UNIT – IV
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Non-linear differential equation of first order standard type
4.2.1 Complete solution
4.1.2 Singular Solution
4.1.3 General solution
4.1.4 Charpits Method
4.1.5 Standard type I
4.1.6 Standard type II
4.1.7 Standard type III
4.1.8 Standard type I
4.1.9 Self Assessment Question - I

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4.2 Lagrange’s Linear Partial Differential Equations
4.2.1 Self Assessment Question - II
4.3 UNIT QUESTION
ANSWERS
UNIT – V
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Laplace Transforms of some elementary function
5.2.1 First Shifting Theorem
5.2.2 Second Shifting Theorem
5.2.3 Change of Scale property
5.2.4 Self Assessment Question - I
5.3 Inverse Laplace Transform
5.3.1 Table of Inverse Laplace Transforms
5.3.2 Inverse Laplace Transforms by first shifting theorem
5.3.2 Inverse Laplace Transforms by second shifting theorem
5.4 Laplace Transform of Periodic Function
5.5 Fourier Series
5.5.1 Fourier Coefficient
5.6 Half range Fourier series
5.6.1 Self Assessment Question - II
5.7 UNIT QUESTION
ANSWERS

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1.0 Introduction
The Source material of Mathematics is considered to be a source of
study organized according to a set plan and a learning guide rather than a
source book of information. The content is given as simple, brief, exact,
accessible and definite. The source of mathematics is satifying the demand of
the examinations, especially new type tests in mathematics. This syllabus is
more suitable for the application of mathematics in the field of technology. It is
completely deal with applied oriented mathematics with equation, derivatives,
radius of curvature in Cartesian co-ordinates. Integration, Singularities and
Laplace transforms and Fourier series and all problems presented in a very
simple language with suitable examples.
1.1 Objectives
 To develop certain mathematical abilities and skills among students.
 To develop the knowledge of given topics which covered by syllabus.
 The pupils may have proper view of the subject covered all the syllabus
mater to be studied.
 To crease new knowledge to solve the problem given in the exercise by
understanding the solved examples.
 It helps the pupils to acquire the required information with speed and
accuracy.
 To develop the skills of measuring, thinking, analyzing logically.
 To crease the knowledge of application oriented mathematics and
solving problems in allied mathematics related in all other service
subjects.

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1.2 Characteristic equation of a matrix
Let A be a n × n square matrix over a field F and I be the unit matrix
of the same order. Let I be an unknown. Then determinant A – I  is called
the characteristic Polynomial of a matrix A. The equation det.A – I  = 0
is called the characteristic equation of the matrix A. The roots of this equation
are called the characteristic roots of the matrix A. Characteristic roots are
also called latent roots or eigen values.
The characteristic vectors of a Matrix
Let A be a n × n matrix. Let X be any non-zero column vector,
x1
.
.
i.e X = .
.
xn
then any solution of the equation AX = X other than X = 0 corresponding to
some particular value of  is called a characteristic vector or Eigen vector
or latent vector.
The equation AX = I X may be written as ( A = I) X = 0. This
equation gives a set of linear homogenous equations. If it is to possess a non-
trivial solution, then.A – I = 0. Then  is a characteristic root of the
matrix A. Hence to find all the characteristic vectors, we adopt the following
procedure
Step I :
Solve A – I = 0 for 
Let 1, 2, 3 …………..n be the characteristic root of A.
Step II :
Find the non-trivial solution of A – I = 0 . This solution is the
characteristic vector corresponding to be characteristic value or
characteristic roots of 
Step III :
Similarly find the characteristic vector corresponding to the
characteristic roots.
Step IV :
Note that the number of linearly independent solution of (A – I ) X = 0
is equal to n-Rank of A – I .

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Problems:
Example : 1
1 2
1. Find the characteristic equation of A =
2 1
Solution:
The characteristic equation is A – I  = 0

1 2 1 0
(i.e) - = 0
2 1 0 1

1- 2
(i.e) = 0
2 1-
(i.e) (1- ) ( 1- ) – 4 = 0
2 – 2  - 3 = 0
Example : 2
2 0 1
Find the characteristic equation of A = 0 6 0
4 0 2
Solution:
The characteristic equation is A – I  = 0

2 0 4 1 0 0
(i.e) 0 6 0 -  0 1 0 = 0
4 0 2 0 0 1

2 0 4  0 0
(i.e) 0 6 0 - 0  0 = 0
4 0 2 0 0 
2- 0 4

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(i.e) 0 6- 0 = 0
4 0 2-
= ( 2-  ) [ (6-) (2 -  ) – 0 ] – 0 + 4 [ 0 – 4 ( 6- ) ] = 0
= ( 2-  ) [ 12- 6 - 2  +  2 ) + 4 [ -24 + 4  ] = 0
= ( 2-  ) [ 12- 8 +  2 ) + 96 + 16  = 0
= 24 - 16  + 2 2 – 12  + 8 2 - 3 - 96 + 16  = 0
3 - 10 2 + 12  + 72 = 0
1.2.3 Characteristic Roots:
0 1 1
Find the eigen value of A = -4 4 2
4 -3 -1
Solution:
The characteristic equation is A – I  = 0

0 1 1 1 0 0
(i.e) -4 4 2 -  0 1 0 = 0
4 -3 -1 0 0 1

- 1 1
(i.e) - 4 4- 2 = 0
4 -3 -1- 
-  [ (4-) ( -1 -  0 + 6 ] – 1 [ -4 (-1- ) – 8 ] + 1[ 12-4(4-)] =0
-  ( 4 - 4 +  + 2 + 6 ) - ( - 4 + 4  – 8 ) + 1 ( 12- 16 + 4 ) = 0
-  3 + 3 2 - 2  = 0
3 - 3 2 + 2  = 0
 ( 2 - 3  +2 ) = 0
 = 0 and ( 2 - 3  +2 ) = 0
 = 0 and (-1) ( -2)=0
 = 0,  = 1,  = 2

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SELF – ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS : I
1. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrices
1 2 3 
a) 0 4 2
 
0 0 7 
………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………..
Ans: 1, -4, 7 ; [k,0,0]; k [ 1, ½ 0 ]
1.2.4 Cayley Hamilton’s Theorem
Theorem :
Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation
(i.e. If the characteristic polynomials is
 () = n + P1 n-1 + P2 n-2 + … + P n-1  + Pn
then,  (A) = 0 
A n + P1 An-1 + P2 An-2 + … + P n-1 A + P n I = 0
Proof:
 () = | A - I |
a11 -  a12 … a1n
a21 a22 -  … a2n
a31 a32 A33 -  … a3n
. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

an1 an2 an3 … ann - 

= P0 n + P1 n-1 + P2 n-2 - … + P n ( Say)
Then we have to prove that
 () = P0 An + P1 An-1 + P2 An-2 + … + Pn I = 0
Consider ( A - I )* which is the adjacent of A -  I. Let us call it B. The
elements of B are minors of order (n-1) of A -  I. The element of B are of
degree at most n-1 in  and hence can be written as
B0 n-1 + B1 n-2 + …. + B n-1

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 Where B0, B1, B2, …. B n-1 are matrices of order n whose elements are
polynomials in the elements of A
We know that
(A-I) Adj. (A-I) = | A- I| I
=  () I
(A-I) (B0 n-1 + B1 n-2 + …. + B n-1 ) I
= ( P0 n + P1 n-1 + P2 n-2 - … + P n ) I
This is an identity in  . Therefore equating the coefficient of like powers of ,
we obtain
 B0 = P0 I
AB0 – B1 = P1 I
AB1 – B2 = P2 I
.

ABr-1 – Br = Pr I
.

Abn-1 – B = Pn I
By pre-multiplying these equations with An, A n-1… A, I respectively
0 = P0 An + P1 An-1 + P2 An-2 - … + P n I
Which prove Cayley – Hamilton’s Theorem
Note : : Cayley-Hamilton’s Theorem can be used to find the inverse of a
Matrix.
By Cayley- Hamilton’s theorem,
0 = P0 An + P1 An-1 + P2 An-2 - … + Pn I
Multiplying both side by A-1 , we have
0= P0 An-1 + P1 An-2 + P2 An-2 +… + Pn-2 + Pn A-1
1

A-1 = ---- P0 An-1 + P1 An-2 + P2 An-2 +… + Pn-2 + Pn A-1

Pn
Note : Cayley – Hamilton’s theorem can also be used in computation of
arbitrary integral power of A.

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Example : 1
0 1 2 
Determine the characteristic roots of the matrix 1 0 1
 
 2 1 0 
0 1 2
Let A = 1 0 -1
2 -1 0
0 1 2 1 0 0
A - I = 1 0 -1 -  0 1 0
2 -1 0 0 0 1

- 1 2
= 1 - -1
2 -1 -
The characteristic equation of A is | A -  I | = 0
- 1 2
1 - -1 = 0
2 -1 -
  (2 – 1 ) – 1 ( -  + 2 ) + 2 ( - 1 + 2  ) = 0
3 +  +  - 2 -2 + 4  = 0
3 – 6  + 4 = 0
 (2 – 4 ) – 2 (  - 2 ) = 0
( – 2 ) [  (  + 2 ) – 2 ] = 0
( – 2 ) ( 2 + 2 – 2 ) = 0
 = 2, -2±4+8
2
= 2, - 2 ± 23
2
= 2, - 1 ± 3
 The characteristic roots are 2, - 1 ± 3

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Example : 2
a h g
Find the eigen values of 0 b 0
0 0 c

a h g
Let A = 0 b 0
0 0 c
The characteristic equation is | A -  I | = 0
a- h g
(i.e ) = 0 b- 0
0 0 c- 
i.e. (a - ) (b - ) (c - ) = 0
 = a, b, c
the eigen values are a, b, c
Example : 3
Prove that the matrices A, B, C given below have the same
characteristic values.
0 a b 0 b a 0 c c
A= a 0 c B= b 0 c C= c 0 a
b c 0 a c 0 b c 0
Solution :
The characteristic equation of A is A -  I = 0
- a b
|A-I|=0  a - c = 0
B c -
 -  ( – c ) – a ( - a - bc ) + b (ac + b ) = 0
2 2

 - 3 + c2 + a 2  + abc + abc + b2  = 0

 3 -  ( a2 + b2 + c2 ) – 2 abc = 0
The characteristic equation of B is | B - I | = 0
- b c
|B-I|=0 ; 0 - c = 0
a c -

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 Equating the determinant, we get
3 -  ( a2 + b2 + c2 ) – 2 abc = 0
The characteristic equation of C is |C- I | = 0
- c b
|C-I|=0 ; c - a = 0
d a -
Expanding we get,
2 -  ( a + b + c ) – 2 abc = 0
From I, II, III , we conclude that the matrices A, B, C have the same
characteristic equation and hence the same characteristic values.
1.2.5 Properties of characteristic Equations
Property : 1
Show that if A is a square matrix, the characteristic equation of A and
A’ are identical
Solution:
Let A = ( aij) i, j = 1, 2 , …. n
Then A - I =
a11 -  a12 … a1n
a21 a22 -  … a2n
A - I = a31 a32 a33 -  … a3n and

an1 an2 an3 … ann - 

a11 -  a12 … a1n

a21 a22 -  … a2n
A′ - I = a31 a32 a33 -  … a3n
.

an1 an2 an3 … ann - 

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the value of a determinant is unaffected by interchanging of row into columns
and columns into rows.
|A-I| = | A′ -  I |
i.e., the scalar equation | A -  I | = 0, is the same
as the scalar equation | A′ -  I | = 0
Hence the characteristic equations of a A and A’ are identical.
Property : 2
Show that the two matrices A and P-1 A P have the same characteristic
roots.
Solution
Let B = P-1 A P
B-I = P-1 A P -  I
= P-1 [A -  I] P
B-I = | P-1 | |A -  I | | P |
= |A - I | | P-1 | | P |
= |A - I | | P-1 | I
= |A - I |
| A -  I | = 0  |B-  I | = 0
The characteristic roots of A and B = P-1 A P are the same.
Property : 3
If and B are two non-singular matrices, Prove that AB and BA have the
same characteristic roots.
AB = I ( AB)
= (B-1 B ) AB
= B-1 (BA) B
From example same 5, it follows that AB and BA have the same
characteristic roots.
Property : 4
If the characteristic roots of A are 1, 2, 3, ….. n show that the
characteristic roots of A2 are 12 , 22 , ….. n2 ,

Proof:
Since, 1 , 2, ….. n, are the characteristic roots of A, we have
|A - r I | = 0 , r = 1, 2, ….. n,

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 Then (A - r I ) (A + r I )
A2 - r2 I
 | A2 - r2 I | = | A - r I | | A + r I | = 0
 r2 ( r = 1, 2, … n) are the characteristic roots of A2
Property : 5

If 1 , 2, ….. n, are the characteristic roots of A, the 1 1 1

1 , 2, ….. n
are the characteristic roots of A-1
Solution
Since r ( r = 1, 2, … n) is a characteristic roots of A, we have
|A - r I | = 0
|A - r A A-1 | = 0

- r A A-1 – _1_ I =0
r

( - r )n | A | A-1 – _1_ I =0
r
Since A is non-singular, | A |  0 and r  0

 A-1 – _1_ I =0
r
the 1 1 1
1 , 2, ….. n are the characteristic roots of A-1
Property : 6
cos   sin  
Find the characteristic roots of the orthogonal matrix 
cos  
and
 sin 
verify that they are of unit modulus.
Solution :
cos   sin  
A= 
 sin  cos  

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 cos     sin  
| A - I | =  sin 
 cos    

 cos    + sin2 
2
=

The characteristic equation is | A - I | = 0

i.e.  cos     + sin2  = 0
2

2 – 2  cos  + 1 = 0
2 cos   4 cos 2   4
=
2
= cos  i sin 
 the characteristic roots are cos  i sin 

= |  | = | cos   i sin  | = cos 2   sin 2  = 1

Example 7
If A is a skew Symmetric Matrix of order n, show that | A -  I | = ( - 1)n
| A +  I| . Hence show that if  is a characteristic roots of A, then -  is also
a characteristic root.
Solution :
If a is skew symmetric matrix, then A '   A
|A-I| = |A-I| '
= | A ' ( I ) ' |
= |  A  ( I ) | since I '  I
= ( - 1 ) n |  A  ( I ) |
If  is a characteristic roots of A, then |A -  I| = 0
Then (1) gives | A  ( I ) | = 0
-  is also a characteristic root of A

0 c b 

Show that the Matrix c 0 a  satisfies Cayley – Hamilton’s theorem

 b a 0 
Solution
By Cayley- Hamilton’s theorem
A2  A  7 I  0

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Divide f ( )by 2  5  7
|A -  I | X = 0
i.e. |A - I | X = 0
2 2 x1
i.e. 0
2 2 x2

2 x1  2 x2  0
2 x1  2 x2  0
Since x1 = k, x2 = - k satisfies the equation for all values of k. Then the
1
characteristic vector corresponding to  = 1, is X1  k  
 1
 c 2  b 2 ab ac 
 
  ac c  a 2
2
bc 
 ac bc b 2  a 2 

 c 2  b 2 ab ac   0 c b 
 
A3  A2 A   ac c  a 2
2
bc   c 0 a 
 ac bc b 2  a 2   b a 0 

 0 c ( a 2  b 2  c 2 ) b( a 2  b 2  c 2 ) 
 
=  c(a 2  b 2  c 2 ) 0 a(a 2  b 2  c 2 ) 
 b(a 2  b 2  c 2 ) c(a 2  b 2  c 2 ) 0 
 
 0 c b 
 (a 2  b 2  c 2 )  c 0 a 
 b a 0 

= ( a 2  b 2  c 2 ) A
=> A3  (a 2  b 2  c 2 ) A  0
Example 8
1 1 3
Find the characteristic equation of A =  5 2 6  and show that the matrix
 
 2 1 1
A satisfies the equation.

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Solution:
The characteristic equation is A   I  0

1   1 3 

i.e. 5 2 6  = 0

 2 1 3   

(1   )  (2   )(3   )  6   5(3   )  12   5  4  2   0

(1   )( 2   )  5  3  6  3  0
i.e.
 2     3   2  5  3  6  3  0
 3  0or 3  0
We will show that the matrix satisfies the characteristic equation. We have to
verify that A3  0
 1 1 3  1 1 3 
A   5 2 6   5 2 6 
2

 2 1 3 2 1 3

0 0 0
= 3 3 9
 
 1 1 3

 0 0 0  1 1 3 
A   3 3 9   5 2 6 
3

 1 1 3  2 1 3

0 0 0 
= 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 
 A3  0
Example 9
Use Cayley-Hamilton theorem to express 2 A5  3 A4  A2  4 I as a linear
 3 1
polynomial in A when A =  
 1 2 

20
Solution :
The characteristic equation of A is |A-  I| = 0
3   1 
i.e.  =0
 1 2   
(3   )(2   )  1  0
 2  5  7 I  0
By Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
λ2–5λ+7I
Consider the polynomial
f ( )  2 2  3 4   2  4
Divide f ( )by 2  5  7
(2λ3 – 7λ2+ 21λ +57)

( λ 2+5λ + 7) 2λ2 – 3λ4+ λ2 – 4

2 5  10 4  14 3
------------------------
7 4  14 3   2  4
7 4  35 3  49 2
------------------------
21 3  48 2  4
21 3  105 2  147
---------------------------
57 2  147  4
57 2  285  399
-----------------------
138  403
 2  3  4)  (2  5  7)(2  7  21  57)  138  403
2 4 2 3 2

 A5  3 A4  A2  4 I
A2  5 A  7 I

21
2 A3  7 A2  21A  571)  138 A  403I
 0  138 A  403I
 138 A  403I
Which is linear Polynomial is A.
Example 10
 3 2
Find the characteristic vectors of the matrix  0
 2 3
Solution:
The characteristic Equation is
3   2 
 2 0
 3   
(3   ) 2  4  0 or  2  6  5  0
(  1)(  5)  0
   1,5
The characteristic roots are 1, 5. The characteristic vector of A
corresponding to the characteristic root  =1,
(A  I )X  0
(A I)X  0

 2 2  x1
i . e.   0
 2 2  x2
2 X1  2 X 2  0
2 X1  2 X 2  0
Since X 1  k , X 2  k satisfies the equation to all the values of k.

1
The characteristic vector corresponding to  = 1, is k  
 1 
 2 2  x1
When  = 5, we have   0
 2 2  x2
2 X 1  2 X 2  0
2 X1  2 X 2  0

22
 Here X 1  k , X 2  k satisfies the equation for all the vectors of k, the
characteristic vector corresponding to  = 5 is
1
X2  k  
1

SELF ASSESSMENT - II
1 0 2 
1. Find the characteristic Equation of A =  0 2 1 
 
 2 0 3 
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Ans:  3  6 2  7  2  0
1 0 3 
2. Verify Cayley – Hamilton theorem for the matrix  2 1 1
 
1 1 1 
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
1.4 Rank of Matrix
The number r is said to be the rank of Matrix A if
(i) A possesses atleast one minor of order r which does not vanish
(ii ) Every minor of A of order ( r + 1) and higher orders vanish
In other words the rank of a matrix is the order of any highest order non
vanishing minor of the matrix. The rank of a matrix of A is denoted by  ( A)
Note 1 : If I is the unit matrix of order n, its rank is n
Note 2 : If A is any matrix of order m  n its rank is  m and  n
Note 3 : The rank of A is the same as the rank of the transpose of A
Note 4 : The rank of a null matrix is taken as zero.

