os com don it for different a here i tof our life. We depen ‘ cy Electricity has become an important part of OXF wishout electricity In this eh , of our day-to-day life. Actually we cannot think of be eo wwe shall study about different aspects of el@cirs y: Electric Current an jeeiccuTER ag i. a Jo understand about electric current We must have knowledge of ele # charge. a : sc charge's the physical property of amatter shat causes itto experience aforcewhg n electromagnetic field. sl mee thae 5 a al al lomb (C). posi = Glectric charge is a scalar quantity. tts SI unit's cOU jomb (C). a The electric charges are of two types positive and negative charges. A substance is foury chk aig Tubbed with silk both the Blass rod and silk dog are found to have-acquired electric charges but of two different types. The kind of charge acquired by the glass rod is by convention taken as positive charge and that by the silk cloths — taken as negative charge. A body having charge is called charged body. to acquire electric-charge. When a glass ro (i) Uke charges (i.e. both positive or both negative) repel each other and unlike charge: (ie., one positive and the other negative) attract each other. (ii) Electric charges can be added algebraically. (ii) Electric charge is conserved, i.e, electric charge can neither be created nor be destroys! but the algebraic, sum of positive and negative charges in an isolated system remains constant (iv) Electric charge is quantized, i.e., a body:has a total charge which is an integral multiple r of charge of an electron (e), where e = 16x 10°"C. g =.ne i « French scientist Charles Coulomb gave a law regarding the force betwe | “fwo point charges and is known as,Coulomb’s law. The law is stated as : \ The force between two point charges at rest is directly proportional to the prodi ; charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. ct@ along the line joining the charges and its value depends on the nature of the interven OO eee ee nature of medium, Let r be the distance between two point charges q, and q,, then following Coulomb's HY the force F between them is given by + e aes 0 Ay 44 -Y and po -v le eae 58 te e Anes a y , A ; eC F sie _Current Electricity %% fe 4 onl Fax 22 ¢ where K is the constant of proportionality, called electrostatic force. constant of, Coulomnb’s_ constant-and depends on the system of unit used and the medium intervening: the charges. Combining, Fe in vacuum or air, the value of K is 9 x 10” Nm? Cin SI pets eae and K = 1 in CGS system. @ Electric potential; The space or region around a charged body within which its influence can be realised by another charge is called electric field of the charged body. Let 2 unit positive charge be placed in the electric field of an charge 20, then the unit positive charge experiences a force of repulsion in the electric field: Thus some work isto Be Gone to bring the unit positive charge from infinity to a point in the electric field of the electric charge #Q. Such a work per unit charge is called electric potential. Thus Electric potential at a point in an electric field is the work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to that point in the electric field. ore x FW be the work done in moving a charge q from infinity to a point in the electric field, then the electric potential, V at the point is given by : i yoo 1V qe faafewal \) + a) anode Siunit of potential is volt (V). The potential at a point is one volt if one joule of work is done in moving one coulomb of charge from infinity to that point in an electric field. CGS unit of electric fiel is stat volt, which is equal to erg per stat Coulomb. lov 4 ‘ores Np 16M, 2o0v —— , Bho 1 stat volt = 300 volt @ Electric potential difference : Consider a vessel having two limbs A and B and fitted with a stop cock S {Fig.1]. Water is poured in the limb A and B to different A levels. When stop cock is opened water from the vessel peered + Sea] A with higher level of water flows to side B and this peered flow continues till the levels of water on two sides =a Ree) become equal. The direction of flow does not depend on the amount of liquid contained in an arm, but only on the difference of levels of liquids in the two arms, The liquid always flows from higher level to lower level and this flow of liquid continues till the levels of liquid ae hes ee FRE in two limbs become equal. Fig. 1one end to the other engy b 6 Physical Science + x wire flow from Inthe same Away, electrons in a conductor oF eae seri conductorif there be electric pressure difference £8 °° © =~ ce the ends of the conductor. Thus, " its is the Electric potential difference ohetween two poin : a unit positive charge from one point to thi e other. FW be the work done in moving a charge q from Po! work done per unit charge in mo, mee Inme int B to point A (Fig.