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Fig. 139.—May Fly. What order (see table)?

Fig. 140.—Silver
Scale. (Order?)

Wasp (Fig. 122)

Weevil (Fig. 163)
Squash bug (Fig. 184)
Ant lion (Fig. 170)
Dragon fly (Fig. 177)
Ichneumon fly (Fig. 159)
House fly (Fig. 172)
Flea (Fig. 173)
Silver scale or earwig (Fig. 140)
Codling moth (Fig. 141)
Botfly (Fig. 138)

Moths and Butterflies.—Order ____? Why ____ (p. 82)?

The presence of scales on the wings is a never-failing test of a moth
or a butterfly. The wings do not fold at all. They are so large and the
legs so weak and delicate that the butterfly keeps its balance with
difficulty when walking in the wind.
The maxillæ are developed to form the long sucking proboscis.
How do they fit together to form a tube? (See Fig. 147.) The proboscis
varies from a fraction of an inch in the “miller” to five inches in some
tropical moths, which use it to extract nectar from long tubular
flowers. When not in use, it is held coiled like a watch spring under
the head (Fig. 148). The upper lip (labrum), under lip (labium), and
lip fingers (labial palpi) are very small, and the mandibles small or
wanting (Fig. 146).
The metamorphosis is complete, the contrast between the
caterpillar or larva of the moth and the butterfly and the adult form
being very great. The caterpillar has the three pairs of jointed legs
typical of insects; these are found near the head (Fig. 141). It has also
from three to five pairs of fleshy unjointed prolegs, one pair of which
is always on the last segment. How many pairs of prolegs has the
silkworm caterpillar? (Fig. 143.) The measuring worm, or looper?
(Fig. 136.) The pupa has a thin shell. Can you see external signs of
the antennæ, wings, and legs in this stage? (Fig. 143.) The pupa is
concealed by protective coloration and is sometimes inclosed in a
silken cocoon which was spun by the caterpillar before the last
moult. Hairy caterpillars are uncomfortable for birds to eat. The
naked and brightly marked ones (examples of warning coloration)
often contain an acrid and distasteful fluid. The injuries from
lepidoptera are done in the caterpillar stage. The codling moth (Fig.
141) destroys apples to the estimated value of $6,000,000 annually.
The clothes moth (Fig. 171) is a household pest. The tent caterpillar
denudes trees of their leaves. The only useful caterpillar is the
silkworm (Fig. 143). In Italy and Japan many of the country
dwellings have silk rooms where thousands of these caterpillars are
fed and tended by women and children. Why is the cabbage butterfly
so called? Why can it not eat cabbage? Why does sealing clothes in a
paper bag prevent the ravages of the clothes moth?
Flight of Lepidoptera.—Which appears to use more exertion to
keep afloat, a bird or a butterfly? Explain why. Of all flying insects
which would more probably be found highest up mountains? How
does the butterfly suddenly change direction of flight? Does it usually
fly in a straight or a zigzag course? Advantage of this? Bright colours
are protective, as lepidoptera are in greatest danger when at rest on
flowers. Are the brightest colours on upper or under side of wings of
butterfly? Why? (Think of the colours in a flower.) Why is it better
for moths to hold their wings flat out when at rest? Where are moths
during the day? How can you test whether the colour of the wings is
given by the scales?
State how moths and butterflies differ in respect to: body,
wings, feelers, habits.
Insects and Flowers.—Perhaps we are indebted to insects for
the bright colours and sweet honey of flowers. Flowers need insects
to carry their pollen to other flowers, as cross-fertilization produces
the best seeds. The insects need the nectar of the flowers for food,
and the bright colours and sweet odours are the advertisements of
the flowers to attract insects. Flowers of brightest hues are the ones
that receive the visits of insects. Moths, butterflies, and bees carry
most pollen (see Beginners’ Botany, Chap. VI).
Comparative Study.—Make a table like this, occupying entire
page of notebook, leaving no margins, and fill in accurately:—
Grasshopper Butterfly Fly Dragon Beetle Bee
pp. Fly p. pp. 90, pp.
92, 93 91 88,
93 89
Number and kind
of wings
Description of
legs
Antennæ (length,
shape, joints)
Biting or sucking
mouth parts
Complete or
incomplete
metamorphosis
.
To the Teacher: These illustrated studies require slower and more careful
study than the text. One, or at most two, studies will suffice for a lesson. The
questions can be answered by studying the figures.

