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ADS UNIT II Notes

Advanced Data Structure (Anna University)

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Binary Search Tree

In a binary tree, every node can have a maximum of two children but there is no need to
maintain the order of nodes basing on their values. In a binary tree, the elements are arranged
in the order they arrive at the tree from top to bottom and left to right.

A binary tree has the following time complexities...

 Search Operation - O(n)

 Insertion Operation - O(1)

 Deletion Operation - O(n)

To enhance the performance of binary tree, we use a special type of binary tree known as
Binary Search Tree. Binary search tree mainly focuses on the search operation in a binary tree.
Binary search tree can be defined as follows.

Binary Search Tree is a binary tree in which every node contains only smaller values in
its left subtree and only larger values in its right subtree.

In a binary search tree, all the nodes in the left subtree of any node contains smaller values and
all the nodes in the right subtree of any node contains larger values as shown in the following
figure.

Example

The following tree is a Binary Search Tree. In this tree, left subtree of every node contains
nodes with smaller values and right subtree of every node contains larger values.

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Operations on a Binary Search Tree

The following operations are performed on a binary search tree...

 Search

 Insertion

 Deletion

Search Operation in BST

In a binary search tree, the search operation is performed with O(log n) time complexity. The
search operation is performed as follows...

Step 1 - Read the search element from the user.

Step 2 - Compare the search element with the value of root node in the tree.

Step 3 - If both are matched, then display "Given node is found!!!" and terminate the function

Step 4 - If both are not matched, then check whether search element is smaller or larger than
that node value.
Step 5 - If search element is smaller, then continue the search process in left subtree.

Step 6- If search element is larger, then continue the search process in right subtree.

Step 7 - Repeat the same until we find the exact element or until the search element is compared
with the leaf node

Step 8 - If we reach to the node having the value equal to the search value then display "Element
is found" and terminate the function.
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Step 9 - If we reach to the leaf node and if it is also not matched with the search element, then
display "Element is not found" and terminate the function.

Pseudo Code for Searching in BST:

search(element, root)

if !root

return -1

if root.value == element

return 1

if root.value < element

search(element, root.right)

else

search(element, root.left)

Insertion Operation in BST

In a binary search tree, the insertion operation is performed with O(log n) time complexity. In
binary search tree, new node is always inserted as a leaf node. The insertion operation is
performed as follows...
Step 1 - Create a newNode with given value and set its left and right to NULL.

Step 2 - Check whether tree is Empty.

Step 3 - If the tree is Empty, then set root to newNode.

Step 4 - If the tree is Not Empty, then check whether the value of newNode is smaller or larger
than the node (here it is root node).

Step 5 - If newNode is smaller than or equal to the node then move to its left child. If newNode
is larger than the node then move to its right child.

Step 6- Repeat the above steps until we reach to the leaf node (i.e., reaches to NULL).

Step 7 - After reaching the leaf node, insert the newNode as left child if the newNode is smaller
or equal to that leaf node or else insert it as right child.

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Pseudocode for Inserting a Node in BST:

insert (element, root)

Node x = root

Node y = NULL

while x:

y=x

if x.value < element.value

x = x.right

else

x = x.left

if y.value < element

y.right = element

else

y.left = element

Deletion Operation in BST

In a binary search tree, the deletion operation is performed with O(log n) time complexity.
Deleting a node from Binary search tree includes following three cases...

 Case 1: Deleting a Leaf node (A node with no children)

 Case 2: Deleting a node with one child

 Case 3: Deleting a node with two children

Case 1: Deleting a leaf node

We use the following steps to delete a leaf node from BST...

Step 1 - Find the node to be deleted using search operation

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Step 2 - Delete the node using free function (If it is a leaf) and terminate the function.

Case 2: Deleting a node with one child

We use the following steps to delete a node with one child from BST...

Step 1 - Find the node to be deleted using search operation

Step 2 - If it has only one child then create a link between its parent node and child node.

Step 3 - Delete the node using free function and terminate the function.

Case 3: Deleting a node with two children

We use the following steps to delete a node with two children from BST...

Step 1 - Find the node to be deleted using search operation

Step 2 - If it has two children, then find the largest node in its left subtree (OR) the smallest
node in its right subtree.

Step 3 - Swap both deleting node and node which is found in the above step.

Step 4 - Then check whether deleting node came to case 1 or case 2 or else goto step 2

Step 5 - If it comes to case 1, then delete using case 1 logic.

Step 6- If it comes to case 2, then delete using case 2 logic.

Step 7 - Repeat the same process until the node is deleted from the tree.

Pseudo Code for Deleting a Node:

delete (value, root):

Node x = root

Node y = NULL

# searching the node

while x:

y=x

if x.value < value

x = x.right

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else if x.value > value

x = x.left

else if value == x

break

# if the node is not null, then replace it with successor

if y.left or y.right:

newNode = GetInOrderSuccessor(y)

root.value = newNode.value

# After copying the value of successor to the root #we're deleting the successor

free(newNode)

else

free(y)

Example

Construct a Binary Search Tree by inserting the following sequence of numbers...