-2); then potery difference (V,—V,) between these two points is given by w Vy- Ve = a SI unit of electric potential difference is volt WV). Electric potential difference is a scalar quantity. @ EMF of Cell : An electric cell consists of two conductors 0 an electrolytic solution in a vessel j {An electric cell maintains a constant potential difference between the two conducts, called electrodes or terminals by a chemical reaction with an electrolyte to obtain a continuos flow of charge between them. A cell converts chemical energy into electrical In a cell, the chemical action creates a difference in concentration of electrons betwee the electrodes of the cell, which results into a potential difference between the electrode called electromotive force (e.m.f) of the cell. When the cell is connected to an exter circuit, electrons or electric current fiows in it. 4 When no current is drawn from a cell, i.e, cell is in open circuit, the potential differen between the terminals of the ceil is called the electromotive force of the cell. i The emf of a celll is characteristics of the cell and depends on the (i) material of t electrodes and (i) the electrolyte used in the cell, but is independent of (a) the shape of th electrodes, (b) distance between the electrodes and (c) the amount of electrolyte. sow a char mag erenconpenehe RST ater OPEa ib she nas ec ircuit. So, emf of a cell may be defined! charge around the complete crt containing the eel aha ae ene e — ing the cell, when the circuit is open. f suitable material dipped The unit of emf is volt (V). ° Terminal voltage of a cell; When current is drawn from a cell, i, the cell is in closed circuit, the potential difference between the electrode. AIR voltage of the cell and is defined as the work done charge around the circuit connected across the te s of the cell is called the tet Per unit charge in carrying a unit positi® rminals of the cell, Thus terminal voltage of a cell is less than the emf and the terminal voltage of a cell is called tte VA od aem ~oo- ig 7 fay avs Open UUMii Current Electricity e Difference between emf and terminal voltage of Seto Terminal voltage of acell “itis the difference of potentials between 1 Itis the difference of potential between thetwo terminals of the cellin open circuit. | the two terminals of the cell in closed circuit. The emf of a cell depends on the type ofacell | 2, Terminal voltage of a cell depends on the and is independent of the resistance in the istance of the external circuit external circuit, > The emf is greater than the potential 3, Terminal voltage of acellis less than emf of the difference between the terminals of the cellin closed circuit, i.e. when current is gall 2 drawn fromthe cell. The term emfis used for the source of 4, The terminal voltage is measured between | eeciccurent: any two points of the electric circuit. . Itis equal to the terminal voltage when cell is in use @ Electriccurrent : Electric currentis the amount of charge flowing through any cross-section ofa conductor in unit time. —— 5. Ifis equal to the terminal voltage when, _cellisnotin use. a If Q amount of charge flows through a cross section.of-a-conductor-in-time-t, then the electric current | is given by eC 4h SI unit of electric current isamperé me ANCE oink siatabh onan Electric current through a conductor is ¢ne ampere if one coulomb of charge flows through any cross section of the conductor in one second, en Se Electric current is a scalar quantity. The direction of electric current is taken by convention as the direction of the flow of positive charges through any cross section | —> Direction of SES { eee current of a conductor. But in a conductor connected to a source of electricity like cell, the electric current is due to the flow of | ape negatively charged electrons in the conductor [Fig. 3]. ee l