Figs. 141–148. Illustrated Study of Lepidoptera.—Study the stages in the

development of codling moth, silkworm moth, and cabbage butterfly.
Where does each lay its eggs? What does the larva of each feed upon? Describe
the pupa of each. Describe the adult forms. Find the spiracles and prolegs on the
 silkworm. Compare antennæ of moth
and butterfly. Which has larger body
compared to size of wings?
Describe the scales from a butterfly’s
wings as seen under microscope (144).
How are the scales arranged on moth’s
wing (145)? By what part is scale
attached to wing? Do the scales
overlap?
Study butterfly’s head and proboscis
(Figs. 146–148). What shape is
compound eye? Are the antennæ
jointed? Is the proboscis jointed? Why
not call it a tongue? (See text.)
Which mouth parts have almost
disappeared? What is the shape of cut
ends of halves of proboscis? How are
the halves joined to form a tube?
If you saw a butterfly on a flower, for
Fig. 141.—Codling Moth, from egg to what purpose would you think it was
adult. (See Farmers’ Bulletin, p. 95.) there? What, if you saw it on a leaf?
How many spots on fore wing of female
cabbage butterfly? (Fig. 124, above.)
Does the silkworm chrysalis fill its
cocoon?
Figs. 149–161. Illustrated Study
of Bees and their Kindred.—Head
of worker (Fig. 149): o, upper lip; ok,
chewing jaws; uk, grasping jaws; kt,
jaw finger; lt, lip finger; z, tongue.
How do heads of drone (150) and
queen (151) differ as to mouth, size of
the two compound eyes, size and
position of the three simple eyes? Is
the head of a worker more like head of
drone or head of queen? Judging by
the head, which is the queen, drone,
and worker in Figs. 154–156? Which of
the three is largest? Smallest? Fig. 142.—Cabbage Butterfly, male and
Broadest? female, larva and pupa.
Figure 152 shows hind leg of worker.
What surrounds the hollow, us, which
serves as pollen basket? The point, fh, is a tool for removing wax which is secreted
 (c, Fig. 157) between rings
on abdomen. In Fig. 158,
find relative positions of
heart, v, food tube, and
nerve chain. Is crop, J, in
thorax or abdomen? In
this nectar is changed to
honey, that it may not
spoil. Compare nerve
chain in Fig. 132.
Compare the cells of
bumble bee (Fig. 153) with
those of hive bee. They
differ not only in shape
but in material, being
made of web instead of
wax, and they usually
contain larvæ instead of
honey. Only a few of the
queens among bumble
bees and wasps survive
the winter. How do ants
and honey bees provide
for the workers also to
Fig. 143.—Life History of Silkworm. survive the winter? Name
all the social insects that
you can think of. Do they
all belong to the same order?
The ichneumon fly shown enlarged in Fig. 159 lays its eggs under a caterpillar’s
skin. What becomes of the eggs? The true size of the insect is shown by the cross
lines at a. The eggs are almost microscopic in size. The pupæ shown (true size) on
caterpillar are sometimes mistaken for eggs. The same mistake is made about the
pupa cases of ants. Ichneumon flies also use tree-borers as “hosts” for their eggs
and larva. Is this insect a friend of man?
The digging wasp (Figs. 160 and 161) supplies its larva with caterpillars and
closes the hole, sometimes using a stone as pounding tool. Among the few other
uses of tools among lower animals are the elephant’s use of a branch for a fly
brush, and the ape’s use of a walking stick. This wasp digs with fore feet like a dog
and kicks the dirt out of the way with its hind feet.
Are the wings of bees and wasps more closely or less closely veined than the
wings of dragon flies? (Fig. 177.)
Illustrated Study of Beetles.
 Illustrated Study of
Beetles (Figs. 162–169).—
Write the life history of the
Colorado beetle, or potato
bug (Fig. 169), stating where
the eggs are laid and
describing the form and
activities of each stage (the
pupal stage, b, is passed in the
ground).
Do the same for the May
Fig. 145.—Scales beetle (Figs. 167–168). (It is a
on Moth’s Wing. larva—the white grub—for
three years; hogs root them
up.) Beetles, like moths, may
be trapped with a lantern set above a tub of water.
Where does a Scarab (or sacred beetle of the
Egyptians), also called tumble bug (Fig. 164), lay
its eggs (Fig. 165)? Why?
Fig. 144.—Scales from
How does the click beetle, or jack snapper (Fig. Butterflies’ Wings, as seen
166), throw itself into the air? For what purpose? under microscope.
The large proboscis of the weevil (Fig. 163) is
used for piercing a hole in which
an egg is laid in grain of corn, boll of cotton,
acorn, chestnut, plum, etc.
How are the legs and body of the diving beetle
suited for swimming (Fig. 162)? Describe its
Fig. 148.— larva.
Head of What is the shape of the lady bug (Fig. 97)? It
Butterfly feeds upon plant lice (Fig. 185). Is any beetle of
(side view). benefit to man?

