CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Jayant Sonawane class XII

has successfully completed the investigatory
project on “TO OBSERVE POLARIZATION
OF LIGHT , under my guidance . The project is
aboustely genuine and doesn’t not involve in any
kind of plagiarism. This is in partial fulfillment of
Physics practical examination CBSE 2025.

EXTERNALS SIGNATURE –

INTERNALS SIGNATURE-

PRINCIPALS SIGNATURE-
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude
to my teacher (Nenu Mam ) who gave me the golden
opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic
(Polarization ), which also helped me in doing a lot of
Research and i came to know about so many new
things I am really thankfull to them.
Secondly I would also like to thank my parents and
friends who helped me a lot in finalizing this project
within the limited time frame.
 INDEX
PAGE NO
Sr. No TOPIC

1 INTRODUCTION
1

2 AIM 4

APPARATUS
5
3

4 PRINCIPLE & THEORY 3

5 PROCEDURE
9
6 OBSERVATIONS 10
7 RESULT
11
8 PRECAUTUIONS 13

9 BIBLOGRAPHY
14
 POLARIZATION OF LIGHT

INTRODUCTION

What Is polarization?
Light is the interaction of electric and magnetic fields
travelling through space. The electric and magnetic
vibrations of a light wave occur perpendicularly to each
other. The electric field moves in one direction and the
magnetic field in another 'perpendicular to each other.
So, we have one plane occupied by an electric field,
another plane of the magnetic field perpendicular to it,
and the direction of travel is perpendicular to both.
These electric and magnetic vibrations can occur
in numerous planes. A light wave that is vibrating
in more than one plane is known as unpolarized
light. The light emitted by the sun, by a lamp or a
tube light are all unpolarized light sources. As you
can see in the image below, the direction of
propagation is constant, but the plane on which the
amplitude occurs are changing.

1
Elliptical Polarization
The electric field of light follows an elliptical
propagation. The amplitude and phase difference
between the two linear components are not equal.

Methods Used in the Polarization ofLight

There are a few methods used in the polarization of
light:
 Polarization by Transmission
 Polarization by Reflection
 Polarization by Scattering
 Polarization by Refraction

2
 PRINCIPLE &THEORY

DISCOVERYOF A POLAROID
Polaroids are artificially prepared dichroic materials. The
great scientist W.H.Herapath artificially invented the
crystalline material called iodosulfate, extracted from
quinine. He named this discovered material herapathite.
Herapathite shows the phenomenonofdichroism. Later in
1934, another great scientist named E. H. Land arranged
these herapathite crystals in the cellulose acetate. He placed
all the crystals with the optic axis parallel to cellulose
acetate. Afterthat,a layer wasformed and inserted between
the two glasses for protection. It resulted in the formation of
sheets that polarized thelight.Thismechanism is calleda
polaroid. Polaroid is used widely for producing polarized
light.
3
AIM :- ‘To observe polarization oflight using Polaroid.

4
APPARATUS :~ Thin glass sheet, a source giving
monochromatic light beam with parallel rays, a
Polaroid.

5
MECHANISM
The phenomenon of selective absorption is also called
dichroism. In this phenomenon, those light waves
whose electric field is vibrating in a plane get
transmitted, which is parallelto the direction ofthe
Orientation of light.The not parallel waves in the
Orientation direction either get absorbed by the
Material or get reflected into the surrounding area.
This phenomenon is used for producing polarized light.
All the polaroids and polarizers are based on this
phenomenon.
Half of its rays remain in the parallel orientation
direction when any light passes and the other half
remain in the perpendicular orientation direction. So,
the material (which showsa property ofselective
absorption) passes the rays in the parallel orientation
direction and reflects the rays in the perpendicular
orientation direction. In thesame way, all the polaroids
and polarizers work.
6
 MALUS LAW
 Malus law is crucial if we want to learn or
understand the polarization properties of light.The
law helps us to study the light intensity relation of
the polariser-analyser. Malus law is named after
Etienne-Louis Malus, who, in the year 1808,
discovered that natural incident light could be
polarized when itwas reflected bya glass surface.
He used calcite crystal for his experiment
 After observing the results, he further put forth a
concept that natural light consisted ofthes- and p-
polarisation and that theywere perpendicularto
each other. Today, this lawis used to define the
intrinsic connection between optics and
electromagnetism as well as demonstrate the
transverse nature ofelectromagnetic waves.
 Malus law statesthatthe intensity of plane-
polarised light that passes through an analyser
varies as the squareof the cosine oftheangle 7

between the plane ofthepolariser and thE

transmission axes of the analyser.
Malus Law Formula
The law helps us quantitatively verify the nature of polarised
light. Let us understand the expression of Malus law
 Point1-When unpolarised light is incident on an ideal
polarizer, the intensity ofthe transmitted light is exactly
half thatofthe incident unpolarised light, no matter how
the polarising axis is oriented.
 Point2 –An ideal polarising filter passes100% of incident
unpolarised light, which is polarised in the direction of
the filter's (Polariser) polarising axis.
From point (1) and point (2), we can assume |=1, cos?
The average value of I [<I>]
We know
<|>=<|~<cos*2 @><cos*2 p >=1/2
Which satisfies point (2) mentioned above.
To show point (1), let us consider o=0
That implies cos’y =1
I=Io
8
To determine the direction of polarisation, we need one
polariser, which is known as analyser oriented, making an
angle (p) with the polariser.

PROCEDURE
Keep the than glass sheet in a horizontal plane surface
with a hole underthe sheet. Take a beam of
monochromatic light having parallel rays and make it
incident on the upper face ofthe glass sheet.

Testing of Polarization.
1. Take a polaroid (P) and ep it in between incident
light and your eyes.
2. Take a monochromatic light source
3. Pass the light using the monochromatic light source
through the polaroid.

OBSERVATIONS
When we place the polaroid in the path of the light
coming from a monochromatic light source, its
intensity decreases.

RESULT
When Polaroid is placed in the path of the light-The
light obtained through polaroid (P) is plane polarised.
The light has transverse nature.
10
SOURCES OF ERROR
1.Malfunction ofmonochromatic light source.
2.Rays not passed parallelly.
3.The experiment should be conducted in a dark
room.
4.It is possible that various dust particles 10
on the light while its path from the source which
resulted in chage ofintensity.
 Circular polarizationTypes of Polarization. 11

Following are the three types of polarization

depending on how the electric field is oriented:

 Linear polarization
 Circular polarization
 Elliptical polarization
12
Linear Polarization
In linear polarization, the electric field of light is
limited to a single plane along the direction of
propagation.

Circular Polarization
There are two linear components in the electric field
of light that are perpendicular to each other such
 13

PRECAUTIONS

This practical uses a class 2 laser. Do not look

directly into the beam, or at any reflections. You
should not alter the beam path, or remove any
optics during this practical. It is good practice to
remove any reflective jewellery such as watches
or rings as these can cause accidental reflections
of the beam when you are adjusting the optics.
 14

Bibliography

1 wikipedia
2 quora
3 class 12 NCERT textbook
4 chemdaily.com
5 chat GPT

14