23
Example : 1
Consider the matrix
1 2 3 
A = 2 4 6
 
 3 1 2 
Here the highest minor is of order 3. But |A| = 0
  ( A)  3

 2 4
But the 2nd order    0
3 1
The rank of A = 2
1 2 3
Consider A =  2 4 0 
 
 3 6 9 
Hence |A| = 0
Also every minor of order 2 vanish. But there exists non-zero minors of
order 1
  ( A)  1
1.4.1 Elementary Transformation
In some cases the evaluation of determinant of matrices of highest
order may not be simple. In such cases we can obtain easily the rank of a
matrix using elementary transformations. An elementary transformation on a
matrix is an operation of any one of the following three types.
(i) The interchange of any two rows ( or column )
(ii) The multiplication of the elements of any row ( or column) by a non-zero
scalar
(iii) The addition to the elements of any row ( or column) the scalar multiples
of the corresponding elements of any other row ( or column )
1.4.2 Equivalent matrices
Definition :
Two matrices A and B of the same order are said to be equivalent if
one can be obtained from the other by the application of a finite chain of
elementary transformations. Symbolically we write A – B and read it as A
equivalent B

24
Example 1
Find the rank of the matrix
 3 1 2 
A =  6 2 4 
 
 3 1 2 
Solution :
 3 1 2 
0 0 0  R1, R2  2 R1 , R3  R1
 
0 0 0 
Since all minors of order 3 and order 2 vanish  ( A)  3 ,  ( A)  2
There exists non-zero minors of order 1   ( A)  1
Example 2
Find the rank of
1 2 3 4
A= 2 4 6 8
 
 1 2 3 4 
Solution:
1 2 3 4
A = 2 4 6 8 R2  2 R1 , R3  R1
 
 1 2 3 4 
  ( A)  1
Example 3
Find the rank of the Matrix
1 a b 0
0 c d 1 
A=  If a, b, c, d are all different
1 a b 0
 
0 c d 1
Solution:
1 a b 0 R1
0 c d 1 R2
A= 
0 0 0 0  R3  R1
 
0 0 0 0  R4  R2

25
  ( A)  2
Example 4
Find the rank of the Matrix
1 1 1
A= a b c  If a, b, c, d are all different

 a 2 b2 c 2 
Solution:
|A| = (a-b) (b – c ) ( c – a )
Case 1
Suppose a, b,c are all different
Then |A|  0 ,  ( A)  3
Case 2
Suppose two of a, b,c are equal and the 3rd is different
i.e. Say a = b,  c
then |A| = 0, since 2 columns are identical
But
b c
b2 a2
1 1
= bc = bc ( c – b )  0
b a
  ( A)  2
Case 3:
Suppose all a, b, c are equal
i.e. a = b = c
1 1 1
then
 
a a a
 a2 a2 a 2 

In this case | A| = 0

26
Example 5
Find the Rank of
1 7 3 3
A = 7 20 2 25 
 
5 2 4 7 
Solution:
1 7 3 3 R1

A ~ 7 20 2 25  R2
 
0 33 11 22  R3  5 R1

1 7 3 3 R1
 
A ~ 0 69 23 46 R2  7 R1
 
0 33 11 22  R3

 1 2 0 0
- 0 0 23 46  C1, C2 + 3 C3, C3 + C4, C4 + 3C1
 
0 0 11 22 

 1 0 0 0
- 0 0 23 0  C1, C2 – 2C1, C3, C4 - 2C3
 
0 0 11 0 
All 3rd order minors vanish
  ( A)  3
But,

1 0 
  = 23  0,   ( A)  2
 0 23 
Example 6 :
Find the Rank of
1 2 1 2
1 3 2 2 
A= 
2 4 3 4
 
3 7 4 6

27
Solution:
1 2 1 2 R1
0 1 1 0  R2  R1
A~ 
1 0 0 2 R3  R2
 
0 0 1 0  R4  ( R2  R4 )

1 2 1 2  R1
0 1 1 0  R2
A~ 
1 0 0 2  R3  R2
 
0 0 1 0  R4

1 2 1 2  R1  R3
0 1 1 0  R2
A~ 
1 0 0 2 R3
 
0 0 1 0 R4

1 2 1 2
0 1 1 0 
A~  C1 , C2 , C3 , C4  2C1
1 0 0 0
 
0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0  R1  R2
0 1 0 0  R2  R4
~ 
1 0 0 0 R3
 
1 0 0 0 R4

0 0 0 0 R1  R2
0 1 0 0  R2
~ 
1 0 0 0 R3
 
0 0 1 0 R4
 ( A)  4 since A = 0
0 1 1
Consider the Minor 1 0 0  = 1  0
 
0 0 1
  ( A)  3

28
Self Assessment - III
Find the Rank of the following Matrices
1 3 4 3
(1)  3 9 12 9 
 
 1 3 4 1
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Answer: 1
1 3 4 3
(2 ) 3 9 12 4
 
1 3 4 1 
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Answer 2
1.4 Test of Consistency of linear equation
Working rule for finding the solution of the equation AX = B.
Suppose we are given m equations and n unknowns.
Step (i) Write down the coefficient Matrix A
Step ( ii) Write down the augmented matrix [ A, B]
Step ( iii) Apply elementary transformation to find the ranks of A and
[A,B]
The following situations may arise
Case I
Rank A < Rank [A,B]
In this case equations are inconsistent
i.e. They have no solution
Case II
Rank A = Rank [A,B] = r (say )
In this case the equations are consistent
Ie. They possess a solution
If r = n then the solution is unique.

29
 If r < n then there are infinite number of solution.
Example :1
Show that the system of equation
3x – 4y = 2
5x + 2y = 12
- x + 3y = 1 are consistent
Solution:
 3 4  2
A =  5 
2 ; B= 12 
 
 1 3   1 
 
 3 4 2 
(A,B) =  5 2 12
 
 1 3 1 

 0 5 5  R1  3R3
-  0 17 17  R  5R
  2 3

 1 3 1  R3
5
R  R2
0 0 0 17
-  0 17 17  R2
 
 1 3 1  R3
We note that P (A) = 2, and  (A,B) = 2
Hence the given system of equation is consistent and therefore
possesses a solution.
Example : 2
x  3 y  8 z  10
Show that the system of equations 3x  y  4 z  0 are consistent and solve
2 x  5 y  6 z  13
them
Solution
1 3 8
A = 3 1 4 
 
 2 5 6 

30
 1 3 8 10  R1

(A,B) = 3 1 4 0  R2

 2 5 6 13  11
R3  R2
10
= Here  (A) = 2,  (A,B) = 2
The given system of equations is consistent.
Since,  (A), 2 < 3 there are infinite number of solutions.
x  3 y  8 z  10
 10 y  20 z  30
y  3  2z
Where z is a variable.
i.e. x = -1 +2z
Take z = k, the solutions are
x = - 1 + 2z
y = 3 – 2k
z = k where k is any arbitrary value.
Example 3
Show that the equation
x yz 6
x  2 y  3z  14 are consistent and solve them
x  4 y  7 z  30
Solution:
1 1 1 
A = 1 2 3 
1 4 7 
 
The Augmented matrix is
1 1 1 6 
(A, B) = 1 2 3 14 
 
1 4 7 30

31
 1 1 1 6  R1
- 0 1 2 8  R2  R1
 
0 3 6 24 R3  R1

1 1 1 6 R1
- 0 1 2 8  R2
 
0 0 0 0 R3  3R2
We note that  ( A)  2 and also
 ( A, B )  2
  ( A)  2 =  ( A, B )  2
Hence the given equations are consistent, But,   ( A)  2 =  ( A, B)  2 <3
there are infinite number of solutions for the given equations. Also,
x y z 6
y  2z  8
y  9  2z
x  6  (8  2 z )  z
x  z2
Taking z = k where k is arbitary the solutions are
x  k 2
y  8  2k
zk
Example : 4
Show that the equation
x  2y  z  3
3x  y  2 z  1 are consistent and solve them.
x  y  z  1
Solution
1 2 1
A = 3 1 2 
 
1 1 1 

32
 1 2 1 3 
3 1 2 1 
(A,B) =  
1 1 1 2 
 
1 1 1 1
1 2 1 3  R1
0 7 5 8 R  R
-   2 3

0 6 5 4  R3  2 R1
 
0 3 2 4  R4  R1
1 2 1 3  R1
0 1 0 4  R  R
-   2 3

0 6 5 4  R3
 
0 3 2 4  R4
1 2 1 3  R1
0 1 0 4  R2
-  
0 0 5 20  R3  6 R2
 
0 0 2 8  R4  3R2
1 2 1 3  R1
0 1 0 4  R
-   2
0 0 1 4  R3/ 5
 
0 0 1 4  R4 / 2
1 2 1 3  R1
0 1 0 4  R
-   2

0 0 1 4  R3
 
0 0 0 0  R4  R3
   2 =  ( A, B)  3
 The given system of equations is consistent and has a unique solution
the solution is z = 4
y=4
x + 2y – z = 6
x = -1
x = -1, y = 4, z = 4

33
SELF – ASSESSMENT IV
Test of Consistency and hence solve the equation:
x  2 y  3z  2
(i) 2 x  3z  3
x yz
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Answer : k = - ½ , K = -4, Y = ½ where K -6 where z = k
1.5 Relation between the roots and coefficients of an Equation
Let 1, 2, … n be the roots of the equation
x n  p1 x n1  p2 x n2  ...  pn  0 … (1)
The equation corresponding to the roots 1, 2, … n is
(x  α1 )(x  α 2 ) . . . (x  α n )  0
x n  1 x n1  1 2 x n2 1 2 3  x n3

. . .  (-1)n 1 2 ... n  0 …(2)

Comparing equations (1) & (2) we get,
1   p1

1 ,  2  p2 1 ,  23   p 3

.
.
1 2 ... n  (1) n p n
If Sr is defined as the sum of the products of the roots of the equation
taken r at a time we have the following relations between the roots and
coefficients.
S1   p1
S 2  (1) 2 p2
S3  (1) 3 p3

S n  (1) n pn

34
Note : If the given equation is
a0 x n  a1 x n1  a2 x n2  ...an1 x  an  0 then divide the equation by a0

a1 n1 a2 n2 a n1 a

xn  x  x  ...  x n 0
a0 a0 a0 a0
a1
Then S1  
a0
a2
S2  
a0
a3
S3  
a0
an
S n  (1) n
a0
Note 1:
(1) If , ,  are the roots of the equation ax3+bx2+cx+d =0 then
b
S1         .
a
c
S 2        .
a
d
S 3     .
a
Note 2:
(2) If , , ,  are the roots of the equation x4 +px3+qx2+rx+s=0 then.
S1     p

S 2     q

S3      r

S4    s
Example 1
Show that if the roots of the equation x3+px2+qx+r=0 are in A.P. then
2p3 - 9pq + 27r = 0.
Solution
Let the roots of the equation x3+px2+qx+r=0 be -, ,+ .
Sum of the roots is  -  +  +  +  = -p

35
 p
i.e. 3   p or   
3
Since  is a root of the given equation it has to satisfy the equation
x3+px2+qx+r=0.
3 2
 p  p  p
    p     q    r  0
 3  3  3
p 3 p 3 pq
   r 0
27 9 3
 p 3  3 p 3  9 pq  27r  0
2 p 3  9 pq  27r  0
Example 2
Solve the equation x3 -12x2+39x-28= 0 whose roots are in A.P.
Solution
Let  - ,,  + be the roots
Then  -  +  +  +  = 12
i.e. 3 = 12 or = 4
4 is a root of the given equation. Let us remove this root by synthetic
division.

1 -12 39 -28

0 4 -32 28

1 -8 7 0

The other roots are given by x2 – 8x + 7 = 0

(x – 1) (x - 7) = 0
x = 1 or x = 7
 The roots of the given equation are 1, 4, 7
Example 3
Solve the equation x4-2x3-21x2+22x+40=0 given that the roots are in A.P.
Solution
x4-2x3-21x2+22x+40=0
Let the roots be , , , 
Since they are in A.P.

36
+=+ …(1)
 x -2x -21x +22x+40=0
4 3 2

= (x-) (x-) (x-) (x-)

= [x2-x) ( + ) +  ] [x2-x (+)x+]
Equating the coefficients of x3
+++=2
2(+)=2 [From (1)]
+=1 …(2)
2
Equating the coefficient of x
++(+)(+)= -21
++1=-21
+=-22
Equating the coefficient of x …(3)
(+)+(+)=-22
+=-22
Equating the constant term
=40 …(4)
By inspection from (4) & (5)
=-20
=-2
+=1, =-2 =-1, =2
+=1, =-20 =-4, =5
The roots are -4, -1, 2, 5
Example 4
If the sum of the two roots of the equation x4+px3+qx2+x+ s=0 equals
the sum of the other two, prove that p3+8r= 4pq
Solution
Let ,, ,  be the roots such that
+=+ ……(I)
Then x 4  px3  qx2  rx  s  ( x   )( x   )( x   )( x   )
= x2– ( - )x + ) ( x2–(+ )x + 
Equating the coefficient of x3

37
  + ++ = - p … (1)
2
Equating the of efficient of x
(+) ( + ) + +  = q … (2)
Equating the coefficient of x
-  ( +) -  (+) = r
 (+)+  (+) = - r … (3)
Equating the constant term,
 = s
Using (I) in (1) we get 2 (+) = - p … (4)
p p
or          
2 2
p2
From (2),     q  … (5)
4
Using I in (3)

αβ  γδ   p   r
 2
2r
   
p
From (5) and (6)
p 2 2r
q 
4 p
4 pq  p 3  8r
or p 3  8r  4 pq
Example 5
Find the condition that the roots of the equation ax3  3bx2  3cx  d  0 are in
G.P.
Solution

Let the roots be ,  , 

 d
Then . .  
 a
d
i.e.  3   …(1)
a

38
Since  is a root of the equations
ax3  3bx2  3cx  d  0,
a 3  3b 2  3c  d  0
d 
a   3b.  3c  d  0
2

 a 
 d  3b 2  3c  d  0
3 b  c   0
Since  0, b+c = 0
or b = -c
Cubing, b33 = -c3
d 
b3    c
3

 a 
d 
b3    c or b d  c a
3 3 3

 a 
This is the required condition.
Example 7
Solve the equation x3-4x2-3x+18=0 given that two of its roots are
equation.
Solution
Let the roots of the equation
x 3  4 x 2  3x  18  0 be  ,  ,  .
Then 2+=4
2+2=-3
2=-18
From (1), = 4- 2
Substituting this in (2) 2 + 2 (4-2)= - 3
 2  8  4 2  3
3 2  8  3  0
(3  1)(  3)  0
1
   or 3
3

39
 1 14
When    ,  
3 3
When   3,   2
But  2   -18 is not satisfied by
1 14
  , 
3 3
 The roots are 3, 3, -2.
Example 8
Solve the equation x 4  2 x 3  4 x 2  22 x  40  0 given that its roots are
in A.P.
Solution
Let the roots be   3 ,    ,    ,   3
Sum of the roots is
  3            3  2
1
4  2 or   
2
Also (  3 ) (   ) (   ) (  3 )  40
( 2   2 ) ( 2   2 )  40

1 2  1 
     9  40
2

4  4 
1  4 1  36   640
2 2

144 2  40 2  639  0

40  368064

288
40  608

288
648 568
 
288' 288
= 648 - 568
288 , 288
9 - 71
4 , 36

40
 9 3
When  2   
4' 2
1 3
When      the roots are -5, -2, -1, 4.
2' 2
1 3
Where       the roots are 4, -1, -2, -5.
2' 2
These roots satisfy the given equation and hence, -5,-2, -1, 4 are the
only roots of the given equation.
Example 9
Solve the equation x 4  2 x 3  25x 2  26x  120  0 given that the product
of two of its roots is 8.
Solution
Let the roots be , , , ; given that
=8
x 4  2 x 3  25x 2  26x  120  ( x   )( x   )( x   )( x   )
 [x 2  (   ) x   ][ x 2  (   ) x  y ] ...(1)
Equating the co-efficient of x2,
 +  +  +  = -2 …(1)
Equation the co-efficient of x2,
++(+)(+)= -25 …(2)
Equating the co-efficient of x
- [(+)+(+)] = -26 …(3)
Equating the constant term,
=120 …(4)
120
From (4), y   15
8
From (3), 15(   )  8(   )  26
(1) x 8 : 8(   )  8(   )  16
Subtracting
7(   )  42
(   )  6
From (1),     8
From I,

41
 ( x 2  6 x  8)( x 2  8 x  15)  0
i.e. ( x  2)( x  4)( x  3)( x  5)  0
the roots are 2, 4, -3, -5.
Example 12
Solve the equation 15x4-8x3 – 14x2 + 8x -1 =0 given that the roots are in
H.P.
Solution
15x4-8x3-14x2+8x-1 = 0
If the roots of the equation are in H.P. then the roots of the equation
x4-8x3+14x2+8x-15=0 are in A.P.
Let the roots be -3, -, +, +3
Sum of the roots is 4 = 8
 =2
Product of the roots is
(2-2) (2-92) = -15
(4-2) (4-92) = -15
94 - 402 + 31 = 0
94-92-312 + 31 = 0
92 (2-1) -31 (2-1) = 0
(2-1) (92-31) = 0
31
β  1 or 
3
When =2, =1, roots are -1,1,3,5. When =2, = -1 roots are 5, 3, 1, -
1 Which are the same as the roots given by =2, = 1. These roots satisfy the
given equation. Hence these are only possible roots of the given equation and
31
hence β   is inadmissible.
3
SELF – ASSESSMENT – 5
1) Solve the value of k so that the roots of the equation
2 x 2  6 x 2  5 x  k  0 are in A.P
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

42
 3 2 1
Answer , ,10,
2 3 10
2. Solve the equation x3  x 2  16 x  20  0 given that the difference
between two ratio is 7
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Answer ( 2, -2, 5)
1.6 Imaginary and irrational roots
Theorem
In a polynomial equation with real co-efficient imaginary roots occur in
conjugate pairs.
Proof
Let f(x) = 0 be a polynomial equation with real co-efficient.
Let  + i where  and  are real be an imaginary root of the equation
f(x)=0. We will now prove that  - i is also a root of the equation.
  
Now x  α  iβ x  α - iβ  x  α  iβx  α  iβ
= (x-)2 + 2
which is a quadratic polynomial with real co-efficient.
Let us divide the polynomial f(x) by (x-)2 + 2. Let the quotient be 
(x) and the remainder be Ax + B.
Then f (x) = [(x-)2 + 2]  (x) + AX + B
By hypothesis  + i is a root of f(x) = 0
 f (+i) = 0
f (+ i) = 0 + A(+ i) + B = 0
Equating real and imaginary parts we get
A + B=0 … (1)
A = 0 … (2)
Since  + i is an imaginary root   0 and therefore from (2), A =0
Consequently from (1), B = 0
Hence the remainder =Ax +B =0
This means (x-)2 + 2 is a factor of f (x).
In other words,  + i and  - i are the roots of f (x)=0.

43
 Hence in a polynomial equation with real co-efficient imaginary occur
in conjugate pairs.
Example 2
Solve the equation x4 – 11x2+2x +12 = 0 given that 5  1 is a root.
Solution
In an equation with irrational roots occur in conjugate airs. Since
5  1 is a root.  5  1 is also a root. The real factor corresponding to these
roots is
( x  1  5 )(x  1  5 )  ( x  1)2  5
= ( x 2  2 x  4)
( x 2  2 x  4) x4 -11x 2 + 2x + 12 x2  2x  3
x4 +2x 3 - 4x2

- 2x3 -7x 2 + 2x
- 2x3 -4x 2 + 8x

- 3x2 - 6x + 12
- 3x2 - 6x + 12

 The other roots are given by

x2-2x-3= 0
(x-3) (x+1) =0
x=3, -1
 The roots of the equation are – 1 - 5 , - 1 + 5 , - 1, 3.
Example 3
Given that  2   7 is a root of the equation x4+2x2-16x+77=0 solve it
completely
Solution
 2   7  2  i 7
Since  2  i  7 is a root,  2  i 7 is also a root.
The real factor corresponding to these roots is
( x  2  7i )(x  2  7i )

44
  ( x  2) 2  7  x 2  4 x  11
( x 2  4 x  11) x4 +2x 2 - 16x + 77 x2  2x  3
x4 +4x 3 +11x2

- 4x3 -9x 2 - 16x

- 4x3 -16x 2 - 44x

7x2 +28x + 77
7x2 +28x + 77

 The other roots are given by x 2  4 x  7  0

4  16  28 4  3i
x   2i 3
2 2
The roots are  2  i 7 , 2  3i
Example 4
Solve the equation x 4  5 x 3  4 x 2  8 x  8  0 given that 1 5 is a root.
Solution
1 5 is a root. 1 5 is also a root.
Let the other roots be , .
Sum of the roots = 1  5  1  5      5
+= 3
Product of the roots = (1  5 )(1  5 )  8
 4  8
  2
 &  are the roots of x 2  x(   )    0
x 2  3x  2  0
( x  1)( x  2)  0
x  1,2

 roots of the given equation are 1  5, 1  5, 1, 2

45
Self – Assessment - 6

1. Solve the equation x 4  4 x3  8 x  35  0 given that 2  3i is roots

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

Answer : - 1,  5 , 3, -1
1.7 Transformation of equation
If 1, 2,….n are the roots of the equation f(x)=0, then forming the
equation whose roots are (1), (2),…. (n) is called transformation of the
equation.
The relation between a root of f(x)=0 and a root y of the required
equation is y=(x).
If x is eliminated between the equation f(x)=0 and y=(x), an equation
in y is obtained and this is the required equation whose roots are (1), (2),…
(n).
Example 1
If , ,  are the roots of the equation x3 + px2 +qx + r = 0 form the
α 2  βγ β 2  γα γ 2  αβ
equation whose roots are , ,
α β γ

Solution
, ,  are the roots of
X3 + px2 + qx + r =0
++ = -p …. (2)
+  +  = q
 = -1 … (3)
We have to form the equation whose roots are

α 2  βγ β 2  γα γ 2  αβ
, , .
α β γ

α 3  αβγ α 3  r
Let y = 2 – = 
α2 α2

46
 x3  r
(i.e) y =
x2
X3 - yx2 + r =0
But x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0
….(1)
Subtracting we get x2 (p+ y) + qx = 0
Since x  0, x (p+y) = - q
q
or x =
py
Substituting in the given equation (1) we get,
3 2
 q   q   q 
   p    q    r  0
py py py
r (p+y)3 – q2 (p+y)2 + pq2 (p+y) – q3 = 0
(i.e.) ry3 +y2 (3pr- q2) + y (3p2 r- q2p) + rp3 - q3 = 0 is the required equation.
Example 2
If , ,  are the roots of the equation x3+qx+r=0 find the equation
     
whose roots are  ,  ,  .
     