Fig. 146.—
Head of
Butterfly.
 Fig. 147.—Section of
Proboscis of butterfly showing
Fig. 149. lapping joint and dovetail joint.

Fig. 151. Fig. 150.

Fig. 153.

Fig. 152.
 Fig. 155. Fig. 154.

Fig. 157.
Fig. 156.

Fig. 158.—Anatomy of bee.

Fig. 159.—Ichneumon fly.

 Fig. 161.—Wasp using pebble.

From Peckham’s “Solitary Wasps,”

Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Fig. 160.

Fig. 163.—
Weevil.

Fig. 162.—Diving beetle (Dytiscus), with larva, a.

 Fig. 165.
Fig. 164.

Fig. 166.—Click beetle.

Fig. 168. Fig. 167.—May Beetle.

Fig. 169.—Colorado beetle (potato bug).

 Fig. 170.—Life history of ant lion.

Illustrated Study of Ant Lion, or Doodle Bug (Fig. 170).—Find the pitfall
(what shape?); the larva (describe it); the pupa case (ball covered with web and
sand); the imago. Compare imago with dragon fly (Fig. 177).
How does ant lion prevent ant from climbing out of pitfall (see Fig. 170)? What is
on edge of nearest pitfall? Explain.
Ant lions may be kept in a box half filled with sand and fed on ants. How is the
pitfall dug? What part of ant is eaten? How is unused food removed?
How long is it in the larval state? Pupal state? Keep net over box to prevent adult
from flying away when it emerges.
Illustrated Study of Insect Pests (Figs. 171–176).—Why does
the clothes moth (171) lay its eggs upon woollen clothing? How
does the larva conceal itself? The larva can cut through paper and
cotton, yet sealing clothes in bags of paper or cotton protects them.
Explain.
The house fly eats liquid sweets. It lays its eggs in horse dung.
Fig. 171. Describe its larval and pupal forms. Banishing horses from city
would have what beneficial effect?
 Fig. 172.—Metamorphosis of
house fly (enlarged).

