CEGEP Vanier College Instructor: Roger Hajjar

Faculty of Sciences and Technology 203-NYC-05 Waves, Optics & Modern Physics
Physics Department Course Summaries

Addition of Waves
Standing Waves - Beats - Interference

1 When waves meet

It is very important to remember that looking at waves, these three components are key:
1. There is a source, an oscillator
2. The oscillation travels through the medium = The wave. The wave speed is set by the properties
of the medium
3. A detector measures ”the wave”. It actually detects the oscillation
The local view of a wave, at a given position, one sees an oscillation

When waves arrive at a certain point, we end up with the addition of oscillations since it is the
by product of the addition of forces. Are these forces in the same direction, opposite direction, same
magnitude, etc. And thus, we get to the superposition principle:

y = y1 + y2 + y3 + ... (1)
For 2 harmonic waves:

y = A1 sin (k1 x ± ω1 t + ϕ1 ) + A2 sin (k2 x ± ω2 t + ϕ2 ) (2)

In the equation of an harmonic wave, the term

ψ = kx ± ωt + ϕ

is know as the phase. It determines uniquely, the displacement and velocity of any point x on the
wave at any time t. It provides you with the state of the oscillations.

1.1 Useful Trigonometric Identities

   
A+B A−B
sin(A) + sin(B) = 2 sin cos
2 2
   
A−B A+B
sin(A) − sin(B) = 2 sin cos
2 2
   
A+B A−B
cos(A) + cos(B) = 2 cos cos
2 2
   
A+B A−B
cos(A) − cos(B) = 2 sin sin
2 2
2 Standing waves
Standing waves are produced by the addition of two waves of the same frequency travelling in
opposite direction. Standing waves are understood as the resonant oscillations of systems, in our
case, linear systems such as strings, tube of airs or any other such system. We thus write the two
waves as:

y1 = A sin(kx − ωt)
y2 = A sin(kx + ωt)

Their sum gives:

y = 2A sin(kx) cos(ωt) (3)
This results in a non-travelling waves, as there is no term (x − vt), thus the term standing wave.
Nothing is travelling anymore. Material points vibrate with simple harmonic oscillations of angular
frequency ω and whose amplitude is dependent on their position, 2Asin(kx).

Key findings:
1. The maximum amplitude of the standing wave, 2A, is twice the amplitude of the individual
waves that formed it, A
λ
2. Points that do not vibrate are separated by 2. They are called nodes.
λ
3. Antinodes are points that vibrate with maximum amplitude. They are also separated by 2
4. Successive antinodes have opposite phases. When one is at y = 2A, the next one has y = −2a

2.1 Vibrating Air Tubes and Strings

Strings may be held at both ends, free at both ends, or held at one and free at the other. Air tubes
may be closed at both ends, open at both, or closed at one and free at the other.

2.2 Identical at both ends

The length of the tube or string is an integer number of loops (bananas), the ”loop” having a size
equal to λ2 . Then:

λ
L=n
2
v
f =n
2L

where L is the length of the tube or string, and v is the wave speed in the medium of concern.
Interesting facts:
 1. The fundamental resonant frequency is
v
f1 =
2L
(n = 0). All other frequencies are called overtones, with the one for n = 2 being the first
overtone.
2. The resonant frequencies are called harmonics with the fundamental being the first harmonic.
3. All harmonics may be written as fn = nf1
4. The difference between two successive harmonics is fn − fn+1 = f1

2.3 Different at the ends

The length of the tube or string is an integer number of loops (bananas) plus half a loop, the ”loop”
having a size equal to λ2 . The lowest frequency corresponds to half a loop. Then:
 
1 λ
L= n−
2 2
v
f = (2n − 1)
4L

where L is the length of the tube or string, and v is the wave speed in the medium of concern.
Interesting facts:
1. The fundamental resonant frequency is
v
f1 =
4L
.
2. The resonant frequencies are called harmonics with the fundamental being the first harmonic.
3. All harmonics may be written as fn = (2n − 1)f1
4. The difference between two successive harmonics is fn − fn+1 = 2f1

3 Beats
Beats are produced when two waves of different frequencies are combined. Beats are mostly identified
when the difference between the frequencies of the two waves is small compared to the frequency of
any one of them. In terms of addition of waves, we may write:

y1 = A sin(k1 x − ω1 t)
y2 = A sin(k2 x − ω2 t)
Their sum gives:
   
k1 − k2 ω1 − ω2 k1 + k2 ω1 + ω2
y = 2A cos x− t sin x− t (4)
2 2 2 2

At a given value of x, at the detector, we will have two frequencies: one is the average of the original
frequencies, the other is half of the difference, much slower that modulates the amplitude of the
faster frequency. The beats are double this slow frequency. That is:

fb = |f1 − f2 | (5)

Knowing there is no way one may distinguish between individual frequencies with beats, for a given
frequency f1 there are two possible frequencies that will produce the same outcome fb . These are

f2 = f1 + fb
f2 = f1 − fb

4 Interference
Interference is the term used for the ”collision” of waves. However, under that term, we like to look
at pattern that are relatively stable in space or time as they present interesting applications and
perspectives on the phenomenon of waves. We are mostly interested to identify situation where the
two waves are totally in opposition, we call them destructive interference, and situation where the
two waves are totally äcting” in unison, we call them constructive interference.

To know how waves interference, the key is to look at the phase difference. In most general
terms, we have:

ψ2 − ψ1 = (k2 r2 − ω2 t + ϕ2 ) − (k1 r1 − ω1 t + ϕ1 ) (6)

For constructive interference, we should have

ψ2 − ψ1 = ±2mπ (7)

For destructive interference, we should have:

ψ2 − ψ1 = ±(2m + 1)π (8)

We are interested in the particular case where the phase constants are equal and when the two
waves have the same frequency. This leads to:
 k(r2 − r1 ) = ±2mπ
r2 − r1 = ±mλ
and
k(r2 − r1 ) = ±(2m + 1)π
λ
r2 − r1 = ±(2m + 1)
2

The first two equations identify the condition for constructive interference, while the last two those
for destructive interference.