Solution
If , ,  are the roots of

x 3  qx  r  0

      0

      q
   r

  2  2
Let y   
  

(    )  2y
2  2  2
  
  / 

47
  3  2  3  2r
 
 r

 3  2r
i.e. y 
r
i.e. x 3  ry  2r  0

But x 3  qx  r  0

Subtracting
ry  qx  r  0

r ( y  1)
x 
q
Substituting in the given equation we get,

r 3 ( y  1) 3 qr( y  1)
 r 0
q3 q

r 3 ( y  1)3  q 3r ( y  1)  rq3  0

r 2 ( y 3  3 y 2  3 y  1)  q 3 ( y  1)  q 3  0

r 2 y 3  3r 2 y 2  y (3r 2  q 3 )  r 3  2q 3  0

Example 3

, ,  are roots of x 3  2 x 2  3 x  3  0 . First let us form the equation

2 2 2
whose roots are    13
(  1) 2 (   1) 2 (  1) 2
Solution
, ,  are the roots of x 3  2 x 2  3 x  3  0 . First let us form the
  
equation whose roots are , , .
 1  1  1
 x
Let 
 1 x 1
y
 yx  y  x or x 
1 y

Substituting this in the given equation we get,

48
 3 2
 y   y   y 
   2   3   3  0
1 y  1 y  1 y 
y 3  2 y 2 (1  y )  3 y (1  y ) 2  3(1  y 3 )  0

y e  2 y 2 (1  y )  3 y (1  2 y  y 2 )  3(1  3 y  3 y 2  y 3 )  0

y3  5 y 2  6 y  3  0

Let us now form the equation whose roots are

2 2 2
, ,
(1   ) 2 (1   ) 2 (1   ) 2

2
Let z   y2
(1   ) 2

Substitute z=y2 in (2)

zy  5 z  6 y  3  0

y ( z  6)  5 z  3

Squaring
y 2 ( z  6) 2  (5 z  3) 2

z ( z 2  12z  36)  25z 2  30z  9

z 3  13z 2  6 z  9  0

2 2 2
 Sum of the roots     13
(1   ) 2 (1   ) 2 (1   ) 2

Self – Assessment : 8
1. If  ,  ,  are the roots of the equation x3  qx  r  0 form the
equation whose roots are  2 ,  2 ,  2

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Ans: x3  2qx 2  q 2 x  r 2  0

49
UNIT QUESTIONS

2 2 1
1. Find the characteristic equation of the matrix A =  2 1 1  and then
 
 7 2 3
find A1
2. Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of the following matrices

 2 0 1 2 2 0
 3 2 1 2 1  2 2 0
(i)   (ii) (iii)
   
 2 3  2 2 3   0 0 1 

 1 1 2 
3. Verify Cayley – Hamilton Theorem for the matrix A =  2 1 3 
 
 3 2 3

x  2y  2  3
3x  y  2 z  1
4. Show that the equations : are consistent and solve them
2 x  2 y  3z  2
x  y  z  1

5. Solve the equation 4 x 2  24 x 2  23 x  18  0, given that the roots are in A.P.

6. Solve x 4  8 x3  14 x 2  18 x  15  0, given that sum of two roots is equal to

the sum of the other two.
7. Solve x 4  4 x 3  2 x 2  12 x  9  0 given it has two pairs of equal roots

8. Determine a and b so that the equation x 4  4 x 3  ax 2  4 x  b  0 has two

pair of equal roots, find the roots.
9. If  is a root of the equation , x3  x 2  2 x  1  0 show that  2  2 is also a
roots.
10. If  ,  ,  ,  are the roots of x 4  7 x3  8 x 2  5 x  10  0 , find the value of
(  2  2 ) (  2  2) ( 2  2) ( 2  2)

50
ANSWERS:

1  4 3 
 2  5  2 =0, A1 =
2  2 1
1

1 1
2. i)   1,5; x1  K1   ; X 2  K 2  
 1 1
ii)   3,3,5; x1  [3K 2  2 K1 ; k1k2 ]; X 2  K [1, 2, 1]

1
(iii) 1, 2, 2 ; K[0,0,1]; K K1[1, , 0]
2
3. ---
4. -1, 4, 4
1 9
5.  , 2,
2 2
6. 5, -1, 3, 1
7. ---

8. a = 2, b = 1, 1  2 ; 1  3

9. x3  x 2  2 x  1  0
10. Product of the roots – 166

Ref. Text books

1. P.R. Vittal – Allied Mathematics, Margham Publication, Chennai
2. A. Singaravelu – Allied Mathematics, Meenakshi Traders, Chennai
3. T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai, - Allied Mathematics, S.Viswanathan & Co.
Chennai.

51
 NOTES
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52
 UNIT – II
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Successive Differentiation
2.2.1 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION - I
2.3 n-th Derivative
2.3.1 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIN – II
2.4 LEIBNITZ THEOREM
2.4.1 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION - III
2.5 Euler’s Theorem on homogeneous functions
2.5.1 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION - IV
2.6 Curvature and Radius of Curvature
2.6.1 Cartesian Formula for Radius of curvature
2.6.2 Parametric formula for Radius of Curvature
2.6.3 SELF ASSESSMENT – V
2.7 UNIT QUESTION
ANSWERS

53
 UNIT – II
2.0 Introduction
In this chapter, we have to deal with successive differentiation and
understanding the definition and applied in to the problem. It will lead up to
the nth derivative.
2.1 Objective
To develop the skill in the successive differentiation
To create new idea to application oriented sum.
To understanding the way of approach for the nth derivative
2.2 Successive Differentiation
dy
If y is a function of x, its derivative will be some other function of x
dx
and the differentiation of this function with respect to x is called second
d2y
derivative and is denoted by
dx 2
d  dy  d 2 y
i.e.  
dx  dx  dx 2
d3y
Similarly the third derivative is denoted by
dx 3
d  d2y  d3y
i.e.  
dx  dx 2  dx3
Thus if we differentiate y twice with respect to x, we get the second derivative.
If y is differentiated thrice with respect to x we get the third derivative.
Example 1
ax+b d2 y
If y = find
cx+d dx 2
Solution:
5 1 5 1 13 1
(i.e.) y  .  . 
32 2 x  1 16 2 x  1 32 2 x  3
5 (1) n ( n !2 n ) 5 ( 1) n ( n!2 n ) 13 ( 1) n ( n!2 n )
 yn   
32 (2 x  1) n 1 16 (2 x  1) n 1 32 (2 x  3) n 1
5 1 5 1 13 1
= (-1) n n!2n [ . n 1
 . n 1
 . ]
32 (2 x  1) 16 (2 x  1) 32 (2 x  3) n 1

54
 d 2 y 0  (ad  bc)(2)(cx  d )c

dx 2 (cx  d ) 4
acx  ad  acx  bc
=
(cx  d ) 2
ad  bc
=
(cx  d ) 2
d 2 y 0  (ad  bc)(2)(cx  d )c

dx 2 (cx  d ) 4
2c( ad  bc)
=
(cx  d )3
Example 2
If x = a(Cost + tSint)
d2y
y =a(Sint-tCost) find
dx 2
Solution
y =a(Sint-tCost)
dx
 a ( S int  tCost  S int)
dt
= atSint
x = a(Cost + tSint)
dx
 a ( S int  tCost  S int)
dt
= atcost
dy dy dt atS int
 .   tan t
dx dt dx atCost
d2y d dy d dy dt
2
 ( ) ( )
dx dx dx dt dx dx
d dt
= (tan t ).
dt dx
1
= sec2t.
at cos t

55
 sec3 t
=
at
Example 3
d2y
If y = acos5x+bsin5x show that  25 y  0
dx 2
Solution
y = acos5x+bsin5x
Differentiating with respect to x
dy
 5a sin 5 x  5b cos 5 x
dx
d2y
 25a cos 5 x  25b sin 5 x
dx 2
= -25(acos5x+bsin5x)
= - 25y
d2y
  25 y  0
dx 2
Example 5

If y = ( x  1  x 2 ) m show that (1+x2)y2+xy1-m2y=0

Solution

y = ( x  1  x 2 )m
Differentiating with respect to x
dy 2x
 m( x  1  x 2 ) m 1.[1  ]
dx 2 1  x2
m( x  1  x 2 ) m 1[ 1  x 2  x]
=
1  x2
m( x  1  x 2 ) m
=
1  x2
my
=
1  x2
Cross multiplying and squaring we get,

56
 dy 2
(1  x 2 )( )  m2 y 2
dx
d2y dy
(1  x 2 ) 2  x( )  m 2 y  0
dx dx
 (1  x ) y2  xy1  m 2 y  0
2

dy
Canceling, 2 we get,
dx
d2y dy
(1  x 2 ) 2
 x( )  m 2 y  0
dx dx
 (1  x ) y2  xy1  m 2 y  0
2

Example 5
If y = (tan-1x)2 show that (1+x2)y2+2x(1+x2)y1=2
Solution
y = (tan-1x)2
Differentiating with respect to x,
2 tan 1 x
y1 
1  x2
(1+x2)y1 = 2tan-1x
2
Again differentiating (1+x2)y2+y12x =
1  x2
= (1+x2)2y2+2x(1+x2) y1=2
Example 6
d2y
If y = sinmx prove that sin2x = (m2cos2x-m)y
dx 2
Solution
y = sinmx
Differentiating with respect to x
dy
 m sin m1 x cos x
dx
d2y
2
 m(m  1)sin m2 x cos 2 x  m sin m x
dx
Multiplying both sides by sin2x,

57
 d2y
 sin 2 x
dx 2
= m(m-1)sinmxcos2x-msinmx.sin2x
= m(m-1)ycos2x-mysin2x
= m2ycos2x-mycos2x-mysin2x
= m2ycos2x-my(cos2x+sin2x)
d2y
 sin x 2  m 2 y cos 2 x  my
2

dx
= (mcos2x-m)y
2.2.1 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION - I
d2y
1. Find
dx 2
x 1
y
x 1
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
4
Ans:
( x  1)3

2. If xy  x 2  1 show that x 2 y  2 xy  2 y  0
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
2.3 n-th Derivative

y yx

eax aneax
n
1 b
(a 2  b 2 ) 2 eax cos(bx  c  n tan 1 )
( ax  b) 2 a

1 (1)n (n  1)!a n
( ax  b) 2 (ax  b)n  2

58
 (1)n 1 (n  1)!a n
log(ax+b) (ax  b) n
n
ansin(ax+b+ )
sin(ax+b) 2
n
ancosx(ax+b+ )
coa(ax+b) 2
n
b
(a 2  b 2 ) 2 e ax sin(bx  c  n tan 1 )
eaxsin(bx+c) a
n
b
(a 2  b 2 ) 2 eax cos(bx  c  n tan 1 )
eaxcos(bx+c) a

Example 1
2x 1
Find the nth derivative of
(2 x  1)(2 x  3)
Solution
2x 1
Let y 
(2 x  1)(2 x  3)
2x 1 A B
Let = 
(2 x  1)(2 x  3) (2 x  1) (2 x  3)
2x+1=A(2x+3)+B(2x-1)
1 1
Put x   2  A(4) or A =
2 2
3 1
Put x  2  B(4) or B =
2 2
1/ 2 1/ 2
y 
(2 x  1) (2 x  3)
1 1
(1) n 2n n ! (1) n 2n n !
 yn = 2  2
(2 x  1) n 1 (2 x  3) n
1 1
= (-1) n 2n 1 n ![ n 1
 ]
(2 x  1) (2 x  3) n 1

59
Example 2
x2  1
Find the nth derivative of
(2 x  1)(2 x  1)(2 x  3)
Solution
x2  1 A B C
let y    
(2 x  1)(2 x  1)(2 x  3) 2 x  1 2 x  1 2 x  3
x2+1 = A(2x+1)(2x+3)+B(2x-1)(2x+3)+C(2x-1)(2x+1)
1 5 5
put x = ;  A(2)(4)  A=
2 4 32
1 5 -5
put x = - ;  B(2)(2)  B =
2 4 16
-3 13 13
put x = ;  C (4)(2)  C =
2 4 32
5 1 5 1 13 1
(i.e.) y  .  . 
32 2 x  1 16 2 x  1 32 2 x  3
5 (1) n ( n !2 n ) 5 ( 1) n ( n!2 n ) 13 ( 1) n ( n!2 n )
 yn   
32 (2 x  1) n 1 16 (2 x  1) n 1 32 (2 x  3) n 1
5 1 5 1 13 1
= (-1) n n!2n [ . n 1
 . n 1
 . ]
32 (2 x  1) 16 (2 x  1) 32 (2 x  3) n 1
Example 3
x a
If tan 1 ( ) show that yn = (-1)n-1(n-1)!a-n sinn  sinn  where   tan 1 ( )
a x
Solution
x
let y = tan -1 ( )
a
2
a
y1  2
x  a2
1 1 1
= [  ]
2i x  ai x  ai
1 1 1
y n  (1) n 1 (n  1)![  ]
2i ( x  ai ) ( x  ai ) n
n

Put x = rcos  ; a = rsin 

60
 1
 yn  (1) n 1 (n  1)![r  n (cos   i sin  )  n  r  n (cos   i sin  )  n ]
2i
1
= (1) n 1 (n  1)!r  n 2i sin n
2i
= (1) n 1 (n  1)!a  n sin n  sin n ( a = rsin )
Example 4
Find the nth derivative of sin3xcos2x
Solution
y = sin3xcos2x
(3sin x  sin 3 x) 1  cos 2 x
= [ ]
4 2
1
= [3sin x  sin 3 x  3cos 2 x sin x  sin 3 x cos 2 x]
8
1 3 1
= [3sin x  sin 3 x  (sin 3 x  sin x)  (sin 5 x  sin x)]
8 2 2
1
= [6sin x  2sin 3 x  3sin 3 x  3sin x  sin 5 x  sin x]
16
1
= [2sin x  sin 3 x  sin 5 x]
16
1 n n n
y n  [2sin( x  )  3n.sin(3 x  )  5n sin(5 x  )]
16 2 2 2

Example 5
Find the nth derivative of sin5xcos4x
Solution
Let y = sin5xcos4x let z = cosx+isinx
1 1
Consider (z- )5 (z+ ) 4
z z

61
 1 1 1 1
(z- )5 (z+ ) 4 = (z 2 - 2 ) 4 (z- )
z z z z
4 1 1
= (z8  4z 4  6  4
 8 )(z- )
z z z
4 1 6 4 1
= z9  4 z 5  6 z  3  7  z 7  4 z 3   5  9
z z z z z
1 1 1 1 1
= (z9  9 )  (z 7  7 )  4(z 5  5 )  4(z 3  3 )  6(z  )
z z z z z
(2isinx)5(2cosx)4 = 2isin9x-2isin7x-4(2isin5x)+4(2isin3x)+6(2isinx)
Canceling 2isinx,
Let y = sin5xcos4x
1
= [sin 9 x  sin 7 x  4sin 5 x  4sin 3 x  6sin x]
28
1 n n n
y n  8 [9n sin(9 x  )  7 n sin(7 x  )  4.5n sin(5 x  )
2 2 2 2
n n
+4.3n sin(3 x  )  6sin( x  )]
2 2
2.3.1 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIN – II
1. If y  sin 1 x Prove that (1  x2 ) y2  xy1  0
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
2.4 LEIBNITZ THEOREM
If u and v are functions of x and n is a positive integer then
Dn(uv) = unv+nc1un-1v1+ nc2un-2v2+…+ ncrun-rvr+…+uvn
Where Dn(uv) standards for the nth derivative of uv.
Proof:
Let us prove this result by induction.
When n = 1, D(uv) = u1v+uv1 which is the product rule for the differentiating of
the product function uv. Therefore the result in true for n = 1.
Let us now assume the result to be true for n = m where m is a fixed integer.
(i.e.) Dm(uv) = umv+mc1um-1v1+ mc2um-2v2+…+ mcrum-rvr+…+uvm …..(1)
let us prove that the result in true for n = m+1
i.e. to prove,

62
Dm+1(uv) = um+1v+ m+1C1umv1+ m+1
C2um-1v2+…+ m+1
Crum-r+1vr+…+uvm+1
To prove this let us differentiate (1) with respect to x.
Dm+1(uv) = (um+1v+umv1)+mc1(umv1+um-1v2)+mc2(um-1v2+um-2v3)+….+
m
Cr(um-r+1vr+um-rvr+1)+….+ (u1vm+uvm+1) …..(2)
= um+1v+(mC0+mC1)umv1+(mC1+mC2)um-1v2+(mC2+mC3)um-3v2+….+
(mCr-1+mCr)um-r+1vr+…+uvm+1
= um+1v+m+1C1umv1+ m+2 C1um-1v2+…+ m+1 Crum-r+1vr+…+uvm+1
m
( C r-1 + m C r = m+1 C r )
Which is (2). Therefore the result is true for n = m+1
Since the result is true for n=1, it is true for n=2, n=3 and so on. Therefore the
result is true for all positive integer values of n.
Example 1
Find the nth derivative of x2e5x
Solution
Let us choose u = e5x and v = x2
In 1 1 1 1
 I1     ... 
n! 2 3 4 n
I 1 1 1 1
 n  I1     ... 
n! 2 3 4 n
1 1 1 1
Then I n  n ![I1     ...  ]
2 3 4 n
d
But I1  ( x log x)  log x  1
dx
1 1 1
 I n  n ![log x  1    ...  ]
2 3 n
= 5ne5xx2+nc15n-15x.2x+nc25n-2e5x.2
n(n  1)
 e5 x .5n  2 [52 x 2  n  5  2 x  .2]
2
= e5x.5n-2[25x2+10nx+n(n-1)]
Example 2
Find the nth derivative of ex logx
Solution
Let us choose u = logx and v = ex
dny
 un v  nc1un 1v1  nc2un 2v2  ....  uvn
dx n

63
 (1) n 1 (n  1)!
If u = ex then un = ex If v = logx then vn 
xn
1 1 2! (1) n 1 ( n  1)!
 yn  e x .log x  nc1e x .  nc2e x .( 2 )  nc3e x . 3  ...  e x
x x x xn
1 1 2! (1) n 1 ( n  1)!
 e x [log x  nc1.  nc2 2  nc3 . 3  ...  ]
x x x xn
Example 3
dn n 1 1 1
If I n  n
[ x log x] prove that I n  n ![log x  1    ...  ]
dx 2 3 n
Solution
dn n
In  ( x log x)
dx n
d n 1 d
= n 1 . ( x n log x)
dx dx
n 1
d 1
= n 1 [ x n .  n.x n 1 log x]
dx x
n 1
d d n 1
= n 1 ( x n 1 )  n n 1 ( x n 1 log x)
dx dx
= (n-1)!+nIn-1
In I n-1 1
Dividing by n!. - =
n ! (n  1)! n
Changing n into n-1, we get
I n-1 I n-2 1
- =
(n  1)! ( n  2)! n-1
I n-2 I n-3 1
similarly, - =
(n  2)! ( n  3)! n-2
.
.
I2 I 1
 1
2! 1! 2
Adding all these we get,

64
In 1 1 1 1
 I1     ... 
n! 2 3 4 n
I 1 1 1 1
 n  I1     ... 
n! 2 3 4 n
1 1 1 1
I n  n ![I1     ...  ]
2 3 4 n
d
But I1  ( x log x)  log x  1
dx
1 1 1
 I n  n ![log x  1    ...  ]
2 3 n
Example 4
y x
If cos-1( ) = nlog( ), prove that x2yn+2+(2n+1)xyn+1+2n2yn=0
n b
Solution
y
cos-1( )=n(logx-logn)
n
Differentiating with respect to x,
1 1 dy n
 . 
y 2 b dx x
1
b2
1
dy n
 
b  y dx x
2 2

Squaring and cross multiplying

dy 2
x2 ( )  n 2 (b 2  a 2 )
dx
Differentiating with respect to x,
dy d 2 y dy dy
x 2 (2 2
)  ( ) 2 .2 x  n 2 (2 y )
dx dx dx dx
dy 2
Canceling 2 ,x y2+xy1+ny2=0
dx
Applying leibnitz theorem to differentiate this further n times,
i.e.,[yn+2x2+nC1yn+1.2x+ nC2yn.2]+[yn+1.x+ n C1yn.1]+n2yn=0
i.e., x2yn+2+2nxyn+1+n2yn-nyn+xyn+1+nyn+n2yn=0
i.e., x2yn+2+(2n+1)xyn+1+2n2yn=0