Describe
Fig. 173.—Metamorphosis of flea. the louse
and its
eggs, which
are shown attached to a hair,
natural size and enlarged.
Describe the bed bug.
Benzine poured in cracks kills
bed bugs. Do bed bugs bite or
suck? Why are they wingless?
Describe the larva, f, pupa, g, Fig. 174.—Louse and
and the adult flea, all shown its eggs attached to a
enlarged. Its mandibles, b, b, hair. Natural size and
are used for piercing. To kill magnified.
Fig. 175.—Bed bug. × 5. fleas lather dog or cat
completely and let lather
remain on five minutes before washing. Eggs are laid
and first stages passed in the ground.
How does the mosquito lay its eggs in the water without drowning (176)? Why
are the eggs always laid in still water? Which part of the larva (wiggletail) is held to
the surface in breathing? What part of the pupa (called tumbler, or bull head) is
held to the surface in breathing? Give differences in larva and pupa. Where does
pupa change to perfect insect? Describe mouth parts of male mosquito (at left) and
female (at right). Only female mosquitoes suck blood. Males suck juice of plants.
Malarial mosquito alights with hind end of body raised at an angle. Why does
killing fish and frogs increase mosquitoes? 1 oz. of kerosene for 15 ft. of surface of
water, renewed monthly, prevents mosquitoes.
What is the use to the squash bug (Fig. 184) of having so bad an odour?
Fig. 176.—Life history of mosquito.
 Fig. 177. Illustrated Study of Dragon Fly.—3 shows dragon fly
laying its eggs in water while poised on wing. Describe the larval form
(water tiger). The extensible tongs are the maxillæ enlarged. The
pupa (1) is active and lives in water. Where does transformation to
adult take place (5)? Why are eyes of adult large? its legs small?
Compare front and hind wings.

Do the eyes touch each other? Why is a long abdomen useful in

flight? Why would long feelers be useless? What is the time of
greatest danger in the development of the dragon fly? What other
appropriate name has this insect? Why should we never kill a dragon
fly?

Illustrat
ed Study
of Spiders
(Figs. 178–
183).—The
tarantula,
like most
spiders, has
eight
simple eyes
(none
compound) Fig. 179.—Trap-door
. Find them spider.
(Fig. 178).
How do
spiders and insects differ in body?
Fig. 178.—The tarantula. Number of legs? Which have more
 j
o
i

Fig. 180.

nts to legs? Does trap- Fig. 181.—Anatomy of spider.

door spider hold the
doo
r
clo
sed
(Fi
g.
179
)?
Fig. 182.—Laying egg. Ho
w Fig. 183.—Foot of spider.
ma
ny pairs of spinnerets for spinning web
has a spider (Spw, 180)? Foot of spider has how many claws? How many combs on
claws for holding web? Spiders spin a cocoon for holding eggs. From what part of
abdomen are eggs laid (E, 182; 2, 181)? Find spider’s air sacs, lu, Fig. 181; spinning
organs, sp; fang, kf; poison gland, g; palpi, kt; eyes, au; nerve ganglia, og, ug;
sucking tube, sr; stomach, d; intestine, ma; liver, le; heart, h, (black); vent, a. Give
two reasons why a spider is not an insect. How does it place its feet at each step
(Fig. 110)? Does the size of its nerve ganglia indicate great or little intelligence?
Why do you think first part of body corresponds to both head and thorax of
insects?
The following Farmer’s Bulletins, (revised to 1921) are available for
distribution to those interested, by the United States Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D.C.—

Farmer’s Bulletin No. 47, Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant; No.
447, Bee Keeping; No. 440, The Peach Twig Borer; No. 120, The
Principal Insects Affecting the Tobacco Plant; No. 856, Important
Insecticides; No. 835, The Principal Insect Enemies of Growing
Wheat; No. 799, Carbon Bisulphide as an Insecticide; No. 243,
Insecticides and Fungicides; No. 152 (revised) Mange in Cattle; No.
155, How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts; No. 492, The
Control of the Codling Moth; No. 172, Scale Insects and Mites on
Citrus Trees; No. 196, Usefulness of the Toad; No. 209, Controlling
the Boll Weevil in Cotton Seed and at Ginneries; No. 211, The Use of
Paris Green in Controlling the Cotton Boll Weevil; No. 872, The
Cotton Bollworm; No. 848, The Control of the Boll Weevil; No. 223,
Miscellaneous Cotton Insects in Texas; No. 908, The Control of the
Codling Moth and Apple Scab.

Bulletins of the Bureau of Entomology may be obtained from the

same source, while the supply lasts, as follows:

Destructive Locusts; The Honey Bee; The San José Scale; The
Principal Household Insects of the United States; The Gypsy Moth in
America; The Periodical Cicada; The Chinch Bug; The Hessian Fly;
Insects Injurious to Vegetables; Notes on Mosquitoes; Some Insects
Attacking the Stems of Growing Wheat, Rye, Barley, and Oats.