Fig. 3 ee ewe Sr Denn Example 1. Calculate the current in a circuit if 500C of charge pass through it in 10 minutes. Solution: — Given, Q=500C; t= 10 min=10x 60s Bie SO FB g An t 10x60 6 A 083A) Example 2, An electric bulb draws a current of 0:2A, when the voltage is 220V, Calculate the amount of electric charge flowing through it in 1 hr. Solution: — Given, 1=0:2A; V=220V;t=1hr = 3600s Q =It=0-2x3600=720¢ RE——eS ss ee 10 pass froma point A towa, faving charge of 1 ‘ nd give its d pam? cae ee aa calculate the current in ampere and gt lirection, 9 ,1= 018 Solution: Given, n= 10” electrons, e= 16% 10 Q=ne=10"x1-6x10"»=16C 16. saa one The direction of the current is from B to A. Ohm’s law ly relationship between electric curren, i} George Simon Ohm established experimental! ie ! flowing through a conductor and the potential difference between its ends. The relation i, stated in the form of a law and is known as Ohm’s law. The temperature and other physical conditions remaining constant, the current flowing | jal difference across the ends of the through a conductor is directly proportional to the potent The law is stated as : conductor. If | be the current flowing through a conductor, whose ends are maintained at a potential difference of V, then according to Ohm’s law : Vel or, V=KI where K is constant of proportionality. We find that if V remains unchanged, then | can increase only if K decreases, so K is the opposition to the growth of current. In other word K is the resistance of the conductor and is represented by R. Thus VERI R is called resistance of the conductor and is the property of a conductor to oppose the flow of current through it. t The resistance of a conductor is the ratio of the potential | difference across the ends of a conductor to the current flowing through the conductor. The graph between V and | is a straight line passing through the origin [Fig. 4]. The slope of the graph (Y) gives the resistance R. - ° Me Unit of resistance is Ohm (2). cat vo. destavoriine ss ig. asR=¥ 2. Lohm= Tampere = 1 VA Thus, resistance of a conductor is 1 ohm if a potential difference of 1 volt across the ends of the conductor makes a current of 1 ampere to pass through it,ont Current Electricity 63 eS $$ eee ar pample 4. Calcula # current flow ‘ aa c the resistance of a conductor if current flowing through it Is 0-2A atte e applied potential difference is 0-8 volt. solution: Given, |=02A;V=08V ; sr tonanbenSor Ries pga le5. A 3 Examp! toaster of resistance 100 0 is connected to 220 V line. Calculate the current _ drawn by the toaster. Given, R= 100Q ;V 220 Solution ti 220 Vy nsinorigee Gxample 6. Electric iron when hot draws 2A current when connected to 220V line. Find the stance of the coil of the electric iron. Solution: Given, 1= 2A; V=220V ep vee220 : [ecicdes © E.M.F. and internal resistance of a cell: When current is drawn from 2 cell, t flows from anode to cathode in the external circuit and from cathode to anode inside the cell through the electrolyte to maintain a steady and continuous flow. The resistance offered by the electrolyte inside the cell to the flow of current is called the internal resistance of the cell. 1102 he current Its unit is ohm. If current | is drawn from the cell of internal resistance r, the voltage drop is velr @ Relation between the emf, terminal voltage and internal resistance an external resistance R as shown in th Let a cell of emfE and ternal resistance r is connected to e circuit diagram (Fig. 51 & Total resistance of the circuit = R +r So, the current drawn from the cell, i 4 = smbofthecell | ee or, E=1(R+0) total resistance Ree My MozlR Fig. 5 The terminal voltage of the cell, and voltage drop due to internal resistance of the cell velr From this emf of a cell can also be defined as the work done in carrying a unit positive charge once through a complete ‘ireuit (Ie., external circuit of the cell and through the electrolyte of the cell) is called the electromotive force of the cell. ‘Again, E=V+¥ | resistance r of the cell is or v=E-V So, internalon? ace area of the electrodes, less. iH depends Be larger the surf The internal resistance of (i) The surface area of the electrodes — the internal resistance. ae (ii) The distance between the electrodes larger is the internal resistance. (iii) The concentration and nature 0} Stank i i