10,12,5,4,20,8,7,15 and 13

Above elements are inserted into a Binary Search Tree as follows...

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B - Tree

In search trees like binary search tree, AVL Tree, Red-Black tree, etc., every node contains
only one value (key) and a maximum of two children. But there is a special type of search tree
called B-Tree in which a node contains more than one value (key) and more than two children.
B-Tree was developed in the year 1972 by Bayer and McCreight with the name Height
Balanced m-way Search Tree. Later it was named as B-Tree.

B-Tree can be defined as follows...

B-Tree is a self-balanced search tree in which every node contains multiple keys and
hasmore than two children.

Here, the number of keys in a node and number of children for a node depends on the order of
B-Tree. Every B-Tree has an order.

B-Tree of Order m has the following properties...

Property #1 - All leaf nodes must be at same level.

Property #2 - All nodes except root must have at least [m/2]-1 keys and maximum of m-1
keys.

Property #3 - All non leaf nodes except root (i.e. all internal nodes) must have at least m/2
children.

Property #4 - If the root node is a non leaf node, then it must have atleast 2 children.

Property #5 - A non leaf node with n-1 keys must have n number of children.

Property #6 - All the key values in a node must be in Ascending Order.

For example, B-Tree of Order 4 contains a maximum of 3 key values in a node and maximum
of 4 children for a node.

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Operations on a B-Tree

The following operations are performed on a B-Tree...

 Search

 Insertion

 Deletion

Search Operation in B-Tree

The search operation in B-Tree is similar to the search operation in Binary Search Tree. In a
Binary search tree, the search process starts from the root node and we make a 2-way decision
every time (we go to either left subtree or right subtree). In B-Tree also search process starts
from the root node but here we make an n-way decision every time. Where 'n' is the total
number of children the node has. In a B-Tree, the search operation is performed with O(log n)
time complexity.

The search operation is performed as follows...

Step 1 - Read the search element from the user.

Step 2 - Compare the search element with first key value of root node in the tree.

Step 3 - If both are matched, then display "Given node is found!!!" and terminate the function

Step 4 - If both are not matched, then check whether search element is smaller or larger than
that key value.

Step 5 - If search element is smaller, then continue the search process in left subtree.

Step 6 - If search element is larger, then compare the search element with next key value in the
same node and repeate steps 3, 4, 5 and 6 until we find the exact match or until the search
element is compared with last key value in the leaf node.

Step 7 - If the last key value in the leaf node is also not matched then display "Element is not
found" and terminate the function.

Insertion Operation in B-Tree

In a B-Tree, a new element must be added only at the leaf node. That means, the new keyValue
is always attached to the leaf node only. The insertion operation is performed as follows...

Step 1 - Check whether tree is Empty.

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Step 2 - If tree is Empty, then create a new node with new key value and insert it into the tree
as a root node.

Step 3 - If tree is Not Empty, then find the suitable leaf node to which the new key value is
added using Binary Search Tree logic.

Step 4 - If that leaf node has empty position, add the new key value to that leaf node in
ascending order of key value within the node.

Step 5 - If that leaf node is already full, split that leaf node by sending middle value to its parent
node. Repeat the same until the sending value is fixed into a node.

Step 6 - If the spilting is performed at root node then the middle value becomes new root node
for the tree and the height of the tree is increased by one.

Example

Construct a B-Tree of Order 3 by inserting numbers from 1 to 10.

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Red - Black Tree

Red - Black Tree is another variant of Binary Search Tree in which every node is colored either
RED or BLACK. We can define a Red Black Tree as follows...

Red Black Tree is a Binary Search Tree in which every node is colored either RED or
BLACK.

In Red Black Tree, the color of a node is decided based on the properties of Red-Black Tree.
Every Red Black Tree has the following properties.

Properties of Red Black Tree

Property #1: Red - Black Tree must be a Binary Search Tree.

Property #2: The ROOT node must be colored BLACK.

Property #3: The children of Red colored node must be colored BLACK. (There should not be
two consecutive RED nodes).

Property #4: In all the paths of the tree, there should be same number of BLACK colored nodes.

Property #5: Every new node must be inserted with RED color.

Property #6: Every leaf (e.i. NULL node) must be colored BLACK.

Example

Following is a Red-Black Tree which is created by inserting numbers from 1 to 9.

The above tree is a Red-Black tree where every node is satisfying all the properties of Red-
Black Tree.
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Every Red Black Tree is a binary search tree but every Binary Search Tree need not be
Red Black tree.

Insertion into RED BLACK Tree

In a Red-Black Tree, every new node must be inserted with the color RED. The insertion
operation in Red Black Tree is similar to insertion operation in Binary Search Tree. But it is
inserted with a color property. After every insertion operation, we need to check all the
properties of Red-Black Tree. If all the properties are satisfied then we go to next operation
otherwise we perform the following operation to make it Red Black Tree.

 Recolor

 Rotation

 Rotation followed by Recolor

The insertion operation in Red Black tree is performed using the following steps...