Bulletins on Similar Topics, Published by the Department of

Agriculture, Ontario—
(Write to the Publications Branch)
Bulletin No. 187—The Codling Moth
Bulletin No. 195—The Insecticides and Fungicides
Bulletin No. 198—Lime Sulphur Wash
Bulletin No. 219—The San José and Oyster-shell Scales
Bulletin No. 241—Peach Growing in Ontario
Bulletin No. 250—Insects Attacking Fruit Trees
Bulletin No. 251—Insects Affecting Vegetables
Bulletin No. 256—The Wintering of Bees
Bulletin No. 257—The More Important Fruit Tree Diseases in
Ontario
Bulletin No. 258—The More Important Fungus and Bacterial
Diseases of Vegetables in Ontario
Bulletin No. 271—The Apple Maggot
Bulletin No. 276—Bee Diseases in Ontario
Bulletins Published by the Department of Agriculture, Ottawa—
(Write to the Publications Branch)
Bulletin No. 9—The Army Worm
Bulletin No. 10—Cutworms and their Control
Bulletin No. 26—Bees and How to Keep Them
Circular No. 9—1921—Common Garden Insects and their Control

Pearl divers.
 CHAPTER IX
MOLLUSCS

The Fresh-water Mussel

Suggestions.—The mussel is usually easy to procure from streams and lakes by
raking or dredging. In cities the hard-shelled clam, or quahog, is for sale at the
markets, and the following descriptions apply to the anodon, unio, or quahog, with
slight changes in regard to the siphons. Mussels can be kept alive for a long time in
a tub with sand in the bottom. Pairs of shells should be at hand for study.
External Features.—The shell is an elongated oval, broader and
blunter at one end (Fig. 188). Why does the animal close its shell?
Does it open the shell? Why? Does it thrust the foot forward and pull
up to it, or thrust the foot back and push? (Mussels and clams have
no bones.) Does it go with the blunt end or the more tapering end of
the shell forward? (Fig. 188.) Can a mussel swim? Why, or why not?
Lay the shells, fitted together, in
your hand with the hinge side away
from you and the blunt end to the
left (Fig. 188). Is the right or the left
shell uppermost? Which is the top,
or dorsal, side? Which is the front,
or anterior, end? Is the straight edge
at the top or at the bottom? Our
word “valve” is derived from a word
Fig. 188.—Anodon, or fresh-water meaning shell, because the Romans
mussel. used shells for valves in pumps. Is
the mussel a univalve or a bivalve?
Which kind is the oyster? The snail?
 Does the mussel have bilateral symmetry? Can you find a horny
covering, or epidermis, over the limy shell of a fresh specimen? Why
is it necessary? Does water dissolve lime? Horn? Find a bare spot.
Does any of the shell appear to be missing there?
The bare projection on each shell is
called the umbo. Is the umbo near the
ventral or the dorsal line? The posterior or
anterior end? Is the surface of the
umbones worn? Do the umbones rub
against the sand as the mussel ploughs its
way along? How are the shells held
together? Where is the ligament attached?
(Fig. 189.) Is it opposite the umbones or
more to the front or to the rear? (Fig. 189.) Fig. 189.—Diagram of
Is the ligament of the same material as the Shell open and closed,
shell? Is the ligament in a compressed showing muscle, m, and
condition when the shell is open or when it ligament, b.
is closed? (Fig. 189.) When is the muscle
relaxed?
Notice the lines on the outside of the shell
(Figs. 188 and 190). What point do they
surround? They are lines of growth. Was
each line once the margin of the shell? If the
shell should increase in size, what would the
present margin become? (Fig. 191.) Does
growth take place on the margin only? Did
the shell grow thicker as it grew larger?
Where is it thinnest?
Draw the outside of the shell from the
Fig. 190.—Mussel
side. Draw a dorsal view. Near the drawings
crawling in sand.
write the names of the margins of the shell (p.
98) and of other parts learned, using lines to
indicate the location of the parts.
Study the surface of the shell inside and out. The inside is called
mother-of-pearl. Is it of lime? Is the deeper layer of the shell of lime?
(When weak hydrochloric acid or strong vinegar is dropped on limy
substances, a gas, carbon dioxide, bubbles up.) Compare the
thickness of the epidermal layer, the middle chalky layer, and the
inner, pearly layer.