65
Example 5
1 1

If y m  y m
 2 x prove that (x2+1)yn+2+(2n+1)xyn+1+(n2-m2)yn=0
Solution
1 1

y y
m m
 2x
Differentiating with respect to x,
1 1
1 m 1 1  1
y y1  y m y1  2
m m
1 1
y 
i.e., 1 ( y m  y m )  2
my
Squaring and cross multiplying
1 1

y12 ( y m  y )  4m 2 y 2
m 2

1 1

y12 [( y m  y )  4]m 2 y 2
m 2

Y12(4x2-4) = 4m2y2
(x2-1)y12 = m2y2
Differentiating with respect to x,
(x2-1)2y1y2+y12(2x)=m2.2yy1
Canceling 2y1,
(x2-1)y2+xy1-m2y=0
Applying Leibnitz theorem to differentiate this further n times, we get
[( x2  1) y2 ]n  [ xy1 ]n  [m2 y]n  0
Yn+2(x2-1)+nc1yn+1.2x+nc2yn.2+(yn+1.x+nc1yn.1)-m2yn=0
(x2-1)yn+2+2nxyn+1+n2yn-nyn+xyn+1+nyn-m2yn=0
i.e., (x2+1)yn+2+(2n+1)xyn+1+(n2-m2)yn=0
2.4.1 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION - III
 ax
1. If y  (1  x)2e P.T . (1  x) yn 1  (n  2 x) yn  n yn 1  0
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

66
2.5 Euler’s Theorem on homogeneous functions
If ‘f’ is a homogeneous function of degree ‘n’ in x and y then
f f
x y  nf
x y
Proof
Since f is a homogeneous function of degree ‘n’ in x and y we can write
‘f’ as
y
f  xn F ( ) ….(1)
x
Differentiating partially w.r.t x,
f y y y
 x n F 1 ( )( 2 )  nxn 1F ( )
x x x x
….(2)
f y y
x   x n 1F 1 ( )  nxn F ( )
x x x
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t y
f y 1
 x n F ( )( )
y x x
f y
y.  yxn 1F 1 ( ) .....(3)
y x
Adding (2) and (3)
f f y
x +y =nxnF( )
x y x
f f
i.e., x +y =nf
x y
Note: The generalized form of Euler’s theorem for homogeneous function of
degree ‘n’ in k variables x1,x2,…,xk is
f f f f
x1  x2  x3  ....  xk  nf
x1 x2 x3 xk
Example 1
u u u
If u = (x-y)(y-z)(z-x) show that   0
x y z
Solution
u = (x-y)(y-z)(z-x)

67
 u
=(y-z)(z-x)-(x-y)(y-z)
x
u
=(z-x)(x-y)-(z-x)(y-z)
y
u
=(x-y)(y-z)-(x-y)(z-x)
z
u u u
Adding   0
x y z
Example 2
2 z 2 z
If z = ex(x cosy – y siny), show that  0
x 2 y 2
Solution
z = ex(x cosy – y siny)
z x
=e (x cosy – y siny)+ex.cosy
x
2z
= ex(x cosy – y siny)+2ex cosy
x 2
= ex(x cosy – y siny +2 cosy) ….(1)
z
= ex(-x siny –y cosy –siny)
y
2z x
=e (-x cosy + y siny –cosy – cosy)
y 2
= ex(-x cosy -2 cosy + y siny)
Adding (1) and (2)
2 z 2 z
 0
x 2 y 2
Example 3
1 2 f 2 f 2 f
If show that 2  2  2  0
x2  y 2  z 2 x y z

68
Solution
1

f  (x  y  z )
2 2 2 2

f
3
1 
  ( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2 .2 x
x 2
3

 - x( x2  y 2  z 2 ) 2

2 f
5 3
3  
 x. ( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2 .2 x  ( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2
x 2
2
5 3
 
 3x 2 ( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2
 ( x2  y2  z 2 ) 2

2 f
5 3
 
Similarly  3y2 ( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2  ( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2
y 2

2 f
5 3
 
 3z2 ( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2  ( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2
z 2

2 f 2 f 2 f
5 3
 
Adding  2  2 = 3(x2  y 2  z 2 )( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2  3( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2
x 2
y z
3 3
 
= 3( x  y  z )2 2 2 2
 3( x  y  z )
2 2 2 2

=0
Example 4
2 f 2 f 2 f 2
If f = x 2  y 2  z 2 prove that   =
x 2 y 2 z 2 f
Solution
1
f  ( x2  y 2  z 2 ) 2
f 1 2
1

 ( x  y 2  z 2 ) 2 .2 x
x 2
1

 x(x  y  z )
2 2 2 2

 f2 3 1
1  
  x ( x 2
 y 2
 z 2
) 2
.2 x  ( x 2
 y 2
 z 2
) 2
x 2 2
2 f
3 1
 
 - x 2
( x 2
 y 2
 z 2
) 2
 ( x 2
 y 2
 z 2
) 2
x 2

2 f
3 1
 
Similarly  - y2 ( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2
 ( x2  y 2  z 2 ) 2
y 2

69
 2 f
3 1
 
 - z2 ( x2  y 2  z 2 ) 2
 ( x2  y 2  z 2 ) 2
z 2
2 f 2 f 2 f
3 1
 
Adding  2  2 = - (x 2  y 2  z 2 )( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2  3( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2
x 2
y z
1 1
 
=  ( x2  y2  z 2 ) 2
 3( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 2

1
 2
= 2 (x2  y2  z 2 ) 2 =
f
Example 5
u u u
If u = x2(y-z) + y2(z-x) +z2(x-y) show that   0
x y z
Solution
u = x2(y-z) + y2(z-x) +z2(x-y)
u
= 2x(y-z) – y2 +z2
x
u
= x2 –z2 +2y(z-x)
y
u
= 2x(x-y) –x2 +y2
z
u u u
Adding   = 2[x(y-z)+y(z-x)+z(x-y)]=0
x y z
Example 6
2 z 2  z
2
If z = tan(y+ax) + (y-ax)3/2, show that  a
x 2 y 2
Solution
z = tan(y+ax) + (y-ax)3/2
z
1
3
 sec2 ( y  ax).a  ( y  ax) 2 (a)
x 2
2 z
1
3 
 2 sec2 ( y  ax) tan( y  ax).a 2  ( y  ax) 2 a 2
x 2
4
1
3 
 a [2 sec ( y  ax) tan( y  ax)  ( y  ax) 2
2 2
.....(1)]
4

70
 z
1
3
 sec2 ( y  ax).a  ( y  ax) 2
y 2

2z
1
3 
 2 sec2 ( y  ax) tan( y  ax)  ( y  ax) 2 .....(2)
y 2
4
2 z 2  z
2
From (1) and (2), 2  a
x y 2
Example 7
u u u
If u = log(tanx + tany + tanz) prove that sin 2 x  sin 2 y  sin 2 z 2
x y z
Solution
u = log(tanx + tany + tanz)
u 1
 .sec2 x
x tan x  tan y  tan z
u sin 2 x.sec2 x
sin 2 x 
x tan x  tan y  tan z
u 2 tan x
sin 2 x 
x tan x  tan y  tan z
u 2 tan y
Similarly, sin 2 y 
y tan x  tan y  tan z
u 2 tan z
sin 2 z 
z tan x  tan y  tan z
u u u 2(tan x  tan y  tan z )
Adding sin 2 x  sin 2 y  sin 2 z = =2
x y z tan x  tan y  tan z
Example 8
Verify Euler’s theorem for the following functions
y 1
(i) (ii) (iii) u = x3+y3+3x2y-3xy2
x x y
2 2

Solution
y
(i) let f =
x
This is a homogeneous function of degree 0.
f f
We have to verify that x +y =0
x y

71
 f y f y
 2 x 
x x x x
f 1 f y
 y 
y x y x
f f
Adding x +y =0
x y
Therefore Euler’s theorem is verified.
1
(ii) let f = = (x2+y2)-1/2
x y
2 2

This is a homogeneous function of degree -1.

f f
We have to verify that x +y = -f.
x y

f
3
1 
  ( x 2  y 2 ) 2 .2 x
x 2
f
3

 x  x (x  y ) 2
2 2 2

x
f
3
1 
  ( x 2  y 2 ) 2 .2 y
y 2
f
3

y   y 2 ( x2  y 2 ) 2
y
f f
3

Adding, x  y  ( x 2  y 2 )( x 2  y 2 ) 2
x y
1

 - ( x2  y 2 ) 2
f
Therefore Euler’s theorem is verified.
(iii) u = x3+y3+3x2y-3xy2
u
=3x2+6xy+3y2
x
u
=3y2+3x2+6xy
y
u u
x y  x(3x 2  6 xy  3 y 2 )  y (3 y 2  3x 2  6 xy)
x y
= 3x3+6x2y+3xy2+3y3+6xy2+3x2

72
 = 3x3+3y3+9x2y+9xy2
= 3(x3+y3+3x2y+3xy2)
= 3u
Therefore Euler’s theorem is verified.
Example 9
Verify Euler’s theorem in the following cases:
x2  y2 y x y
(i) u = sin (ii) u = x3 cos( ) (iii) u =
xy x x y
Solution
x2  y2
(i) Let u = sin
xy

-1 x2  y2
Sin u = =f
xy
This is a homogeneous function of degree 0.
f f
We have to verify that x +y =0.
x y
Differentiating with respect to x,
f xy.2 x  ( x 2  y 2 ). y x 2 y  y y ( x 2  y 2 )
  2 2 
dx ( xy) 2 x y x2 y 2
( x2  y 2 )

x2 y
f x 2  y 2
x 
dx x y
f y 2  x2
Similarly y 
dy xy
f f
Therefore x +y =0
x y
Therefore Euler’s theorem is verified.
y
(ii) u = x3 cos( )
x

73
 u y y y
 3 x 2 cos( )  x 3 sin( ).( 2 )
x x x x
u y y
x  3 x 3 cos( )  x 2 y sin( ) ....(1)
x x x
u y 1
  x 3 sin( ).
y x x
u y
y   x 2 y sin( ) ....(2)
y x
Adding (1) and (2)
u u y
x +y =3 x3 cos( ) =3u.
x y x
Therefore Euler’s theorem is verified.
2.5.1 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION – 5
x y u u
1. u= Verify Euler’s theorem x +y =0
x y x y
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
x 2 f 2 f
2. If f  a tan 1   verify that 
 y xy yx
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

74
2.6 Curvature and Radius of Curvature
The direction of the curve at a given point on the curve is determined by
the tangent at that point. The tangent line rotates as the point moves along the
curve. The curvature of the curve at a given point is defined as the rate of
change of bending of the curve at the point.
2.6.1 Cartesian Formula for Radius of curvature
Let P be any point on the curve y = f(x) and PT be the tangent making
dy
an angle  with x-axis. Then we know that  tan 
dx
Differentiating with respect to x,
y

x
d2y d
2
 sec 2 
dx dx
d  ds
= sec 2 
ds dx
ds sec  ds
2
  2 .
d d y dx
dx 2
(1+tan 2 Ψ)secΨ dx
= [Since  cos Ψ]
d2 y ds
dx 2
(1+tan 2 Ψ) 1+tan 2Ψ
=
d2 y
dx 2

75
 dy 2 3 2
3 [1+( ) ]
(1+tan Ψ)2 2
dx
= =
d2 y d2 y
dx 2 dx 2
3
(1+y12 ) 2
dy d2 y
i.e.,  = Where y1  and y2  2
y2 dx dx
Note: This formula does not hold good where the tangent at the point(x,y) is
dy
parallel to y axis. In that case is not defined. Since the value of  is
dx
independent of the choice of axis of coordinates, in this case we take the
formula for  as
dy 2 3 2
[1+( ) ]
= dx
d2 y
dx 2
2.6.2 Parametric formula for Radius of Curvature
Let the parametric equations of the curve be x = f(t) and y = (t).
dy
dy y1
Then = dt  1
dx dx x
dt
d 2 y d dy
Also  ( )
dx 2 dx dx
d y1
= ( )
dx x1
d y1 dt
= ( )
dt x1 dx
x1 y11  y1 x11 1
= 2 . 1
x1 x
x y y x
1 11 1 11
= 3
x1
3 2 3
(1+y12 ) 2
y1 x1
3
=  [1  1 2 ] . 1 11 1 11
2
y2 x x y y x
3
(x  y )
12 12 2
=
x1 y11  y1 x11

76
Example 1
3a
Find the radius of curvature at x = y = to the curve x3+y3 = 3axy.
2
Solution
x3+y3 = 3axy …(1)
Differentiating with respect to x
dy dy
3x2+3y2 dx = 3a( x  y )
dx
dy 2
( y  ax)  ay  x 2
dx
dy ay  x 2
 ...(2)
dx y 2  ax
3a 2 9a 2

dy 3a 3a 2 4  1
( , ) 2
dx 2 2 9a 3a 2

4 2
Also
dy dy
( y 2  ax)(a  2 x)  (ay  x 2 )(2 y  a)
d2y dx dx

dx2 ( y  ax)
2 2

9a 2 3a 2 3a 2 9a 2
2 
( )(a  3a )  (  )(3a  a )
d y 3a 3a 4 2 2 4
( , )
dx2 2 2 9a 2 3a 2 2
(  )
4 2
(-4a - 4a) 4 32
 2
 8a  2  
3a 3a 3a
( )
4
2 32 3
(1  y1 ) (1  1) 2 6 2a 3 2a
  3a   
y2  32 32 16
3 2a
 
16

77
Example 2
Find the radius of curvature of the curve xy2=a3-x3 at the point (a,0).
Solution
The equation of the curve is xy2 = a3-x3.
Differentiating with respect to x,
dy 2
2xy +y = -3x2
dx
dy
2xy = -y2 -3x2
dx
dy  y 2  3x 2

dx 2 xy
dy
(a,0)  
dx
dx  2 xy
let us consider  2
dy y  3x 2
dx
(a,0)  0
dy
dy dx
2 ( y 2  3x 2 )(2 x  2 y )  2 xy(2 y  6 x )
d x dx dy

dy 2
( y  3x )
2 2 2

d 2x 3a 2 (2a  0)  0 2a 2
2
( a ,0)   2 2
 2 
dy (3a ) 3a 3a
dx 2 3 2
[1  ( ) ] 3
dy (1  0) 2 3a
  
2
d x  2 2
2
dy 3a
3a
 
2
Example 3
Prove that the radius of a curvature at the point (acos3θ, asin3 θ) on the curve
x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3 is 3asin θcos θ
Solution
The parametric equations of the curve are
x = acos3 θ, y = asin3 θ
dx dy
=-3acos2 θsin θ; =3asin2 θ cos θ
d d

78
 dy 3a sin 2  cos
   tan 
dx 3a cos2  sin
d2y d  sec2  1
  sec2
  
dx 2
dx  3a cos  sin 3a cos  sin
2 4

2 32
(1  y1 ) 3
  (1  tan 2  ) 2 .3a cos4  sin
y2
 sec3  .3a cos4  sin  3a sin cos
Example 4
a 2 (a  x) a
Show that the radius of the curvature at(a,0) on the curve y2 = is
x 2
Solution
a 2 (a  x)
y2 =
x
Differentiating with respect to x,
dy x(a )  a 2 (a  x)1  a 2 x  a 3  a 2 x a3
2y    
dx x2 x2 x2
dy a3

dx 2 yx2
dy
( )( a ,0)  
dx
dx 2 yx2 dy
Consider  3 ; ( )( a ,0)  0
dy a dx

d 2x 2 dx
2
  3 [ x 2  2 xy ]
dy a dy
d 2x 2 2
( )
2 ( a,0)
  3 (a 2  0)  
dy a a
dx 2 3 2
[1  ( ) ] 3
dy (1  0) 2 a
  
2
d x 2 2
2
dy a
a
 
2

79
Example 5
Find the radius of the curvature at the point ‘θ’ on the curve x = a(cos θ+ θsin
θ),y = a(sin θ- θcos θ).
Solution
x = a(cos θ+ θsin θ)
dx
= a(-sin θ+sin θ+ θcos θ) = a θcos θ
d
y = a(sin θ- θcos θ)
dy
= a(cos θ-cos θ+ θsin θ)=a θsin θ
d
dy dy d a sin
   tan 
dx d dx a cos
d2y d sec2  1
 sec2
  
dx 2
dx a cos a cos3 
2 32
(1  y1 ) 3
  (1  tan 2  ) 2 .a cos3   sec3  .a cos3 
y2
 a
2.6.4 SELF ASSESSMENT – VI
 x2  y 2  u u 1
1. If U  tan 1   show that x  y  sin 2u
 x y  x y 2
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
2.7 UNIT QUESTIONS
1. Find the nth derivative of Cos 4 x
2. Find the nth derivative of x 2 sin 5 x
y  2u  2u
3. If u  sin 1 s.t. 
x xy xy
 2u
4. u  x 2  y 2  z 2  3xuz , find
x 2
 x4  y 4  u u
5. if u  log   show that x  y 3
 x y  x y

80
Ans:
1  n  n  n 
1. yn  4.2n cos  2 x    4 cos  4 x  
8  2   2 
2. yn  5n2
 n    
2 
  25 x sin  5 x 

 
   10nx sin 5 x  n  2   n(n  1) sin(5 x  n  2)
2 
 2 2
3 proof
4. 6x
5. 3

Ref. Text books

1. P.R. Vittal – Allied Mathematics, Margham Publication, Chennai
2. A. Singaravelu – Allied Mathematics, Meenakshi Traders, Chennai
3. T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai, - Allied Mathematics, S.Viswanathan & Co.
Chennai.

81
 NOTES
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82
 UNIT – III
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Integration by Parts
3.2.1 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION - I
3.3 Definite Integral
3.3.1 Definition of Definite Integral
3.3.2 Properties of Definite Integral
3.3.3 Self Assessment Question – I
3.4 Bernoulli’s Formula
3.4.1 Reduction Formula
3.4.1 Self Assessment Question – II
3.5 Particular Integral
3.5.1 Self Assessment Question – III
3.6 UNIT QUESTION
ANSWERS

83
 UNIT – III
3.0 Introduction
In this chapter, we have to deal with Integration for Higher grade level
and understanding the formulae of the integration, Leibnitz Formulae and
applied in to the problem. Student study for the particular integrals and all the
types of the integration.
3.1 Objectives
To develop the skill in the Integration
To create new idea to application oriented sum in the particular
integration.
To understanding the way of approach for the integration in
applied sciences.
3.2 Integration by Parts
d dv du
If u and v are functions of x we know that (uv) = u v
dx dx dx
Integrating both sides with respect to x, we get
d du du
 dx (uv) dx   u dx dx   v dx dx
i.e.  d(uv)   u dv   v du

uv =  u dv   v du

  u dv  uv   v du

This is called the by parts rule.