istance- electrolyte, larger 'S the internal rest perature Sttheelectrolvten al the tem! (iv) The temperature of the electrolyte — higher is the internal resistance. the distance between the electrodes e Jectrolyte — higher the concentration of the f the ele : Itis found that « directly proportional to its length (1), i.e, {j)_ the resistance (R) of a conductor ! Re é (i) the resistance (R) of a conductor is inver sely proportional to its area of Cross section (A), i, Ree a Combining, R = 4 or, where p is the constant of proportionality called the resistivity or specific resistance of the conductor. When ¢=1, A=1, the p=R Thus, The resistivity of a conductor is the resistance of cross section at a constant temperature. The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-metre (Qm) andi cm (Q cm). The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity. It’s SI unit is (ohm) (metre)? or Q'm*. The reciprocal of ohm is called mho or siemen (S), so SI unit of conductivity is siemen (metre)? or Sm”. of the conductor of unit length and unit area in CGS system, it is statohm-cm and abohm- e : The substances which allow electric current to flow easily through them are called conductors, i.e., the conductors have low resistance and resistivity. Resistances of conductors increase with increase of temperature. 4 Metals are usually good conductors of electricity having low value of resistivity. Examples are silver, copper, aluminium, lead, tungsten, iron, tin, steel, etc, The: a ie in decreasing conductivity. The resistivity of a metal increases with increase Intercell Alloys like brass, manganin, constantan, nichi y ss, ' |, nichrome etc. are al lectrici but their resistivity remain almost unchanged with increase Ree cordate ae perature. Again, there are substances which are ve a : ry poor con ici values of resistivity are called insulators, ductor of electricity having very high Examples of insulators are wood, glass, di , glass, diamond, amber, mica r mica, polythene, rubber etc.Current Electricity Insulators are Used to protect us from the electric shocks. We wear rubber shoes and gloves while working with electric circuits and equipments. For the same purpose handles of screw drivers are made of wood or plastic, household electric wires are covered with rubber or plastic claddings. Itis observed experimentally that resistance of some substance like lead, tin etc. decreases very much on decreasing the temperature and becomes almost zero near absolute zero temperature, The substances in this condition are called superconductors. Once a current is passed through a superconductor, the current persists for very long time without applying any voltage across it: Thus the resistance of a superconductor is almost zero or its conductance is infinite Some of the superconductors are mercury below 4:2 K, lead below 7-2 K, niobiurn below 9-2 Keete. Only difficulty for using superconductors is to attain, such a low temperature. Researches are in progress for discovering some superconductors which can work at comparatively higher temperature The resistivity of conductors such as metals increases with the increase in their temperature [Fig.6]. While for semiconductors it decreases with the increase of temperature [Fig. 7). For superconductors pdecreases and becomes almost zero near absolute zero temperature [Fig.8) z eee ity Fig. 6 7 Fig. 8 lel « n : In different electrical circuits more than one resistance are connected together. This is known as combination of resistances. If 2 resistance be so taken that it can replace the combination of resistances in the circuit and in that case the current flowing through the circuit and its potential difference remain unchanged, then the resistance is known as equivalent resistance. Usually two types of combinations are used, these are : (i) Series combination and (ii) Parallel combination. (i) Series combination : In this combination, resistances are so connected that extreme end of one resistance is joined to the beginning end of the next resistance and so on [Fig. 9]. In this connection same current flows through all the resistances. If three resistances r,, rand r, be connected in series and if their equivalent , 5 k resistance be 1, then it can be shown that. bs WW AWW Ao A B c . [ents ie, if a number of resistances be connected in series, Fig. 9 