Anatomy of the Mussel.—What parts
protrude at any time beyond the edge of the
shell? (Fig. 190.) The shell is secreted by two
folds of the outer layer of the soft body of the
mussel. These large, flaplike folds hang down
on each side, and are called the mantle. The
two great flaps of the mantle hang down Fig. 191.—Diagram.
lower than the rest of the body and line the
shell which it secretes (Fig. 192). The Change of points of
attachment of muscles as
epidermis of the mantle secretes the shell just
mussel enlarges.
as the epidermis of the crayfish secretes its (Morgan.)
crust. Can you find the pallial line, or the line
to which the mantle extended on each shell
when the animal was alive? A free portion of the mantle extended
like a fringe below the pallial line.
The shells were held together by two large
adductor muscles. The anterior adductor
(Fig. 193) is near the front end, above the
foot. The posterior adductor is toward the
rear end, but not so near the end as the
anterior. Can you find both muscle scars in
the shells? Are they nearer the ventral or the
dorsal surface? The points of attachment
travelled downward and farther apart as the
animal grew (see Fig. 191). Higher than the
larger scars are small scars, or impressions,
where the protractor and retractor muscles
that extend and draw in the foot were
Fig. 192.—Cross Section
of Mussel. (Diagram,
attached.
after Parker.) The muscular foot extends downward in
the middle, halfway between the shells (Fig.
193). On each side of the foot and behind it
hang down the two pairs of gills, the outer pair and the inner pair
(Fig. 192). They may be compared to four V-shaped troughs with
their sides full of holes. The water enters the troughs through the
holes and overflows above. Is there a marked difference in the size of
the two pairs of gills?
A kind of chamber for
the gills is made by
the joining of the
mantle flaps below,
along the ventral line.
The mantle edges are
separated at two
places, leaving
openings called
exhalent and inhalent Fig. 193.—Anatomy of Mussel. (Beddard.)
siphons.
Fresh water with its oxygen,
propelled by cilia at the opening and on
the gills, enters through the lower or
inhalent siphon, passes between the
gills, and goes to an upper passage,
leaving the gill chamber by a slit which
separates the gills from the foot. For
this passage, see arrow (Fig. 194). The
movement of the water is opposite to
the way the arrow points. After going
upward and backward, the water
emerges by the exhalent siphon. The
gills originally consisted of a great
number of filaments. These are now
Fig. 194.—Mussel. united, but not completely so, and the
gills still have a perforated or lattice
A, left shell and mantle flap structure. Thus they present a large
removed. surface for absorbing oxygen from the
B, section through body.
water.
Question: Guided by other The mouth is in front of the foot,
figures, identify the parts to between it and the anterior adductor
which lines are drawn. muscle (Fig. 194). On each side of the
mouth are the labial palps, which are
lateral lips (Fig. 195). They have cilia which convey the food to the
mouth after the inhalent siphon has sent food beyond the gill
chamber and near to the mouth. Thus both food and oxygen enter at
the inhalent siphon. The foot is in the position of a lower lip, and if
regarded as a greatly extended lower lip, the animal may be said to
have what is to us the absurd habit of using its lower lip as a foot.
The foot is sometimes said to be hatchet-shaped (Fig. 195). Do you
see any resemblance? Does the foot penetrate deep or shallow into
the sand? (Fig. 190.) Why, or why not?
The food tube of the mussel is comparatively
simple. Behind the mouth it enlarges into a swelling
called the stomach (Fig. 193). The bile ducts of the
neighbouring liver empty into the stomach. The
intestine makes several turns in the substance of the
upper part of the foot and then passing upward, it
runs approximately straight to the vent (or anus),
which is in the wall of the exhalent siphon. The
intestine not only runs through the pericardial
cavity (celome) surrounding the heart, but through
the ventricle of the heart itself (Fig. 196).
The kidneys consist of
tubes which open into the