Note: By – parts is applied when the integral is a product of two functions. The
evaluation of this integral depends upon the proper choice of u and v. u is
chosen such that  v du is easily integrated.
Example 1
Integrate the following with respect to x.
(i) x ex (ii) xn log x (iii) x sin 2x (iv) x sin2 x.
Solution
(i)  x ex dx Take u = x and dv = ex dx. Then du= dx; V=ex
  x ex dx = uv -  v du
= x ex -  ex dx
= x ex –ex + c

84
 = ex (x-1) + c
(ii)  xn log x dx Take u = log x and dv = xn dx
1 x n 1
du = dx; v 
x n 1
  xn log x dx = uv -  v du
x n 1 x n 1 1
= log x  dx
n 1 n 1 x
x n 1 1
n 1 
= logx  x n dx
n 1
x n 1 x n 1
= logx  c
n 1 (n  1)2
x n 1  1 
=  log x  c
n 1  n 1
(iii)  x sin 2x dx = Take u = x; dv = sin 2x dx
 cos 2x
du = dx ; v=
x
  x sin 2x dx = uv -  v du
  cos2x   cos2x
=x   dx
 2  2
x cos 2x sin 2x
=  c
2 4
(iv)  x sin2 x dx Take u = x; dv = sin2 x dx
du = dx ; v =  sin2 x dx
1  cos 2 x
= dx
2
1 sin 2 x 
=  x
2 2 
  x sin2 x dx = uv -  v du
1 sin 2 x  1  sin 2 x 
= x x     x  dx
2 2  2  2 
x 2 x sin 2 x x 2 cos 2 x
=    c
2 4 4 8

85
 x 2 x sin 2 x cos 2 x
=   c
4 4 8
Example 2
Integrate the following
x sin-1 x
(i) sin-1 x (ii) tan-1 x (iii) x tan-1 x (iv)
1- x 2
Solution
(i)  sin-1 x dx Take u = sin-1 x dv = dx
1
du = dx, v  x
1- x 2
 sin-1 x dx = uv -  v du
x
= x sin-1 x-  dx
1 x2
Put 1 - x2 = t  -2x dx = dt
d t/2
  sin-1 x dx = x sin-1 x +  t
1
1 t 2
-1
= x sin x + c
2 1/2

= x sin-1 x + 1  x 2  c
(ii)  tan-1 x dx Take u =tan-1 x; dv = dx
1
du  dx; vx
1 x2
  tan-1 x dx = uv - v du
x
= (tan-1x) x- dx
1 x 2
1
= x tan 1 x  log(1  x 2 )  c
2

 x tan
-1
(iii) x dx

Take u  tan -1 x; dv  x dx
1 x2
du  dx ; v 
1 x2 2

86
  x tan -1 x dx  uv -  v du

x2
tan 1 x   x2
2
1
= 1 x 2
dx
2
x2 1 x2
= tan 1x   dx
2 2 1 x2
x2 1 x 2 11
= tan 1x   dx,
2 2 1 x2

x 2 tan 1 x 1  1 
=   1 -  dx
2 2  1 x2 
x 2 tan 1 x 1
=   [x  tan 1x]  c
2 2
x sin 1 x dx
(iv)  1 x2
x
Take u = sin-1 x ; dv = dx
1 x2
1 x
du = ; v dx
1 x 2
1 x2
put u = 1-x2
du = -2x dx
du / 2
v =  = - 1 x2
u
x sin 1x dx
  1 x2
= uv-  v du

1
=  1  x 2 sin1 x   1  x 2 dx
1 x2

=  1  x 2 sin-1 x  x  c

87
3.2.1 Self-Assessment Question - I

4

 2sin
2
1. Evaluate x sin 2 xdx
0

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
Ans: ¼
3.3 Definite Integral
3.3.1 Definition of a Definite Integral
Let f be a function defined on a closed integral [a,b]. Let P be a partition
of [a, b] with partition points x0, x1,…xn where ax0,<x1,<x2 <……<xn=b. Choose
points xi* in [xi-1, xi] and let xi  xi  xi 1 and || p || max{xi } . Then the
b n

 f ( x)dx  lim  f ( xi )xi , if this limit exists. If

*
definite integral of the form
| | p| |0
a i 1

this limit does exist then it is called integrable on the interval [a, b].
The definite integral of f (x) between the limits x=a and x= b is defined
by
b

 f (x)
a
dx and its value is F (b) – F (a).

Here ‘a’ is called the lower limit and ‘b’ is called the upper limit of the
integral, and F (x) is the integral of f (x).
The value of the definite integral is obtained by finding out the
indefinite integral first and then substituting the upper limit and lower limit for
the variable in the indefinite integral.
3.3.2 Properties of Definite Integral
Let  f (x) dx  F (x)  C.
b
Then  f (x) dx  F (b)  F (a)  [F (x)] ab
a

Property 1
b b

 f (x) dx   f (t) dt .
a a

88
Proof
b

 f (x) dx F(x)  F (b)  F (a) .

b
a
a

 f (t) dt F(t)  F (b)  F (a) .

b
a
a

b b
  f (x) dx   f (t) dt .
a a

Property 2:
b b

 f (x) dx   f (x) dx .
a a

Proof :
a
=   f (x) dx  -F(x)b
a
RHS
b

=  [F(a)  F(b)]
= [F(b)  F(a)]
b
=  f (x) dx
a

Property 3 :
b c b

 f(x)dx   f(x) dx   f(x) dx

a a c

Proof
c b
RHS   f(x) dx   f(x) dx
a c

 f(x)a  [F(x)]cb
c

= F(c) - F(a) + F(b) – F(c).

= F(b) – F(a).
b
  f(x)dx
a

89
Property 4 :
a a

 f (x) dx  f (a - x) dx .
0 0

Proof:
Put a - x =t
dx = -dt
When x = 0, t= a; When x= a, t= 0.
0 a
R.H.S = -  f (t) dt   f (t) dt
a 0

a
=  f (x) dx by property (1)
0

a a
  f (x) dx   f (a - x) dx
0 0

Property 5:
2a a a

 f (x) dx   f (x) dx   f (2a - x) dx

0 0 0

Proof
2a a 2a

 f (x) dx   f (x) dx   f (x)dx .

0 0 a
…… (1)

Put x = 2a – t in the 2nd Integral.

dx = -dt
When x= a, t=a; x=2a, t=0.
2a 0
  f (x) dx    f (2a  t) dt
0 a

a
=  f (2a - t) dt
0

a
=  f (2a - x) dx
0

Using this in equation (1) we get

2a a a

 f (x) dx   f (x) dx   f (2a - x) dx

0 0 0

90
Property 6:
2a 2a
i) If f (2a-x) = f (x) then  f (x) dx  2  f (x) dx
0 0

2a
ii) If f (2a-x) = -f (x) then  f (x) dx =0.
0

2a a a
i) by property 5  f (x) dx   f (x) dx   f (2a - x) dx .
0 0 0

a a
=  f (x) dx   f (x) dx .
0 0

a
= 2  f (x) dx .
0

ii) If f (2a-x) = -f (x) then

2a a a

 f (x) dx   f (x) dx   f (2a - x) dx

0 0 0
a a
=  f (x) dx   f (x) dx.  0 .
0 0

Property 7
a a
(i)  f (x) dx  2 f (x) dx if f (x) is an even function.
a 0

a
(ii)  f (x) dx =0 if f (x) is odd function.
a

Proof:
a a a

 f (x) dx   f (x) dx   f (x) dx

a a 0

0 a
=  f (-x) dx   f (x) dx
a 0

a a
=  f (t) dt   f (x) dx
0 0

(Putting –x = t in the 1 integral)

st

91
 a a
=  f (x) dx   f (x) dx
0 0

a
= 2  f (x) dx
0

Suppose f (x) is an odd function,

Then f (x) = - f (-x).
a 0 a

 f (x) dx   f (x) dx   f (x) dx

a a 0

0 a
=  - f (-x) dx   f (x) dx
a 0

(Putting –x = t in the integral)

0 a
=  - f (t) dt   f (x) dx .
a 0

a a
=   f (x) dx   f (x) dx .
0 0

=0
Property 8
b b

 f (x) dx   f (a  b - x) dx .
a a

Proof:
b
RHS =  f (a  b - x) dx
a

Put a + b – x = t.
 dx = -dt.
When x = a, t=b, x=b, t=a.
a b
RHS=  f (t) (-dt)   f (t) dt
b a

b
=  f (x) dx  L.H.S .
a

92
Example : 1
π
2

 sin
2
i) Evaluate x dx.
0

Solution
π
2

 sin
2
Let I= x dx.
0

π
π 
2

=  sin 2   x  dx (by property 4)

0 2 
π
2

 cos
2
= x dx (2)
0

Adding (1) and (2)

π π
2 2

 (sin x  cos ) dx   dx
2 2
2I =
0 0

π
= x  02 
π

2

I=
4
Example 2


 x sin x dx
2
Evaluate
0

Solution

Let I =  x sin 2 x dx (1)
0

π
=  (π - x) sin 2 (π - x) dx
0

π
=  (π - x) sin 2 x dx (2)
0

Adding (1) and (2)

π
2I =  [x sin 2 x  (π - x)sin 2 x] dx
0

93
 π
=  π sin 2 x dx .
0

π
 1 - cos 2x 
=  π 
0
2
 dx

π
π sin2x 
= x 
2 2  0

π
π   π
2
=
2 2
π2
I=
4
Example 3
π
2
sinx
Evaluate 
0 sinx  cosx
dx

Solution
π
2
sinx
Let I = 
0 sinx  cosx
dx . …… (1)

π 
π sin x  x 
2 
2

=  π  π 
dx .
0
sinx  x   cosx  x 
2  2 
π
2
cos x
= 
0 sin x  cos x
dx ….. (2)

Adding (1) and (2)

π
2
sin x  cos x
2I = 
0 sin x  cos x
dx

π
π
 dx  x
2
π
= 0
2

0
2

I=
4

94
Example 4
π
4

Evaluate =  log(1 tan  ) d

0

Solution
π
4

Let I =  log (1  tan ) d

0

π
  
4

=  log1  tan 4   d

0

  
π
4 tan  tan  
=  log1  4
 d

0  1  tan tan  
 4 
π
4
 1  tan  
=  log1  1  tan  d
0

π
4
1  tan   1  tan  
=  log
0
1  tan   d

π
4
 2 
=  log1  tan  d
0

 log 2  log(1  tan  )d

4

=
0

π 
4 4

=  log 2d   log (1  tan  ) d

0 0


= log 2 [] 0 4 -I
π π
2I = log 2 I  log 2
4 8
Example 5
π
x sin x dx
Evaluate  1  cos
0
2
x

95
Solution
π
x sin x
Let I =  1  cos
0
2
x
.... (1)

π
(π - x) sin (π - x)
= 
0
1  cos2 (x - π)
dx

π
(π - x) sin
=  1  cos
0
2
x
dx .... (2)

Adding (1) and (2)

π
x sin x  (π - x)sin x
2I = 
0
1  cos2 x
dx

π
 sin x
=  1  cos
0
2
x
dx

Put cos x = t, - sin xdx = dt

When x= 0, t= cos 0 = 1
When x=, t= cos  = -1

-1
(ie) 2I =  1 t
1
2
dt

1 1
dt dt
= π  2π 
-1
1 t 2
0
1 t2

 
= 2π tan 1t 0  2π tan 11
1

 
= 2π 
4
2
I =
4
Example 6
π
x tan x
Evaluate  sec x  tan x dx
0

Solution
π
x tan x
Let I =  sec x  tan x dx
0
. . . .(1)

96
 π
(π  x) tan (π  x)
=  sec (x - π)  tan (π - x) dx
0

π
- (π  x) tan x
=  - sec x  tan x dx
0

π
(π  x) tan x
2I =  sec x  tan x dx
0

Adding (1) and (2)

π
π tan x
=  sec x  tan π dx
0

x sin x
π
=  1
cos x
sin x
dx
0 
cos x cos x
π
π sin x
=  1  sin x dx
0

π
π sin x(1 - sinx)
= 
0
1 - sin 2 x
dx

π
π (sin - sin 2 x)
= 0 cos2 x dx
π
= π  (secx tan x - tan 2 x) dx
0

π
= π  (sec x tan x - sec2 x  1) dx
0

= πsec x - tan x  x 0


= π sec π - tan x  π)  sec 0  tan 0  0

= π -1 - 0  π   1  0
=  (-2)
π π  2 
I =
2

97
Example 7
1

 x (1- x)
10
Evaluate dx
0

Solution
1

 x (1- x)
10
dx
0

 (1- x)1 - (1- x) 

10
= dx
0

1 1
=  (1 - x)x10 dx   (x10  x11 ) dx
0 0

1
 x11 x12  1 1
=     
 11 12  0 11 12
12  11 1
= 
132 132
Example 8
log (1  x)
1
Evaluate = 0
1  x 2
dx

log (1  x) dx
1
Let I = 0
1 x2

Put x = tan   dx = sec2  d

When x = 0,  =0
π
When x = 1,  =
4
π/4
log (1  tan θ)
I = 
0
1  tan θ
2
sec2 θ d θ

π/4
log (1  tan θ)
= 
0
s ec 2
sec2 θ d θ

π/4
=  log (1 tan θ) d θ
0

π
= log (2) see Example 5
2

98
Example 9
π -β
θdθ β π
Show that  sin θ  π log cot 2, 0  β  2
β

Solution :
π -β
θdθ
I =  sin θ
β
. . . . . (1)

π -β
β  π -β -θ
=  sin (β  π  β  θ) d θ
β
(using property (6))

π -β
π-θ
= β
sin (π - θ)
π -β
π-θ
= β
sin θ
dθ . . . . . . (2)

π -β
π
Adding (1) and (2), 2I = β
sin θ
dθ

π β
 θ
= π log tan 
 2 β

 π β β
= π log tan     log tan 
  2 2 2

 β β
= π log cot  log cot 
 2 2
β β
2I = 2π log cot  I  π log cot
2 2
Example 10
b b
Using property  f (x) dx   f (a  b  x) dx
a a

3
Evaluate  (x 4 - 20 x 3  150 x 2  500x  625) dx
2

Solution
3

 (x - 20 x 3  150 x 2  500x  625) dx

4

99
 3
=  (x 4 - 4c1x 3 5  4c2 x 2 52  4c3 x 3 53  54 ) dx
2

3 3
=  (x - 5) dx   (5  x) 4 dx
4

2 2

3
=  (2  3 - x) 4 dx
2

By the given property

3
3
 x5 
=  x dx    4

2  5 2
35 25 211
=  
5 5 5
Example 11
 /2
Show that   log(tan x  cot x)dx   log2
0

Solution
 /2
LHS   log(tan x  cot x)dx
0

 /2
 sin x cos x 
  log cos x  sin x  dx
0

 /2
 1 
  log sin x cos x  dx
0

 /2  /2
   log sin x dx    log cos x dx.
0 0

 
 log 2  log 2   log 2.
2 2

100
Example 12
 /4

Show that

 (logsin x  cos x)dx   4 log 2
4

Solution
 /4
  log(sin x  cos x)dx
 / 4

 /4
 1 1 



 /4
log 2 
 2
sin x 
2
cos x  dx

 /4
 



 /4
log 2 sin  x  dx
4 
 /4  /4
 
  log 2 dx 
 / 4 

 /4
log sin   x  dx
4 
 /4  /4
1  
 log 2  dx   log sin  x   dx
2  / 4  / 4  4

Put xt
4
dx= dt

When x   , t  0.
4
 
When x   ,t 
4 2
 /2
1   
 RHS  log 2.   
2 4 4
 log sin t dt
0

 
 log 2.  log 2.
4 2

 log 2.
4
Example 13
a a
a
Prove that  x f ( x)dx   x f ( x)dx. If f(a-x)  f(x)
0
20

101
Solution
a a
LHS   xf ( x)dx   (a  x) f (a  x)dx
0 0

a a

 af (a  x)dx  xf (a  x)dx
0 0

a a a
(ie)  xf ( x)dx  af ( x)dx   xf ( x)dx
0 0 0

[ f (a  x)  f ( x)]
a a
 2  xf ( x)dx  a  f ( x)dx
0 0

a a
a
(ie)   xf ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
0
20
Example 14
b b
If f (a  b  x)  f ( x) prove that 2 xf ( x)dx  f (a  b)  f ( x)dx
a a

Solution
Put a + b – x = t
dx = - dt
When x= a, t=b.
When x=b, t=a.
b b
  xf ( x)dx    (a  b  t ) f (a  b  t )dt
a a

b
  (a  b  t ) f (a  b  t )dt
a

b b
 (a  b)  (a  b  t )dt   tf (a  b  t )dt
a a

b b
 (a  b)  (a  b  x)dx   xf (a  b  x)dx
a a

b b
 (a  b)  f ( x)dx   xf ( x)dx
a a

102
 f (a  b  x)  f ( x)
b b
 2 xf ( x)dx  (a  b)  f ( x)dx
a a

Example 15
2a
If f (a  x)   f (a  x)prove that  f ( x)dx  0
0

Solution
2a a 2a

 f ( x)dx  f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx

0 0 0
....(1)

Consider the 2nd integral

Put t=x-a.
dt=dx.
When x=a, t=0.
x=2a, t= a.
2a a
  f ( x)dx   f (a  t )dt
0 0

a
   f (a  t )dt
0

 f (a  x)   f (a  x)
(Property4)
a
   f (t )dt
0

a
   f ( x)dx
0

2a a a
 From (1)  f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx 0
0 0 0

Example 16
1
Evaluate  cot1 (1  x  x 2 )dx
0

103
Solution
1 1
1
 cot (1  x  x )dx   tan
1 2 1
dx
0 0
1 x  x2
1
1
  tan 1 dx
0
1  x(1  x)

x 1 x
1
  tan 1 dx
0
1  x(1  x)
(property 4)
1 1
  tan 1 xdx   tan 1 xdx
0 0

(using property 5)
1
 2  tan 1 xdx
0

 
1
x
 2 x tan x 0   1 1
dx
0
1 x2
1
 1 
 2  x tan 1 x  log(1  x 2 )
 2 0
 1 
 2  log 2
4 2 

  log 2
2

3.3.3 Self Assessment Question – I

dx
1. Evaluate  x( x
4
 1)
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
1  x4 
Ans: log  4   c
4  x 1

104
 1 x
2. Evaluate  1 x
dx

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

Ans: Sin1 x  1  x 2  c
3.4 Bernoulli’s formula
Consider the integral a  x3 sin 2 xdx . We can evaluate this integral
by repeatedly applying ‘by parts’ rule.
Let u = x3 dv = sin 2x dx
cos 2 x
du  3 x 3 dx v
2
 I   x 3 sin 2 xdx

= uv   vdu

cos 2 x cos 2 x 2
  x3  .3 x dx
2 2
cos 2 x
Again take u = 3x2 dv   dx
2
sin 2 x
du = 6xdx v
4
Again applying ‘by parts’ rule we get
 cos 2 x   2  sin 2 x   sin 2 x 
4    4 
I  x3    3x      6 xdx
 2   
 cos 2 x  2  sin 2 x   sin 2 x 
 x3    3x       6 xdx
 2   4   4 
sin 2 x
Again take u = 6x dv   dx
4
cos 2 x
du = 6dx v
8

105
  cos2x  2  sin2x   cos2x  cos2x
I  x3     3x     6 x  .6dx
 2   4   8  8
 cos 2 x  2  sin 2 x   cos 2 x   sin 2 x 
 x3     3x     6 x   6  .......... (1)
 2   4   8   16 
If u’, u”, u’“, etc denote first, second, third derivatives of the function u and v1,
v2, v3 etc are the successive integrals of functions of the function v then form
(1), we arrive at a formula for integration of u dv.
(i.e.)  udv  uv  u' v  u" v
1 2  u' " v3  .......

This is called Bernoulli’s formula for integration.