Step 1 - Check whether tree is Empty.

Step 2 - If tree is Empty then insert the newNode as Root node with color Black and exit
from the operation.

Step 3 - If tree is not Empty then insert the newNode as leaf node with color Red.

Step 4 - If the parent of newNode is Black then exit from the operation.

Step 5 - If the parent of newNode is Red then check the color of parentnode's sibling of
newNode.

Step 6 - If it is colored Black or NULL then make suitable Rotation and Recolor it.

Step 7 - If it is colored Red then perform Recolor. Repeat the same until tree becomes Red
Black Tree.

Example

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Deletion Operation in Red Black Tree

The deletion operation in Red-Black Tree is similar to deletion operation in BST. But after
every deletion operation, we need to check with the Red-Black Tree properties. If any of the
properties are violated then make suitable operations like Recolor, Rotation and Rotation
followed by Recolor to make it Red-Black Tree.

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Max Heap

Heap data structure is a specialized binary tree-based data structure. Heap is a binary tree with
special characteristics. In a heap data structure, nodes are arranged based on their values. A
heap data structure some times also called as Binary Heap.

There are two types of heap data structures and they are as follows...

 Max Heap

 Min Heap

Every heap data structure has the following properties...

Property #1 (Ordering): Nodes must be arranged in an order according to their values based on
Max heap or Min heap.

Property #2 (Structural): All levels in a heap must be full except the last level and all nodes
must be filled from left to right strictly.

Max Heap

Max heap data structure is a specialized full binary tree data structure. In a max heap nodes are
arranged based on node value.

Max heap is defined as follows...

Max heap is a specialized full binary tree in which every parent node contains greater or equal
value than its child nodes.

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Example

Above tree is satisfying both Ordering property and Structural property according to the Max
Heap data structure.

Operations on Max Heap

The following operations are performed on a Max heap data structure...

 Finding Maximum

 Insertion

 Deletion

Finding Maximum Value Operation in Max Heap

Finding the node which has maximum value in a max heap is very simple. In a max heap, the
root node has the maximum value than all other nodes. So, directly we can display root node
value as the maximum value in max heap.

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Insertion Operation in Max Heap

Insertion Operation in max heap is performed as follows...

Step 1 - Insert the newNode as last leaf from left to right.

Step 2 - Compare newNode value with its Parent node.

Step 3 - If newNode value is greater than its parent, then swap both of them.

Step 4 - Repeat step 2 and step 3 until newNode value is less than its parent node (or) newNode
reaches to root.

Example

Consider the above max heap. Insert a new node with value 85.

Step 1 - Insert the newNode with value 85 as last leaf from left to right. That means newNode
is added as a right child of node with value 75. After adding max heap is as follows...

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Step 2 - Compare newNode value (85) with its Parent node value (75). That means 85 > 75

Step 3 - Here newNode value (85) is greater than its parent value (75), then swap both of them.
After swapping, max heap is as follows...

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Step 4 - Now, again compare newNode value (85) with its parent node value (89).

Here, newNode value (85) is smaller than its parent node value (89). So, we stop insertion
process. Finally, max heap after insertion of a new node with value 85 is as follows...

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Deletion Operation in Max Heap

In a max heap, deleting the last node is very simple as it does not disturb max heap properties.

Deleting root node from a max heap is little difficult as it disturbs the max heap properties. We
use the following steps to delete the root node from a max heap...

Step 1 - Swap the root node with last node in max heap

Step 2 - Delete last node.

Step 3 - Now, compare root value with its left child value.

Step 4 - If root value is smaller than its left child, then compare left child with its right sibling.
Else goto Step 6

Step 5 - If left child value is larger than its right sibling, then swap root with left child otherwise
swap root with its right child.

Step 6 - If root value is larger than its left child, then compare root value with its right child
value.

Step 7 - If root value is smaller than its right child, then swap root with right child otherwise
stop the process.

Step 8 - Repeat the same until root node fixes at its exact position.

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Example

Consider the above max heap. Delete root node (90) from the max heap.

Step 1 - Swap the root node (90) with last node 75 in max heap. After swapping max heap is
as follows...

Step 2 - Delete last node. Here the last node is 90. After deleting node with value 90 from heap,
max heap is as follows...

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Step 3 - Compare root node (75) with its left child (89).

Here, root value (75) is smaller than its left child value (89). So, compare left child (89) with
its right sibling (70).

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Step 4 - Here, left child value (89) is larger than its right sibling (70), So, swap root (75) with
left child (89).

Step 5 - Now, again compare 75 with its left child (36).

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Here, node with value 75 is larger than its left child. So, we compare node 75 with its right
child 85.

Step 6 - Here, node with value 75 is smaller than its right child (85). So, we swap both of them.
After swapping max heap is as follows...

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Step 7 - Now, compare node with value 75 with its left child (15).

Here, node with value 75 is larger than its left child (15) and it does not have right child. So
we stop the process.

Finally, max heap after deleting root node (90) is as follows...

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