then their equivalent resistance would be equal to the sum of the resistances, (ii) Parallel combination : In this combination one ends of all the resistances are connected at a point, while other ends to another point (Fig, 10]. Here main current is divided into different branches depending on the resistance of a branch. Same potential is applied at the ends of each resistance. If r, r, and r, be the three resistances connected in parallel, thenx _ 66 Physical Sclence’: iancee vom Fn in the branches with res yt and | from Fig, 10, let the current / be distributed in the wf Ay i, and i, respectively. Thus i= i, + /) + ls .d to the same points A and B, so from Ohms, The ends of each resistance are connecte’ YA=¥ for resistance r,, i, =“, for resistance r,, i, = Va for resistance ry, i, = : i 5 If the equivalent resistance of the combination be circuit is given by Ma=Ma , Ya=¥e | Yas a then current passing through isi,th tiie i nee ‘ a on . [tr be the equivalent resistance of the combination be % a= /, ; ey, j= MAME Thus, YAM 2 YaMe , Marta Yate Loewlagaatinn aly Egan Te , if resistances be joined in parallel then reciprocal of their equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. © Demonstration of series and Parallel connections ; To show Fig. 10 the role of resistance in controlling current in an electrical circuit we use dry cell, key and torch bulbs. In the three circuits are shown the change in the brightness of light of the bulbs with changes in ; the resistance of the circuit. A torch bulb is ae 2 u iy if actually a high resistance coil of wire. A bulb 3 glows more brightly, when larger current passes 2i ® 5 ©) a through it. When current / is Passed through the bulb in Fig. 11(a), it glows brightly. In Fig. 11(b) “ ¥ F Fig. 11 two bulbs are connected in series, i.e., resistance of the circuit becomes double and the current through each bulb becomes i2 ant each bulb glows less brightly. In Fig 11(c), two bulbs are connected in parallel, so total resistance of the circuit would be half of the first case and thus main current would be 2i. This currents equally divided through each bulb and so each bulb glows again as brightly as in the first case ee Example 7. Three resistors of resistances R, = 100, R, = 20Q and R; = 300 are connectedin series. Find their effective resistance, Solution: Given, R, = 102, Ry = 202 and R, = 30 When they are connected in series, let the effective resistance be RQ, then R=R, +R, +R, = 10420430 =60Qiat Current Electricity i” imple 8. How many resistors of resistance 4400 connected in parallel would give equivalent resistance of 440. ? solution : Let there be n number of resistors of resistance 4409 When they are parallel the equivalent resistance becomes 442, so or eae a4 ~ 400 * 440 * a0 * connected in nen ewing: * §a0, Q 2s a eee iors sam or Example 9. Three resistors of resistances 70, 50 and 100 are connected in a circuit as shown in the Fig. 12. Find the resistance of the circuit between the points A and B. = solution ; Two resistors of resistances 5Q and 10Q are 50 connected in parallel, their equivalent resistance 70 R, is given by Sve a a ae taea lens Se By S 10,440) 10 Now, R, and 7 resistances are connected in series, so there equivalent resistance Rag is given by me 10:33Q electric current in them. Thus electrical energy is converted into heat energy. A Let a coductor AB be connected to an electric cell [Fig 13] and the <—v— potential difference applied across the ends of the conductor be V. 1 » Now, the potential difference is the amount of work done in mi carrying a unit positive charge from one point to another point of the conductor. So, if W be the work done to carry the charge q from Fig. 13 one end to the other end of the conductor, then worl Ww caret’ = gO meee If current | flows through the conductor for time t, then total charge flowing through the conductor is given by qzit So, W=VIt This work done W is equal to heat (H) produced in the conductor, i.e., potential difference = ry vit x A= Vit in joule and H= ~~ calories Using Ohm’s law, V = IR, where R is the resistance of the conductor, ather forms of H are, i vi a z H=P Rt Joule or H=" t jouleand H= oe calorie and H = “ calorie dt In these expressions, when Vis in volt, / in ampere, R in ohm and t in second, then heat produced H is in joule. Madhy. Phy. Se. (X) - 61x Physical Science ‘68 = =aporhet produced due to electric currany heati + Based on the amot + ina given interval of bound above Joule stated three laws, these are : The amount of Neat produced in a conducto to the square of the current passed, stant. Hee P when Rand tare kept cons! herern kva EEE: the amount of heat produced in a conductor by agivenc BiVEN time is proportional to the resistance of the conductor. /.e. Woe R when /and t are kept constant BEER : the amount of heat produced in a given conductor by a given current, proportional to the time for which the current passes. i.