Example 1
ax
Evaluate  e .x 3 dx

Solution
Here u  x3 dv  e ax dx
e ax
u '  3x 2 v
a
e ax
u" 6 x v1  2
a
e ax
u' "  6 v2 
a3
e ax
v3 
a4
  e ax .x3dx  uv  u' v1  u" v2  u ' " v3

e ax 2 e   e ax   e ax 
ax
x 3
 3x  2   6 x 3   6 4   4
a a  a  a 
 x 2 3x 2 6 x 6 
 e ax   2  3  4   c
a a a a 


a4

e ax 3 3
a x  3a 2 x 2  6ax  6  c 

106
Example 2
3
 x e dx
x
Evaluate

Solution
3
 x e dx
x

u  x3 dv  e x
u '  3x 2 v  ex
u" 6 x v1  e x
u' "  6 v2  e x
v3  e x

  x3e x dx  x3e x  3x 2e x  6 xex  6e x  c


 e3 x 3  3x 2  6 x  6  c 
Example 3
2
 x e dx
2 x
Evaluate

Solution
2
x e
2 x
dx

 e 2 x   e 2 x   e 2 x 
 x2    2 x    2 c
 2   4   8 

2 x  x x 1 
e      c
 2 2 4


e 2 x
4

2x  2x 1  c 
3.4.1 Reduction formula
Example 1

x
m
1. Reduction formula for (log x) n dx

Let I m,n   x m (log x) n dx

Let u  (log x) n and dv  x m dx

(log x) n 1 x m 1
du  n dx and v 
x m 1

107
Then applying by parts Rule,
 x m 1  x m1 (log x) n 1
m  1  m  1
I m,n  (log x) n   .n dx
 x

x m 1 n

m 1
(logx)n 
m 1  x m (logx)n 1 dx

x m 1 n
(i.e) I m ,n  (log x) n  I m,n 1
m 1 m 1
Example 2
Reduction formula for I n   x n e ax dx

Solution
Let u  xn dv  e ax dx
e ax
du  nxn 1dx v
a
x n e ax e ax
In   .nxn 1dx
a a
x n e ax n n 1 ax
   n e dx
a a
x n e ax n
 In   I n 1
a a
Example 3
Reduction formula for  sin n xdx

Solution
Let I n   sin n xdx

  sin n1 x sin xdx

u  sin n 1 x dv = sinx
du = (n-1) sinn-2 x cosx dx v=-cos x
 I n  sinn 1x( cosx)   (n  1)sinn 2 xcosx.(cosx)dx

=  sinn 1xcosx  (n  1) sin n 2 xcos2 x.dx

 sinn 1xcosx  (n  1) sinn 2 x(1  sin2 x)dx

108
  sinn 1xcosx  (n  1) sinn 2 xdx  (n  1) sinn x dx

 sin n 1xcosx  (n  1)In  2  (n  1)In

 (1  n  1)In  sin n 1xcosx  (n  1)In  2

sin n 1xcosx n  1
In    I n 2
n n
Example 5
π 2

 sin x dx
n
Reduction formula for
0

Solution
π2

Let I n   sin n x dx
0

π 2

 sin
n -1
= x (sin x) dx
0

Let = u=sinn-1 x v=sinx dx

n-2
du = (n-1)sin x cos x dx dv= -cos x
π

 π 2
In = I n   cosxsinn 1x 0 2   cosx(n  1)sinn 2 x cosx dx
0

π
2
 0  (n  1)  sin n  2 xcos2 x dx
0

π
π2 2
= (n  1)  sin n 2
xdx  (n  1)  sin n x dx
0 0

 I n  (n 1)In 2  (n 1)In
 (1 n  1)In  (n  1)In 2
(n  1)
In  I n 2
n
Evaluation of In
Case 1: let n be an even integer
n -1
In  I n2
n

109
 (n  1) n - 3
 . I n 4
n n-2
Proceeding in this way
(n  1) n - 3 n  5 1
In  . . ........ .I 0
n n-2 n4 2

2

But I 0   dx 
0
2
(n  1) n  3 n  5 1
In  . . ..... .
n n2 n4 22
Case 2 : let n be an odd integer.
(n  1) n  3 2
Then In  .  I1
n n2 3


I1   sinxdx   cos0 2  1

1

But
0

(n  1) n  3 n  5 2
 In  . 
n n2 n4 3
Example 6
π
2

 cos x dx
n
Reduction formula for
0

Solution
π
2
Let I n   cosn x dx
0

π
2
=  cosn -1x cos x dx
0

Let u = cosn-1 x dv = cos x dx

n-2
du = (n-1) cos x(-sin x dx) v= sin x
π

 
π 2
 I n  cos xsinx 0   sinx(n  1)cosn 2 xsin x dx
2
n 1

π
2
 0  (n  1)  cosn  2 x(1  cos2 x)dx
0

= (n-1) In-2 – (n-1) In

110
In +(n-1) In = (n-1)In-2
(1+n-1) In = (n-1)In-2
n 1
 In  I n 2
n
Proceeding as in the last example
n 1 n  3 n  5 1 π
When n is even In  . . ...... .
n n2 n4 2 2
n 1 n  3 n  5 2
When n is odd In  . . ......
n n2 n4 3
Example 8

4
1
If I n   tan n xdx prove that I n  I n  2  and hence evaluate I5
0
n 1
Solution

4
I n   tan n xdx
0


4
  tan n  2 x(sec2 x  1)dx
0

 
4 4
  tan n  2 xd (tan x)   tan n  2 xdx
0 0


 tan n 1 x  4
In     I n2
 n 1 0
1
 I n  I n2 
n 1
1
 In   I n2
n 1
1
I5   I3
4
1
I3   I1
2
11 
 I 5    I1 
42 

111
 1 1
   I1
4 2

1 4
    tanxdx
4 0

log sec x0 4

1 

4
1
  log 2
4
1
 log 2
4
Example 9

Reduction formula for  e  x x n dx
0

Solution

Let I n   e  x x n dx
0



 e x x
   nx
n 
0
n 1  x
e dx
0


 0  n  x n 1e  x dx
0

 I n  nI n 1
Also  I n 1  (n  1) I n  2
I n  2  (n  2) I n 3
Multiplying all these results
I n  n(n  1)(n  2)....... 2.1.I 0

I 0   e  x dx  e  x  
0 1
0

 I n  n!
3.4.1 Self Assessment Question – II
1. Reduction formula for  cos n xdx

112
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
cos n 1 x sin x n  1
Ans: I n   I n2
n n

2
2. Evaluate :  sin 7 xcox5 xdx
0

……………………………………………………………………………………
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1
Ans:
120
3.5 Particular Integral
Example 1
Solve (D2-4D+3)y=x3 e2x
Solution
The auxiliary equation is m2-4m+3=0
(m-1) (m-3)=0
m=1, 3
The complementary function is y=Ae + Be3x x

1
PI  x 3e 2 x
D  4D  3
2

1
 e2 x x3
( D  2)  4( D  2)  3
2

1
 e2 x x3
D  4D  4  4D  8  3
2

1
 e2 x x3
D 12

1
 e2 x x3
1 D 2

 e 2 x (1  D 2 ) 1 x 3
 e 2 x (1  D 2 ) x 3

113
  e 2 x ( x 3  6 x )
The complete solution is y  Ae x  Be 3 x  e 2 x ( x 3  6 x)
Example 2

d2y dy
Solve  5  6 y  e x cos 2 x
dx2 dx
Solution
The auxiliary equation is m2-5m+6=0
(m-2) (m-3)=0
m=2, 3
The complementary function is y=Aex+ Be3x
1
PI  .e x cos 2 x
D  5D  6
2

1
 ex cos 2 x
( D  1)  5( D  1)  6
2

1
 ex cos 2 x
D  3D  2
2

1
 ex cos 2 x
 4  3D  2
1
 e x cos 2 x
3D  2
3D  2
 e x cos 2 x
 40
ex
 (6 sin 2 x  2 cos 2 x)
40
 e x (3 sin 2 x  cos 2 x)

20
 The complete solution is
ex
y  Ae 2 x  Be 3 x  (3 sin 2 x  cos 2 x)
20
Example 3
Solve ( D 2  2 D  1) y  x ex sin x

114
Solution
The auxiliary equation is m2-2m+1=0
m=1, 1
 The complementary function is y=Aex+ Be3x
1
PI  xe x sin x
D  2D  1
2

1
 xe x sin x
( D  1) 2
1
 ex x sin x
( D  1  1) 2
1
 ex x sin x
D2
 2D  1
 e x  x  2  2 sin x
 D D
 2
 e x  x  ( sin x)
 D
 e x ( x sin x  2 cos x)
 The complete solution is
y  e x ( Ax  B)  e x ( x sin x  2 cos x)
Example 4
Solve ( D 2  D  2) y  e 2 x  e x
Solution
The auxiliary equation is m2 – m – 2 = 0
 m=2, -1
 The complementary function is y=Aex+ Be3x
1 1
PI  e2 x  2 ex
D D2
2
D D2
1 1
 e2 x  ex
( D  2)( D  1) 11 2
1 1 1
 . e2 x  e x
3 D2 2
1 2x 1 x
 xe  e
3 2

115
 The complete solution is
1 1
y  Ae 2 x  Be x  xe2 x  e x
3 2

Example 5
Solve ( D 2  6 D  9) y  e3 x
Solution
The auxiliary equation is m2 –6 m+9 = 0
(m-3)2=0  m=3, 3.
 The complementary function is
y  e3 x ( Ax  B)
1
PI  e3 x (failure case)
( D  6 D  9)
2

1
 e3 x
( D  3) 2
x2 3x
 e
2
x2 3x
 the complete solution is y  e3 x ( Ax  B)  e
2
3.5.1 Self Assessment Question - III
1. Solve : D 2  2 D  3) y  e2 x (1  x 2 )
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
e2 x 2 12 x 87
Ans: y  Ae3 x  Be x  (x   )
5 5 25
2. Solve : D 2  4 D  4) y  8 x 2e 2 x Sin2 x
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
 3 
Ans: y  ( A  Bx)e2 x  2e2 x  x 2   sin 2 x  2 x cos 2 x 
 2 

116
3.6 UNIT QUESTIONS
1. Evaluate  e x sin xdx

2
dx 
2. Prove that  1  tan
0
3
x

4

4

 Cos x sin
5 5
3. Evaluate : xdx
0

4. Solve : ( D 2  4) y  x 2 sin 2 x
5. Solve : ( D 2  D) y  3xe x
ANSWERS:
ex
1. I (sin x  cos x)  c
2
3. 1/60
1  x 2 cos 2 x   x 3 x 
4. y  A cos 2 x  B sin 2 x        sin 2 x
8  32   3 8 

3e x  x 2 
5. y  A  Be x    x
2  2 

117
 NOTES
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118
 UNIT – IV
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Non-linear differential equation of first order standard type
4.2.1 Complete solution
4.1.2 Singular Solution
4.1.3 General solution
4.1.4 Charpits Method
4.1.5 Standard type I
4.1.6 Standard type II
4.1.7 Standard type III
4.1.8 Standard type I
4.1.9 Self Assessment Question - I

4.2 Lagrange’s Linear Partial Differential Equations

4.2.1 Self Assessment Question - II

4.3 UNIT QUESTION

ANSWERS

119
 UNIT – IV
4.0 Introduction
In this chapter, we have to deal with Partial Differential Equation which
involves higher powers in non-linear partial differential equation, as
understanding the concept of differential equation. In the differential equation
with standard type are deal with all features in the high level and low level
magnitude of the equations. Students will study for the second order
differential equation with all standard types.
4.1 Objectives
To develop the skill in the differential equation with standard types.
To create new idea to application oriented in the all applied sciences,
like tsunami tides which deal with high and low attitude of the waves.
To understanding the way of approach for the non-linear differential
equation in all applied sciences.
4.2 Non-linear differential equation of first order standard type
A partial differential equation involving the first order partial
z z
derivatives (  p ) and ( q ) is called a Linear partial differential
x y
equations. Partial differential equations which involve the higher powers of
p, q, pq are called non-linear partial differential equations. Linear partial
differential equations are obtained by eliminating arbitrary constants or
arbitrary functions.
4.2.1 Complete solution
A solution of a partial differential equation which contains as many
arbitrary constants as the number of independent variables is called a complete
solution. The complete solution is also referred to as complete integral. For
example the partial differential equation
f(x, y, z, p, q) = 0. (1)
may be obtained from the equation g(x, y, a, b) = 0. (2)
In this case (2) is called the complete solution of the partial differential
equation (1). There are two independent variables. In the solution (2). There are
two arbitrary constants.
3.1.2 Singular Solution
The complete solution represents two parameters family of surfaces
which may or may not have an envelope.
The envelope if it exists, is obtained by eliminating ‘a’ and ‘b’ from
g ( x, y , z , a , b )  0 (1).

120
 
g ( x, y, z , a, b)  0, (2).
a

g ( x , y , z , a , b )  0. (3).
b
If the eliminent  (x, y, z)= 0 exists it is called the singular solution of
equation (1). Hence if f(x, y, z, p, q) = 0 is the partial differential equation
whose complete solution is g(x, y, z, a, b)=0 then the eliminent (if it exits) of
g ( x, y , z , a , b )  0 . (1).

g ( x , y , z , a , b )  0. (2).
a

g ( x , y , z , a , b )  0. (3).
b
Is called the singular solution or singular integral. The singular solution
represents the envelope of family of surface given by the general solution
g x, y z, a, b  0. The envelope in general may or may not exist.
4.1.3 General solution
In the non-linear partial different equation f(x,y,z,a,b)=0, if
g(x,y,z,a,b)=0 is the complete solution it may be possible for the existence of a
relationship between the arbitrary constants a and b. Suppose this relationship
given by b=(a). Then the complete solution takes the form g
x, y, z, a, , (a)  0. This is a one parameter family of surfaces of the partial
differential equation f(x,y,z,p,q) = 0. If the family has an envelope it is obtained
by eliminating a from
g ( x, y, z , a,  (b))  0. (1)

and g ( x, y, z , a,  (b))  0. (2)
a
If this eliminent if it exists if called the general solution of equation (1).
This solution is also referred to as general integral.
Standard type I: f(p,q) = 0
Here the partial differential equation involves only p and q and the variables x,
y, z are absent.
Standard type II: z = px + qy + f (p, q)
This called the clairaut’s form
Standard type III: F (z, p, q) = 0.
Here the partial differential equation will contain p, q and the dependent
variable z only. The independent variables x and y are absent.

121
 Standard type IV: Partial differential equation of the form f1(x, p) =
f2(y, q). Here z is absent and also it is in a separable form (i.e) the terms
containing x and p only on one side and terms containing y and q only on the
other side.
4.1.4 Charpits Method
This is a general method of solving linear partial differential equation
where the given partial differential equation cannot be reduce to any one of the
four general forms.
4.1.5 Standard type I;
F (p, q) = 0. (1)
Consider the equation
z = ax + by + c ………(2)
where a and b are connected by the relation f(a, b) = 0.
Differentiating the above equation partially with respect to x and y we get p =
a, q =b.
Substituting these in the given partial differential equation w get f(a, b) = 0.
From the relationship f(a, b) =0 we can find b in terms of a, say b =  (a)
Substituting this in (2) we get, z = ax+  (a) y +c …….(3)
We see that (3) is the complete solution of equation (1).
Hence we note that for the linear partial differential equation of type (1),
the compete solution is of the form
z=ax + by + c where a and b are connected by relation  (a, b) = 0 or
b = g (a).
Here a and b are arbitrary constants.
To find the singular solution we have to determine the eliminent of a,
and c from
z = ax + g (a) y + c
0 = x + g’ (a) y (differentiating partially with respect to a)
Differentiating partially with respect to c, 0 =1.
As the last equation in inconsistent no singular solutions will exist for
the partial differential equation of the type F (p, q) = 0.
Take c =  (a).
The complete solution becomes one parameter family
z = ax + g (a) y +  (a)
Differentiating partially with respect to a,
0 = a + g’ (a) + ’ (a)

122
 Eliminating ‘a’ from the last two equations we get the general solution
which is the envelop of the single parameter family given by 1.
Example : 1
Solve p2 + q2 = 1
Solution
This is of the type f (p, q) = 0.
Therefore the complete solution of this partial differential equation is in
the form z= ax + by + c …….(1)
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to x and y we get
p = a, q = b.
Substituting in the given partial differential equation we have,

a 2  b 2  1, b  1 a2


The complete solution is z  ax  1  a 2 y  c  ….(1)
Where a and c are arbitrary constants
There is no singular integral to the partial differential equation of this
type. To obtain the general solution take c = (a).
 
 z  ax  1  a 2 y   (a) …… (2)
Differentiating partially with respect to a we get
 a 
0  x    y   ' (a )
 …….. (3)
 1 a 
2

The eliminent of a between (2) and (3) gives the general solution.
Example 2
Solve p  q  1.
Solution
The equation is of the type f (p, q) = 0.
 The complete solution is of the form z = ax + by + c ……..(1)
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to x and y we get
p = a and q = b.
Therefore the given equation becomes a  b  1.
The complete solution is

 
z  ax  1  a y  c
2

Where a and c are arbitrary constants.

123
This type of equation has no singular solution.
Take c = (a).

 2
 z  ax  1  a y   (a) ……(2)
Differentiating partially with respect to a we get
1
0  x  (1  a ) y   ' (a) ……(3)
a
The eliminent of ‘a’ between (2) and (3) gives the general solution.
4.1.6 Standard Type II
Equation of the type z = px + qy + f (p, q).
This type of equation may be considered as analogous to clairaut’s
form y = px + f (p) in the ordinary differential equation.
dy
Here p 
dx
Now consider the equation z  ax  by  f ( a, b) …..(1)
Where a and b are arbitrary constants.
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to x and y we get
p = a …………(2) q=b .….(3)
Therefore by eliminating the arbitrary constants from (1) (2), and (3),
we get,
z  px  qy  f ( p, q ) …..(4).
Therefore (1) can be considered as the complete solution of the given
partial differential equation. This type of partial differential equation is known
as extended Clairaut’s form. The complete solution consists of a two parameter
family of planes. The singular solution if it exists is a surface having the
complete solution as tangent planes.
Example 1
Solve z = px + qy – qb
Solution
This equation is a partial differential equation of Clairauts type.
Therefore the complete solution is got by replacing p by a and q by b
where a and b are arbitrary contests.
(i e) the complete solution is z = ax + by + ab ……(1).
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to a and b we get
0  xb ……(2)

124
 0 ya ……(3)
Eliminating a and b from (1), (2) and (3) we get
z  xy  xy  xy
(i.e) z  xy  0.
This gives the singular solution of the given partial differential equation
and to get the general solution,
Put b   (a ) in (1)
z  ax   (a) y  a (a) …..(4)
Differentiating this partially with respect to ‘a’ we get
0  x   ' ( a ) y  a ' ( a )   ( a ) .…. (5)
Eliminating ‘a’ from (4) and (5) we get the general solution.
Example 2
Solve z = px + qv + p2q2
Solution
This equation is a partial differential equation of Clairauts type.
Therefore the complete solution is
z  ax  by  a 2b 2 ……..(1) where a and b arbitrary constants.
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to a and b we get
0  x  2ab2 ……(2)
0  y  2a 2 b ……(3)
x  2ab2
 2ay 2  y 2
 
4a 4 2a 3
y2 x2
z  x3  y3
2x 2y
2 2 2
z  2 x y
3 3 3

This is the singular solution where b = f(a). The complete solution is

z  ax  f (a) y  a 2  f (a) (2) Differentiating partially with respect to ‘a’.
2

0  a  f ' (a) y  2a 2 f (a) f ' (a)  2a f (a) Eliminant of ‘a’ from (2) and (3)
2

gives the general solution.

125
Example 3
Obtain the complete solution and singular solution of
z  px  qy  p 2  pq  q 2 .
Solution
This equation is of clairaut’s form. Therefore the complete solution is
z  ax  by  a 2  ab  b 2 (1) where a and b are arbitrary constant.
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to a and b we get
0  x  2a  b(2)
0  y  2b  a(3)
2x-y =3a and 2y- x = 3b.
2x  y 2y  x
a ,b 
3 3
Substituting this in equation (1) we get

 2 x  y   2 x  x   2 x  y  (2 x  y )(2 y  x)  2 x  x 
2 2

z x   y      
 3   3   3  9  3 
Simplifying we get 3z  xy  x 2  y 2
This is the singular solution,
4.1.7 Standard type III
Partial differential equation of the form F (z,p,q) = 0.
For this partial differential equation we assume z = F (x + ay) as solution.
Let u  z  ay, then z  F (u )
z z u dz
Then p   
x u x du
z z u dz
q  a
y u y du
Then the given differential equation becomes
 dz dz 
F  z, , a   0 which is an ordinary differential equation of first order.
 du du 
Procedure for solving partial differential equation of the type
F(z, p, q) = 0.
Step I : Assume u = x + ay
dz dz
Step II: Replace p and q by and a respectively in the given partial
du du

126
 differential equation.
Step III: Solve the resulting ordinary differential equation of first order.
Example 2
Solve z= p2+q2 for complete and singular solution.
Solution
Assume z = F (x+ay)= F (u).
dz dz
then p  ,q  a
du dy
The given equation becomes
2 2
 dz   dz 
z     a2  
 du   du 
2
 dz 
=   (1  a 2 )
 du 
dz z

du 1 a2
dz du
(i.e) 
z 1 a2
u
2 z  c.
1 a2
1
 (u  b)
1 a2
 4(1  a 2 ) z  ( x  ay  b) 2 (1)
This is the complete solution.
Differentiating equation (1) partially with respect a and b we get
8az = 2(x + ay + b) y (2)
0 =2 (x + ay + b) 1 (3)
Substuting (3) in (2) we get z = 0
This is the singular solution.
Example 3
Find the complete solution of p (1+q)=qz.

127
Solution
Assume that z = f(x+ay)
dz adz
then p  q
du' du
The given equation becomes
dz  dz  dz
1  a   a z
du  du  du
adz
(ie) 1   az
du
dz az  1

du a
adz
 du
az  1
log (az-1) =u+c.
log (az-1) =x+ay+c.
This is the complete solution.
Example 4
Solve p2 z2 + q2 = 1
Solution
Assume z=F (x + ay) = F (u). then
dz dz
p ,q  a .
du du
The given equation becomes.
2 2
 dz   dz 
z    a2    1
2

 du   du 
2

  dz 
z  a   1
2 2

 du 

 
z 2  a 2 dz   du.
Integration we get
z
2
 a2
 
z  a  log z  z 2  a 2  u  c
2

2
2

z z 2
 a  a logz 
2 2

z 2  a 2  2( x  ay)  c

128
4.1.8 Standard type IV
Partial differential equation of the type
a f1 ( x, p)  f 2 ( y, q)
In this type of equation z is absent. Also the terms containing p and x
can be separated from those containing q and y
Let f1(x, p) = f2 (y, q) = k (1)
(i.e.) f1 (x, p) = k. Solving for p we get, p = F1 (x).
f2(y, q) = k. Solving for q we get q = F2 (y).
z z
Also dz  dx  dy.
x x
= pdx + qdy
= F1 (x) dx + F2 (y) dy.
Integrating  dz   F1 ( x)dx   F2 ( y)dy

z   F1 ( x)dx   F2 ( y)dy  c.

This is the complete solution

Example 1
Solve p 2  q 2  x  y
Solution
p2  q2  x  y .
p 2  x  q 2  y  k.
 p 2  x  k ; q 2  y  k .

p   x  k.q   y  k .
dz  pdx  qdy


  x  k dx    yk 
Integrating we get the complete solution is
2
x  k  2  2  y  k  2  c.
3 3
z
3 3

  ( x  k ) 2  ( y  k ) 2   c.
2 3 3

3  

129
Example 2
p 2  q 2  z 2 ( x  y ).
Solution
Dividing by z 2 ,
2 2
 p q
      x  y.
 z z
Take Z= log z
dz
dZ 
z
The given equation becomes
2
 Z   Z 
2

      x  y.
 x   y 
2
 Z 
2
 Z 
(i.e.)    x   y     k .
 x   y 
2
 Z 
2
 Z 
   x  k ; y     k
 x   y 
Z Z
  x  k;  yk
x x
Z Z
herefore dZ  dx  dy
x y

ntegrating Z   ( x  k ) 2  ( y  k ) 2   c
2 3 3

3  

log z   ( x  k ) 2  ( y  k ) 2   c
2 3 3

3  
Example 3
p  q  sin x  sin y.
Solution
p  sin x  sin y  q  k .
 p  k  sin x; q  sin y  k .
dz  pdx  qdy
 (k  sin x)dx  (sin y  k )dy.

130
 Integrating we get
z  (kx  cos x)  (ky  cos y )  c.
z  k ( x  y )  (cos x  cos y )  c.
This is the complete solution.
4.1.9 Self Assessment Question – I
1. Solve p3  q3  0
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Ans: z  a( x  y )  c
2. Solve q 2  p
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Ans: z  a 2  ay  c
3. Solve pq = z
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Ans: 4az  ( x  ay  b)2
x y
4.  1
p q
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
x2 y2
Ans:  b
a 1 a
5. Solve z  p ( x  q )  qy
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Ans: z  ax  by  ab
4.2 Lagrange’s Linear Partial Differential Equations
he partial differential Pp + Qq = R where P,Q,R are functions of x, y, z
z z
and p  , q  is called Langrange’s linear differential equation.
x y
We shall now consider the method of solving such an equation.

131
 It has already been shown that a partial differential equation of this type
is obtained by eliminating the arbitrary function from the equation F(x, y,
z) =0.
In other words F (u,v)=0 is the solution of the partial differential
equation Pp + Qq=R. We are now required to find the values of u and v and
have the solution F(u,v)=0.
Let us assume that u(x, y, z) = c1 and v (x, y, z)= c2
be two solutions of the given linear partial differential equation. Taking the
differentials of the above two solutions,
u u u
du  du  dy  dz  0. (1)
x y z
v v v
dv  dx  dy  dz  0. (2)
x y z
dx dy
 
u v u v u v u v
 
y z z y z x x z
dz

u v u v
 
x y y x
dx dy dz
(i.e)   (3).
P Q R
It is now easily seen that u = c1 and
v=c2 are solutions of the equation (3). Then,
 (u,v) = 0. (i.e) u =  (v) is the solution of the linear partial differential
equation Pp + Qq = R. Hence
Procedure for solving Pp +Qq = R.
dx dy dz
Step 1 : From the auxiliary equations  
P Q R
Step 2: Find two independent solutions of the auxiliary equations say
u = c1 & v = c2.
Step 3: Then the solution of the given partial differential equation is
 (u, v)=0, or u =  (v).
Example 1
Solve x2 p + y2 q= z2

132
Solution
This is lagrange’s linear equation
The auxiliary equations are
dx dy dz
 
x2 y2 z 2
dx dy
Consider 
x2 y
1 1
Integrating   c.
x y
dx dz
Consider 
y2 z2
1 1
Integrating   c.
y z
1 1 1 1
The solution is    ,    0.
x y y z
Example 2

Solve ( y  z ) p  ( z  x)q  x  y.
Solution
This is a lagrange’s linear equation
The auxiliary equation are
dx dy dz
 
yz zx x y
dx  dy dy  dz dz  dx dx  dy  dz
(i.e)   
x y yz zx 2( x  y  z )
Considering first two members and integrating we get
x y
c (1)
yz
Considering first and last members and integrating we get
x  y  ( x  y  z )  c
2

 The Solution is
x y 
 , ( x  y ) 2 ( x  y  z )  0
yz 

133
Example 3
Solve y 2 p  x 2 q  x 2 y 2 z 2
Solution
The auxiliary equations are
dx dy dz
2
 2  2 2 2
y x x y z
Considering 1st and 2nd members,
x 2 dx  y 2 dy.

x3 y 3
Integrating we get  c
3 3
x3  y 3  c
Considering 2nd and 3rd members,
dz
y 2 dy 
z2
1
3
y
Integrating  c
3 z
3
y 1
  c
3 z
 3 3 y
3
1
The solution is   x  y ,    0.
 3 z
Example 5
Solve (mz  ny) p  (nx  lz )q  ly  mx.
Solution
The auxiliary equations are
dx dy dz
 
mz  ny nx  lz ly  mx
Using multipliers x, y, z we get each ratio
xdx  ydy  zdx

x(mz  ny)  y (nx  lz )  z (lz  mx)
xdx  ydy  zdx

0
 x 2  y 2  z   c is one solution.

134
 Also using multipliers l, m, n, we get.
ldx  mdy  ndz
each ratio 
l (mz  ny)  m(nx  lz )  n(ly  mx)
ldx  mdy  ndz

0
 lx  my  nz  c is the 2nd solution.
The general solution  ( x 2  y 2  z 2 , lx  my  nz)  0.
4.2.1 Self Assessment Question - II
1. Solve z  p tan x  q tan y  tan z
……………………………………………………………………………………
 sin y sin z 
Ans: Q  , 0
 sin x sin x 
2. Solve p ( x  y )  q ( y  x  z )  z
……………………………………………………………………………………
 yxz 
Ans: Q  x  y  z, 0
 z2 
4.3 UNIT QUESTIONS:
1. Solve : z  p 2  q 2
2. Solve : Sin x – p = - Siny + q
3. Solve : x 2 p  y 2 q  z 2  0
4. Solve : p  3q  5 z  tan(q  3x)
5. Solve z ( x  y )  x 2 p  y 2 q
ANSWERS
1. Z=0
2. Z = K ( X +Y) – ( Cos x + Cos y) +c
1 1 1 1
3. Q  ,    0
x y y z
 1 
4. Q  y  3x, log 5z  tan( y  3x)   0
 5 
1 1 x y
5. Q  , 0
x y 2 

135
 NOTES
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136
 UNIT – V
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Laplace Transforms of some elementary function
5.2.1 First Shifting Theorem
5.2.2 Second Shifting Theorem
5.2.3 Change of Scale property
5.2.4 Self Assessment Question - I

5.3 Inverse Laplace Transform

5.3.1 Table of Inverse Laplace Transforms
5.3.2 Inverse Laplace Transforms by first shifting theorem
5.3.2 Inverse Laplace Transforms by second shifting theorem
5.3.3 Self Assessment Questions - I

5.4 Laplace Transform of Periodic Function

5.4.1 Self Assessment Questions - II

5.5 Fourier Series

5.5.1 Fourier Coefficient
5.5.2 Self Assessment Questions - III

5.6 Half range Fourier series

5.6.1 Self Assessment Question - IV

5.7 UNIT QUESTION

ANSWERS

137
 UNIT – V
5.0 Introduction
In this chapter, we have to deal with Laplace transform in a linear
transformation. as understanding the concept of Laplace transformation and
inverse Laplace transformation. In the Laplace Transformation with Shifting
theorem deal with all features in the application of mathematics in the field of
applied sciences. Students will study for the Laplace transformation with
periodic functions.
5.1 Objectives
To develop the skill in the Laplace transformation with standard types.
To create new idea to application oriented in the all applied sciences in
the engineering systems
To understanding the way of approach for the Laplace transformation in
all applied sciences.
5.2 Laplace Transform:
Let f(t) be defined for 0< t <  .The transform of f(t) is defined by

L  f (t )   e st f (t )dt
0

Note: In the above definition, the R.H.S. integral is a function of s only ,we
can
Write L  f (t ) =F(s).

Notations : Laplace transform of f(t) is denoted by L  f (t ) ,

F(s),  (s) or f (s)

Instead of s, the parameter p can also be used .
Linearity property of the Laplace Transformation
The Laplace transformation is a linear transformation
i.e., L a1 f1 (t )  a2 f 2 (t )  a1L  f1 (t )  a2 L  f 2 (t ) Where a1 , a2 are constants.
Piecewise (or) sectionally Continuous Function
A function f(t) is said to be piecewise (or) Sectionally continuous on a
closed interval a  t  b , if is defined on that interval and is such that the
interval can be divided into a finite number of subintervals, in each of which
f(t) is continuous
Functions of exponential order
A function f(t) is said to be of exponential order if lim e  st f (t )  a finite
t 

quantity.

138
Condition for existence of Laplace transform (sufficient condition)
If f(t) is a function which is piecewise continuous on every finite
interval in the range t  0 and is of exponential order, then the Laplace
transform of f(t) exists.
This is the sufficient condition but not necessary for the existence of
Laplace transform.
5.2.1 Laplace transforms of some elementary functions

Sl.No. f(t) L  f (t )

1 K,a constant k/s ,s>0

2 tn (n  1) n!
n 1
or n 1
s s

3 1 
t s

4 e at 1
sa

5 e  at 1
sa

6 Cos at s
s  a2
2

7 Sin at a
s  a2
2

8 Sinh at a
s  a2
2

9 Cosh at s
s  a2
2

Example 1
Find L t n  ,n is a positive integer and n  -1

Solution:

L t n  =  e st t n dt
0

139
  n
 x  dx
L t n  =  e x  
1
put st  x  dt  dx
0 s s s
 
1
= n 1 
e x x ( n 1)1dx Since   n    e x x n 1dx
s 0 0

(n  1) n!
= n 1
 n 1 Where n > -1
s s
Example 2
Find L eat  and L e at 

Solution

L eat    e st eat dt
0



 e  ( s  a )t  1
= e  ( s a )t
dt     , s >a
0    s  a  0 s  a

L e   e
 at  ( s  a ) t at 1
III ly
e dt  , s >-a
0
sa
Example 3
Find (i) L cos at and (ii) L sin at

Solution (i) L cos at   e st cos atdt
0


 e st 
=  2 ( s cos at  a sin at ) 
s  a
2
0
s
=
s  a2
2


(ii) L sin at   e st sin atdt
0


 e st 
=  2 ( s sin at  a cos at ) 
s  a
2
0
a
=
s  a2
2

140
Example 4
Find L sin t cos t .

Solution L sin t cos t = L sin 2t / 2

1 1 2 1
= L sin 2t  . 2  2
2 2 s 4 s 4
Example 5
Find L sin 2 2t

Solution L sin 2 2t 

1
L 1  cos 4t
2
1 1
= L 1  L cos 4t
2 2
1 s
= 
2s 2( s  16)
2

Example 6
Find L 7e2t  9e2t  5t 3

Solution
L 7e2t  9e2t  5t 3 = 7 L e2t   9L e2t   5L t 3

7 9 6 16 s  4 30
=   5. 4  2 
s2 s2 s s  4 s4
5.2.1 First shifting theorem
If L  f (t )  F ( s), then L eat f (t )  F (s  a)

Proof

F ( s)  L  f (t )   e st f (t )dt.
0


F ( s  a)   e ( s a )t f (t )dt.
0


=  e st eat f (t ) dt.
0

 F (s  a)  L eat f (t )

141
5.2.2 Second Shifting theorem
 f (t  a), t  a
If L  f (t )  F ( s), and g (t )   then L  g (t )  e sa F (s) .
 0, t  a
Proof
By definition, we have

L  g (t )   e st g (t )dt
0

 
=  e st 0dt   e st f (t  a)dt
0 0


=  e  st f (t  a )dt
0


 L  g (t )   e  (u  a ) s . f (u )du Put t-a = u. then dt = du
0


= e sa  e  su . f (u )du
0

e
 sa  st
=e . f (t )dt by property of definite integrals
0

 L  g (t )  e sa F ( s)
5.2.3 Change of scale Property
1
If L  f (t )  F ( s), then L  f (at )  f ( s / a)
a
Proof
by the definition, we have

L  f (at )   e st f (at )dt
0


1
  e ( s / a ) x f ( x)dx Put at = x  dt = 1/a dx
a0

1  ( s / a )t
a 0
 e f (t )dt


1
 F (s / a) Since F ( s)   e st f (t )dt
a 0

142
Note:
If L  f (t )  F ( s), then L  f  t / a   aF (as)
Example 1
Find L t 3e2t 

Solution
L t 3e 2t   L t 3 
ss  2

 3!  6
= 4  
 s  s s  2 (6  2)
4

Example 2
Find L e2t (3cos 6t  5sin 6t ) .

Solution
s 6
We have L (3cos 6t  5sin 6t )  3.  5. 2
s  36
2
s  36
3s  30
=  F ( s)
s 2  36
L e2t (3cos 6t  5sin 6t )  F ( s  2)

3( s  2)  30 3s  24
=  2
2( s  2)  36 s  4s  40
2

Example 3
Find L et (3sinh 2t  5cosh 2t .

Solution
2 s
We have L (3sinh 2t  5cosh 2t  3  5. 2
s 42
s 4
6  5s
=  F (s)
s2  4
 L et (3sinh t  5cos 2t )  F ( s  1)

6  5( s  1) 11  5s
=  2
( s  1)  4 s  2 s  3
2

Applying the change of scale property show that

143
 s 2  2s  4 s2  s  1
L  f (2t )  If L  f (t ) 
4( s  1) 2 ( s  2) (2s  1) 2 ( s  1)
s2  s  1
We have L  f (t )  F ( s) 
(2s  1) 2 ( s  1)
1
L  f (2t )  F ( s / 2)
2

 s / 2   s / 2  1
2
1
=
2  2  s / 2   1 2  s / 2   1
   
s 2  2s  4
=
 4  s  12 ( s  2) 
 
Example 4
et  a , t  0
Find L  g (t ) where g (t )  
 0, t  a
Solution
 f (t  a), t  0
g (t )   where F(s) = L  f (t )
 0, t  a

Here F(s) = L et  

1
s 1
L  g (t )  e sa .F (s)

e  sa
L  g (t )  ,s 1 (Using second shifting theorem)
s 1
Example 5
3

1 1 e ( s 1)
If L  f (t )  e s , prove that L et f (3t )  .
s ( s  1)
Solution
1 1
Given L  f (t )  e s  F ( s )
s
 L et f (3t )  L  f (3t )ss 1

1
By change of scale property, L  f (at )  F (s / a)
a

144
 3 3
1 3e s e s
 L  f (3t )  
3 s s
3
( s 1)
 L et f (3t ) 
e
s 1
Example 6
 sin t  1  sin at  1
If L    tan (1/ s) then prove that L    tan (a / s).
 t   t 
We know by the change of scale property
1
If L  f (t )  F ( s )thenL  f (at )  F (s / a)
a
 sin t  1
Given L   tan (1/ s)
 t 
 sin at  1 1 1 1 a
L   tan ( )  tan 1 ( )
 at  a s/a a s
 sin at  1 a
L    tan ( )
 t  s
5.2.4 Self Assessment Questions - I
1. Find he Laplace transform of sin 3 2t
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
48
Ans :
( s  4)( s 2  36)
2

e 3 t  e 2 t
2. Find he Laplace transform of
t
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
 s2 
Ans : log  
 ( s  3) 
5.3 Inverse Laplace Transform
Definition:
Inverse Laplace Transform

145
 If F(s) is the Laplace transform of a function f(t), L  f (t )  F ( s), then
f(t) is called the inverse Laplace transform of the function F(s) and is written as
f (t )  L1 F ( s)

L1 is called the Inverse Transformation Operator

Linear Property
Theorem
Let F1 ( s ) and F2 ( s ) be the inverse Laplace transforms of function f1 (t )
and f 2 (t ) respectively and a, b be two constants

Then L1 aF1 ( s)  bF2 ( s)  aL1 F1 ( s)  bL1 F2 ( s)

= af1 (t )  bf 2 (t )
5.3.1 Tables of Inverse Laplace Transforms

S.No. F(s) f (t )  L1 F ( s)

1 1 1
s

2 1 t
n 1
, n is a positive
s n!
integer

3 1 tn
n 1
, n  1
s (n  1)

4 1 e at
sa

5 1 e  at
sa

6 1 sin at
s  a2
2
a

7 s Cosat
s  a2
2

8 a Sinhat
s  a2
2

146
 9 s coshat
s  a2
2

Example 1
3 2s  1
Find the inverse transform of  2 .
s 2 s 4
2

 3 2s  1  1  1  1  s  1  1 
Solution L1  2  2   3L    2L  2  L  2 
s  2 s  4 s  2 s  4 s  4
sinh 2t
= 3e 2t  2 cosh 2t 
2
Example 2
 s 1 
 3
Find L1  2   7 .
 s  2 s  3 s 2 

Solution
 s 1     
 3 s 1  1  1  1 
L1  2   7  = L1  2 2
 3 L    L  7
 s  2 s  3 s 2   s  ( 2)   s  3  s 2 
7
1
t2
 cos 2t  3e3t 
7
 
2
5
t2
 cos 2t  3e3t 
5 3 1 1
. .  
2 2 2 2

8t 2 t
 cos 2t  3e  3t

15 
Example 3
 3s 2  4 s  5  1  2s  3 
Find (i) L1   and (ii) L  2 
 s 
4
 s 
Solution
 3s 2  4 s  5  1  1  1  1  1  1 
L1    3L  2   4 L  3   5 L  4 
s  s  s 
4
 s 

147
 t2 t3
= 3t  4  5.
2! 3!
5t 3
 3t  2t 2 
6
 2s  3  1  1
(ii) L1  2   2L1    3L1  2   2  3t
 s  s s 
5.3.2 Inverse Laplace Transform by First Shifting Theorem
If L1 F ( s)  f (t ) ,then L1 F ( s  a)  eat L1 F (s)
Note:
L1 F (s  a)  e at L1 F (s)
Example 4
 3s  2 
Find L1  2 
 s  6s  13 
3s  2 3( s  3)  7
=
s  6 s  13 ( s  3) 2  4
2

 3s  2   3( s  3)  7 
L1  2 = L1  
 s  6s  13   ( s  3)  4 
2

 3s  7 
= e3t L1  2 
s  4
  s  1  1 
= e3t  L1  2   7L  2 
 s  4  s  4 
 7 
= e3t 3cos 2t  sin 2t 
 2 
Example 5
 3s  7 
Find L1  2 
 s  2s  3 
3s  7 3s  7
=
s  2 s  3 ( s  1) 2  4
2

3( s  1)  10
=
( s  1) 2  4

 3s  7  1  3( s  1)  10 
L1  2 =L  
 s  2s  3   (s  1)  4 
2

148
  ( s  1)  1  1 
= 3L1    10 L  
 ( s  1)  4   ( s  1)  4 
2 2

 s  t 1  1 
= 3et L1  2   10e L  2 
s  4 s  4
= et cosh 2t  5et sinh 2t
 e 2t  e 2t  t e  e
2t 2 t

t
= 3e    5e    4e 3 t  e  t
 2   2 
Example 6
14 s  10
Find the inverse Laplace transform of
49 s 2  28s  13
 5
14  s  
14 s  10  7
=
49 s  28s  13
2
 4 13 
49  s 2  s  
 7 49 
5 2 3
s (s  ) 
2 7 2 7 7
= 2
= 2 2
7 2 9 7  2 3
s   s   
 7  49  7 7

 3 
2 t  s 
 14s  10  2 1  7 
 L1  = e
7
L  2
 49s  28s  13  7
2
 s2   3  
   
7 
    3 
2 t     
2  L1  s  1 
L  7 
2 2
7
= e
7   2 3   s 2   3  
 s       
  7   7  
2 72t  3t 3t 
= e
7 cos 7  sin 7 

149
5.3.3 Inverse Laplace Transform by second shifting theorem
If L1 F (s)  f (t ), thenL1 e as F (s)  G(t ) where
 f (t  a), t  a
G(t )  
 0, t  a
Or G(t) = f(t-a) H(t-a)
Or Equivalently if L1 F ( s)  f (t ) , then L1 e as F (s) = f(t-a) H(t-a)