¢., He t when /and R are constant Combining the three laws, He /? Rt When /, Rand tare in Sl and His in joule, then H = Rt joule When heat is measured in calorie, then 2 FRE calorie wi mechanical equivalent of heat = 4:2 joule (calorie) > This expression can also be written as H = 0-24 |* Rt calorie © Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current : There are many applications of heating effect of electric current in our daily life. Electric lamps, irons, heater etc. are some of them & (i) Electric iron : In this a thin but long wire of nichrome is kept coiled and sandwitched between two sheets of mica where [Fig. 14(2)]- This is called heating a element of the iron. The element is kept inside two iron & external body of the iron. On passing current through the plates and the heating element = is kept insulated from the Gayl element it gets heated and the (qgrelion Electic Sl iron in turn becomes hot, heating element b) © “bub Resistivity and melting point of (a) ‘ . nichrome is very high, so it is Fig, 14 used in the electric iron, (ii) Electric heater : In this a thin and long wire of nichrome i a ir 5 : e is kept ral grooves of a porcelain block [Fig.14 (b)]- This block is kept in Ae ee is arrangement for making electrical connection with two ends of the coil (iii) Electric bulb : There is a filament of a thin wire of tun he i 24(c)]. The melting point of the filament wire Is very high (~ 3380°C) and ap sic nt He | _temperature. It is enclosed in glass bulb and fixed over an insulated susan ere Rae isZz : Current nt jth inactive gases like ,; at Electricit a wit ike: y Sl stance of the thin filament"O8en faa tt 63 lent Wire is vec ny Which in 8 ric currel electric current passe. e creases the ti ei, |aet S throu, TY high, 5 6 the life of the filament wire. iy ament becomes white, fy ih the filament, 00,3, 2"8€ amount of heat is produced in it | Be Ot and em nents Due to this produce vj Blectre Fuse Iisa safety gays Hsht an s large amount of heat produced, Y devicg id heat. ismade of a material havi © cone : raving very | ted in series with an electric circuit. The fuse ae F ti js made of tin-lead alloy, tin 7594". meltin | jsothrough the fuse aire, a lead 2594. ne Point and high resistivity. Usually @ fuse 5%. When | |fe produced in the fuse wine, geemount of heat i large current passes through a circuit | ire, Produced. As a result, a large amount | gecreuit stops and saves the circuit Zi Melts it a ; ; ot a eee is broken. So the flow of current through | soa fuse means if an electric current of . il melt and circuit will be disconnected enn Electrical power ric power is the ii sic ase ae of electric energy consumed in a circuit per unit time. te ergy consumed in a circuit in t seconds, then the electric power P is —time ig in 10A passes through that fuse wire, it ven by ae | Again, electric energy, W = Vit Vit eV t $9, electric power may be defined as the product of potential difference applied to the eemmnting ‘ituitand the current flowing through it. em. Again, V = IR ——hed So, P=/R andP R Units of power : SI unit of power is watt (W). Itis also the practical unit. We know, P= VI j fy 1 watt = 1 volt x 1 ampere = 1VA | Electric is 1 watt if 1 ampere current flows through 2 circuit having 1 volt of potential ic power is Mm ‘iference. 7 Bigger unit of power is kilowatt. sj siowoet (KW) 10°W ve | wer (HP): ——ulb | Another unit of power '® horsepo' ua h energy neTne: elects supply sells electrical energy to the Commercial unit of electric nd itis called’ units Le, cal | ‘ONsuy lied kilowatt-hour (kWh) @ =(j mers in a unit cal sdnit=t kWh er ‘consumed by 1000 W electric hour is the amount of electric enerBy ig. Lunit or one kilowatt iF ne le eh meee ice when it ope! sts,