Where H(t-a) is Heaviside ‘s unit step function

Example 7
 e 3 s 
Find L1  4
.
 ( s  2) 
Solution
1
Let F(s) =
( s  2) 4
 1 
f (t) = L1  4
 ( s  2) 
1 t e2t t 3
= e2t L1  4   e2t 
s  3! 6
 e 3 s  1
L1  4
= f (t  3) H (t  3)
 ( s  2)  6
1
= e 2( t 3) (t  3)3 H (t  3)
6
Example 8
 s
1  se 
Find L  2 
s  9
Solution
s  s 
Taking F(s) = ; f(t)= L1  2   cos 3t
s 9
2
s  9
 se  s  1  s
L1  2  = L e F (s)
s  9
= cos 3(t   ) H (t   )
 cos(3  t ) H (t   )

150
   cos 3tH (t   )
Example 9
1  e  s 
Show that L1  2  = sin tH (t   )  sin t
 s 1 
Solution
1
Take F ( s ) 
s 1
2

f (t )  L1 F (s)  sin t

1  e  s  1
 = L F (s)  L e F (s)
 s
L1  2 1

 s 1 
= sin t  f (t   ) H (t   )
= sin t  sin(t   ) H (t   )
= sin t  sin(  t ) H (t   )
= sin t  sin tH (t   ) .
5.3.4 Self Assessment Questions - I
 10 
1. Find L1  6 
 ( S  2) 
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
t5
Ans : e 2t
12
5.4 Laplace Transform of Periodic Function
Definition
Periodic Function
A function f(t) is said to be a periodic function with period P if
f(t+P) = f(t) for all values of t.
Note:
If P is a period of the function f(t) then 2P,3P,…. Are also periods
Theorem
If f(t) is a periodic function with period P , then
P
1
L  f (t )   sP 
e st f (t )dt
1 e 0

151
Proof
By definition

L  f (t )   e st f (t )dt
0

P 
 L  f (t )   e st f (t )dt   e  st f (t )dt ………(1)
0 P

Consider the second integral on R.H.S and put t =u+P . Then dt=du and
u varies from 0 to 
 
  e st f (t )dt   e s (u  P ) f (u  P)du
P 0

e
 sP  su
e f (u )du since f(u+P)=f(u)
P

= e sP L  f (t )
From (1)
P
L  f (t )   e st f (t )dt  e sP L  f (t )
0

1  e  L  f (t )   e
 sP  st
f (t )dt
0

P
1
 L  f (t )   sP 
e st f (t )dt
1  e  0
Example 1
If f (t )  t 2 , 0  t  2 and f (t  2)  f (t ) . find L  f (t ) .
Solution
Here f(t) is a periodic function with period P=2
2
1
 L  f (t )  2 s 
e st f (t )dt
1  e  0
2
1
2 s 
 t 2e st dt
1  e  0
2
1  2  e  st   e  st   e  st 
 t     2  3
1  e2 s    s   2 
2t
  s   s 0

152
 1   e2 s   e2 s   e2 s  2 
 L  f (t )  4  4 2 
1  e2s    s   s2   s3  s3 
2  (4 s 2  4 s  2)e 2 s
=
s 3 (1  e2 s )
5.4.1 Self Assessment Questions - III

sin t 0  t   
1. f (t )    extended periodically with period 2 and find
0   t  2 
its laplace transform
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
5.5 Fourier Series
It has been shown by Fourier that a function f(x) which has only a finite
number of discontinuities can be expressed as a trigonometric series in a given
range of x in the form
a0
f ( x)   (a1 cos x  a2 cos 2 x  a3 cos 3 x  ...  an cos nx  ...)
2
+(b1 sin x  b 2 sin 2 x  b 3 sin 3 x  ...  b n sin nx  ...)
Fourier has shown that the expansion of f(x) in the above form is
possible only if it satisfies certain conditions. These conditions called Dirichlet
conditions are stated below.
Let f(x) be defined in the interval c<x<c+2 with period 2 and satisfy
the following conditions.
i) f(x) is single valued.
ii) It has a finite number of discontinuities in a period of 2.
iii) It has a finite number of maxima and minima in a given period.
c  2
iv) c
f(x) dx is convergent

153
 If f(x) satisfies the above conditions then it is possible to express f(x) as
2
1
b n   f ( x) sin nxdx
 0
2
1 1
=
  2 (  x) sin nxdx
0

1 cos nx sin nx
[(  x).( = )  (1)( 2 )]02
2 n n
1 1 1 1
= [  ] 
2 n n n
 2 
1
f(x) =   2 co s nx
12 n 1 n
sin2x sin3x
= sinx+   ....
2 3
 x 2
( )
2
This representation of f(x) is called a Fourier expansion or a Fourier
series. Here the coefficients a0,an,bn are called Fourier coefficients.
5.5.1 Fourier Coefficients
Let us now to find the coefficients a0,an,bn on the assumption that the
series given in (1) Is uniformly convergent in the interval c<x<c+2 and that
the term by term integration is permissible in that interval.
Integrate (1) with respect to x between the limits c and c+2
c  2 c  2 c  2  c  2 
a0
 f ( x)dx   dx   ( an cos nx)dx   ( bn cos nx)dx
c
2 c c 1 c 1

=  a0  0  0 (Using the properties)

c  2
1
 a0 
 
c
f ( x)dx

Multiply both sides of (1) by cosnx and integrate with respect to x

between the limits c and c+2
c  2 c  2 c  2  c  2 
a0
 f ( x) cos nxdx   cos nxdx   ( an cos nx) cos nxdx   ( bn cos nx) cos nxdx
c c
2 c 1 c 1
c  2
=0  
c
an cos 2 nxdx  0

= a n

154
 c  2
1
an 
 c
f ( x) cos nxdx

Now multiply both sides of (1) by sinnx and integrate with respect to x between
the limits c and c+2
c  2 c  2 c  2  c  2 
a0
 f ( x) sin nxdx   sin nxdx   ( an cos nx) sin nxdx   ( bn sin nx) sin nxdx
c c
2 c 1 c 1
c  2
= 00 
c
bn sin 2 nxdx

= b n
c  2
1
 bn 
 
c
f ( x) sin nxdx

Thus to summarise, the fourier expansion of a function f(x) satisfying

Dirichlet conditions is given by
1
f ( x)  (  x), 0  x  2
2
Note 1: If c = 0, then the interval of definition for f(x) is (0,2) and in this case.
2
1
a0 
 
0
f ( x)dx

2
1
an 
 0
f ( x) cos nxdx

2
1
bn 
  0
f ( x) sin nxdx

Note 2: If c = -, then the interval of definition for f(x) is (-,) and in this
interval

1
a0 
 

f ( x)dx


1
an 
 
 f ( x) cos nxdx

1
bn 
 
 f ( x) sin nxdx

Value of f(x) at a point:

Note: (1) The Fourier series converges to f(x) at all points where f(x) is
continuous. i.e. If x = x0 is a point of continuity, the sum of the Fourier series at
x = x0 is f(x0).

155
(2) If x = x0 is a point of discontinuity then the value of f(x) at x = x0 is
f ( x0  0)  f ( x0  0)
2
Example 1:
1
Obtain a Fourier expansion for the function f ( x)  (  x), 0  x  2
2
Solution:
1
f ( x)  (  x), 0  x  2
2
Let us Fourier series for the function f(x) be
a0  
f ( x)    an cos nx   bn sin nx
2 n 1 n 1
2
1
Then a0 
 
0
f ( x )dx

2
1 1
=
  2 (  x)dx
0

1 x 2 2
= [ x  ]0
2 2
1
= [2 2  2 2 ]  0
2
a0  
 f ( x)    an cos nx   bn sin nx
2 n 1 n 1

(  x) 2  2  1
(i.e.)( )    co s nx
2 12 n 1 n 2

156
 2
1
bn 
 
0
f ( x) sin nxdx

2
1  x
=
4 (
0
2
) 2 sin nxdx

1 co s nx sin nx cos nx
= [(  x) 2 .( )  2(  x)(1)( 2 )  2( 3 )]02
4 n n n
1  2
2  2
2
= [  3  3]0
4 n n n n
 -x 
1
 f(x) =   sin nx
2 n 1 n

sin2x sin3x
= sinx+   ....
2 3
Example 2:
 x 2 
1
If f(x) = ( ) 2 in (0,2) show that f(x) =  2
co s nx
2 12 n 1 n

Solution:
 x
f(x) = ( )2
2
let
2
1
a0 
 
0
f ( x)dx

2 2
1 1
=
   dx 
0
  ( x   )dx
0
2
1 x
= [[  x]0n  [   x]2 ]
 2
1 2
= [[  2 ]  [2 2  2 2 ]  [   2 ]]
 2
 
= - + 
2 2
1  3 2 3
= [  ]
4 3 3 6

157
 2
1
an 
 
0
f ( x) cos nxdx

2
1  x
=
 (
0
2
) 2 cos nxdx

1 sin nx  cos nx sin nx

= [(  x) 2 .  2(  x)( 1)( )  2( 1) 2 ( 3 )]02
4 n n 2
n
1 sin nx 2(  x ) cos nx 2sin nx
= [(  x) 2   ]02
4 n n2 n3
1 2 2 1
= [ 3  3 ] 2
4 n n n
2
1
bn 
 
0
f ( x) sin nxdx

2
1  x
=
4 (
0
2
) 2 sin nxdx

1 co s nx sin nx cos nx
= [(  x) 2 .( )  2(  x)(1)( 2 )  2( 3 )]02
4 n n n
1  2
2  2
2
= [  3  3]0
4 n n n n
a0  
 f ( x)    an cos nx   bn sin nx
2 n 1 n 1

(  x) 2  2  1
(i.e.)( )    co s nx
2 12 n 1 n 2
Example 3:
Determine Fourier expansion for f(x) = - 0<x<
= x -  <x<2 and show that

1 2

r 1 (2r  1)
2

8

158
Solution:
2
1
a0 
 
0
f ( x)dx

2 2
1 1
=
   dx 
0
  ( x   )dx
0
2
1 x
= [[  x]0n  [   x]2 ]
 2
1 2
= [[  2 ]  [2 2  2 2 ]  [   2 ]]
 2
 
= - + 
2 2
 2
1
an  [   cos nxdx   ( x   ) cos nxdx]
 0 

1  sin nx sin nx 2 cos nx

= [ ( )0  (( x   ) )  1( 2 )2 ]
 n n n
1 cos 2nx cos nx
= [  ]
 n2 n2
1 1  (1) n
= [ ]
 n2
an = 0 when n is even
1 2
= . when n is odd
 n2
 2
1
bn  [   sin nxdx   ( x   ) sin nxdx]
 0

1 cos nx  cos nx 2 sin nx

= {[ ( )]0  [( x   )(  )  (1)(  2 )]2 }
 n n n
1   
= [ (1) n   ]
 n n n
n
(-1) 2
= 
n n
The Fourier series for f(x) is
 2 cos(2r  1) x  2  (1) n

f(x)=-
4
 
 r 0 (2r  1)2

n 1 n
sin nx

f(-0) = - f(+0) = 0

159
 f(  0)  f (  0) -  0 
f(x)= = =-
2 2 2
2 1   
    
 (2r  1) 2
2 4 4

1 2
Therefore  (2r  1)
r 1
2

8
5.5.2 Self Assessment Question – IV
1. Show that for all values of x on (-  ,  ),
x sin 2 x sin 3 x sin 4 x
 sin x     .......
2 2 2 2
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
5.6 Half Range Fourier series
If a function is defined over the range 0 to , instead of 0 to 2 or - to
, it may be expanded in a series of sine terms only or of cosine terms only.
This is particularly useful in the solution of some partial differential equations
whose boundary conditions may restrict us to a series which contains sine terms
only or cosine terms only. The series produced is then called a half range
fourier series. In such cases, we may have to construct a function in the full
range 0 to 2, or - to  in such a way that the fourier expansion for this series
is valid in the half range.
Suppose we are given a function f(x) defined in the interval (0, ). Here
we extend the function in the interval (-,0) and then find the fourier
coefficients in the interval (-,). Such an extended function should converge
to given function f(x) between 0 to  also. For such an extension here we
consider two types of function.
I. Suppose f(x) is defined in the interval (0, ). We define a extension of
f(x) as follows and call the new function as F(x).
Let F(x) = f(x), 0<x<
And F(x) = F(-x), -<x<
Clearly F(x) is an even function in the interval -<x< and is identified with
f(x) in 0<x<.
The Fourier series for F(x) is

160
 
a0  2
F ( x)    an cos nx Where a 0   f ( x)dx
2 n 1 0

2
an 
  f ( x) cos nxdx
0

Since F(x) =f(x) in 0<x<, the function f(x) in 0<x< is given by the expansion
  
Put x = , f( )  k
2 2 2
k 4k 1 1 1
  [ 2  2  2  .....]
2  1 3 5
1 1 1 2
 2  2  2  ..... 
1 3 5 8
II. Suppose f(x) is defined in the interval 0<x<. Then we define as
extension of f(x) as follows:
F(x) = f(x), in 0<x<
=- F(-x), in -<x<
Clearly F(x) is an odd function in the interval -<x< and is identical with f(x)
in 0<x<.
The Fourier series for the odd function F(x) is
 
2
F(x)= bn sin nx Where b n   f ( x)sin nxdx
1  0

Since F(x) =f(x), in 0<x<, the Fourier series for f(x) in 0<x< is
 
2
f(x)= bn sin nx Where bn   f ( x)sin nxdx
1  0

i) A Fourier cosine series of a function f(x) in 0<x<is


a0  2
f ( x)    an cos nx Where a 0   f ( x)dx
2 1 0

2
an 
  f ( x) cos nxdx
0

ii) A Fourier series of f(x) on 0<x< is given by

 
2
f ( x)   bn sin nx Where b n   f ( x)sin nxdx
1  0

161
Example 1:
4k 1
a1  . ; a2  0
 12
4k 1
a3  ( 2 ); a4  0
 3
4k 1
a1  . 2 ; a6  0 etc
 5
Solution:
We note that the given series for f(x) is a cosine series for f9x) in the half
range(0, ).
Therefore let us now find the half range cosine series for f(x).

2
a0 
  f ( x)dx
0

2 
2 2
=
  xdx    (  x)dx
0
2
2
2 x 2 2 x2
= [ ]0  [ x  ]
 2  2 2
2  2
2  2
2 2
= .  [(  )  (  )]
2

 8  2 2 8
 3
=  
4 4

=
2

2 
2 2
an 
  x cos nxdx    (  x) cos nxdx
0
2

2 x sin nx 1.( cos nx)  2 2 sin nx

= [  ]0  [(  x)
 n n 2
 n
-cosnx 
-(-1)( )]
n2 2


2 2 cos n 2 1  cos n
= [  ]
 n2 n2
Also, a1 = 0, a3 = 0, a5 = 0…..

162
 2 4 2 1
a2  [ 2] ( 2 )
 2  1
2 2
a4  2  2  0
4 4
2 2 2 2 4 2 1
a6  [ 2  2 ]  [ 2 2 ]   . 2
 6 6  2 .3  3
2 2 2 2 1
a10  [ 2  2 ]   [ 2 ]
 10 10  5
 2 cos 2 x cos 6 x cos10 x
 f(x) =  (    .....)
4  12 32 52
Example 2:

If f(x) = kx 0  x 
2
= k( -x)   x  ,
2
4k sin x sin 3x sin 5 x 1 1 1 2
Show that  f(x) = [ 2  2  2  .....] and deduce that 2  2  2  ..... 
 1 3 5 1 3 5 8
Solution:
We have to find the half range sine series for f(x)

f ( x)   bn sin nx
1

2 
2 2
bn =
 
0
kx sin nxdx 
  k (  x) sin nxdx

2

2k x( cos nx) 1(  sin nx)  2

= [  ]0
 n n2
2k  cos nx  sin nx 
+ [(  x)( )  ( 1)( )]
 n n2 2

2k sin n 2 sin n 2
 
= [  ]
n n2 n2
2k 2sin n 2

= [ ]
n n2
4k sin n 2

= [ ]
n n2

163
 4k 1
a1  . ; a2  0
 12
4k 1
a3  ( 2 ); a4  0
 3
4k 1
a1  . 2 ; a6  0 etc
 5
4k sin x sin 3 x sin 5 x
 f(x) = [  2  2  .....]
 12 3 5
  
Put x = , f( )  k
2 2 2
k 4k 1 1 1
  [ 2  2  2  .....]
2  1 3 5
1 1 1 2
 2  2  2  ..... 
1 3 5 8
5.6.1 Self Assessment Question - IV
1. If f(x) = x 2 . 0  x   , find the cosine series for f(x)
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
5.7 UNIT QUESTIONS
1. Find the Laplace transform of
Sinht
(i) sinh 5t (ii )
t
 1 
2. Find L1  2 
 S (S  a ) 
2

 1 S 
3. Find the Inverse Laplace Transform of log  
 S 
4. Graph the following function and find its lapalce transform
t 0t  
f (t )   ...  where f(t) = f(t + 2  )
   t   t  2 
5. Obtain the fourier series for f ( x)  x sin xin0  x  2
6. Find the sine Series for the function
f (t )  1 in 0  t  

164
ANSWERS:
5 1  S 1 
1. (i ) ( ii) log  
S  25
2
2  S 1 
1  cos at
2.
a2
1  et
3. f (t ) 
t
1  (1  S )e s
4.
s 2 (1  e s

1 cos nx
5. f ( x)  1   sin x  cos x   2
2 n2 n  1

4  sin x sin 3x sin 5 x 

6. f ( x)      .....
 1 3 5 

165
 BCA / BSc. Computer Science / B.Sc. IT DEGREE EXAMINATION
CORE COURSE – ALLIED MATHEMATICS
MODEL QUESTION
Time : 3 Hours Max. 100 marks
SECTION – A (10 X 2) = 20 MARKS
Answer all Questions
Each question carries 2 marks

a h g 
1. Find the eigen values of  0 b 0 
 
 0 0 c 

2. Form the equation , one of whose roots is 5 3

3. Find the nth derivative of x 2 e5 x

4. If u  2(ax  by ) 2  ( x 2  y 2 )
b c b
5. Prove That 
a
f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
a c


2
6. Evaluate  sin10 xdx
0

7. Evaluate q   px  p 2
8. Solve : x 2 p  y 2 q  z 2

9. find L(t 4  t 2  t  sin 2t

 4 
10. Find L1  2 
 (S  9) 

166
 PART B – (5 X 10 = 50 Marks )
Answer all Questions
0 1 2 
11.(a) Determine the characteristic roots of the matrix  1 0 1
 2 1 0 
 
(Or)
(b) If the roots of the equation x 4  px3  qx 2  r  0 are connected by the
relation     0 Show that p 2 s  r 2  4qs
2a
12(a) Find the (p, r) equation of the curve  1  cos  and hence show that
r
radius of curvature at any point varies as the cube of the focal distance.
(Or)
x  y u u
(b) If u  sin 1    tan 1   show that. x  y 0
 y  x x y

13(a) Find a reduction formula for I n   e  x x n dx
0

(Or)
(b) Solve : ( D 2  2 D  1) y  xe x sin x
14 (a) Solve ( x 2  yz ) p  ( y 2  zx)q  z 2  xy
(Or)
(b) Solve: x 2 p 2  y 2 q 2  z 2
 s 3 
15 (a) Find L1  2 2
 ( s  6s  13) 
(Or)
Cos3t  cos 2t
(b) Find the laplace transform of
t

167
 PART – C ( 5 X 16 = 80 Marks)

 1 1 0 2 1
 
3 1 1 1 2
16 (a) Find the rank of 
4 0 1 0 3
 
 9 1 2 3 7 
(Or)
(b) If  ,  ,  are the roots of the equation x 3  x  1  0
1  1  1 
S.T.    7
1 1  1 
dn n  1 1 1
17 (a) If I n   x log x  P.T ..I n  n ! log x  1    ....  
n 
dx  2 3 n
(Or)
1  2u  2u  2u
(b) If u  , S.T.   0
x2  y 2  z 2 x 2 y 2 z 2

2
18 (a) find a reduction formula for  sin m x cosn xdx
0

(Or)
2 y y
(b) Solve :  5  6 y  e x cos 2 x
x 2
x
19 (a) Solve : ( i ) q 2  p ( ii ) 3 p 2  2q 2  4 pq
(Or)
(b) Solve ( x 2  y 2  z 2 )  2 xyq  2 xz

 sin 2 t 
20 (a) find L  
 t 
(Or)
 2(s  1) 
(b) Find L1  2 2
 (s  2s  2) 

168
 NOTES
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169
 NOTES
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170