pericardial chamber
above and into the gill
chamber below (Neph.,
Fig. 193). The tubes are
surrounded by numerous
blood vessels (Fig. 198) Fig. 195.—Mussel. From
and carry off the waste below. Level cut across
matter from the blood. both shells.
The nervous system
Se, palp; P, foot; O, mouth;
consists of three pairs of
G, liver; Gg, Vg, Pg,
ganglia and nerves (Fig.
ganglia.
Fig. 196.—Heart of 197). The ganglia are
Mussel, with intestine distinguishable because
passing through it. of their orange colour. The pedal ganglia on
the front of the foot are easily seen also; the
visceral ganglia on the posterior adductor
muscle may be seen without removing the mussel from the shell (Fig.
193). The reproductive organs open into the rear portion of the gill
cavity (Fig. 193). The sperms, having been set free in the water, are
drawn into the ova by the same current that brings the food. The eggs
are hatched in the gills. After a while the young mussels go out through
the siphon.
Fig. 197.
Summary.—In the gills (Fig. 198) the blood gains what? Loses
what? From the digestive tube the blood absorbs nourishment. In the
kidneys the blood is partly purified by the loss of nitrogenous waste.
The cilia of the fringes on the inhalent, or
lower, siphon, vibrate continually and drive
water and food particles into the mouth
cavity. Food particles that are brought near
the labial palps are conveyed by them to the
mouth. As the water passes along the
perforated gills, its oxygen is absorbed; the
mantle also absorbs oxygen from the water as
it passes. The water, as stated before, goes
next through a passage between the foot and
the palp into the cavity above the gills and on
out through the exhalent siphon. By stirring
the water, or placing a drop of ink near the
siphons of a mussel kept in a tub, the
Fig. 198.—Diagram of direction of its flow may be seen. The
Mussel cut across, pulsations of the heart are plainly visible in a
showing mantle, ma; living mollusc.
gills, kie; foot, f; heart, h;
intestine, ed.
Habits of the Mussel.—Is it abundant in
clear or in muddy water; swift, still, or
slightly moving water? Describe its track or
furrow. What is its rate of travel? Can you distinguish the spots
where the foot was attached to the ground? How long is one “step”
compared to the length of the shell? The animal usually has the
valves opened that it may breathe and eat. The hinge ligament acts
like the case spring of a watch, and holds the valves open unless the
adductor muscles draw them together (Fig. 189).
When the mussel first hatches from the egg, it has a triangular
shell. It soon attaches itself to some fish and thus travels about. After
two months it drops to the bottom again.
Other Mollusca.—The oyster’s shells are not an exact pair, the
shell which lies upon the bottom being hollowed out to contain the
body, and the upper shell being flat. Can you tell by examining an
oyster shell which was the lower valve? Does it show signs of having
been attached to the bottom? The young oyster, like the young
mussel, is free-swimming. Like the arthropoda, most molluscs
undergo a metamorphosis to reach the adult stage (Fig. 199).
 Examine the shells of
clams, snails, scallops,
and cockles. Make
drawings of their shells.
The slug is very similar
to the snail except that
Fig. 200.—Trochus. it has no shell. If the
shell of the snail shown
in Fig. 202 were
removed, there would be left a very good
representation of a slug. Fig. 199.—Oyster.
Economic Importance of Mollusca.—
Several species of clams are eaten. One of them C, mouth; a, vent; g,
is the hardshell clam (quahog) found on the g′, ganglia; mt,
Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to Texas. Its shell mantle; b, gill.
is white. It often burrows slightly
beneath the surface. The softshell
clam is better liked as food. It lives
along the shores of all northern seas.
It burrows a foot beneath the surface
and extends its siphons through the
burrow to the surface when the tide
is in, and draws into its shell the Fig. 201.—Cypræa. (Univalve, with
water containing animalcules and a long opening to shell.)
oxygen.
Oysters to the value of many millions of dollars are gathered and
sold every year. The most valuable oyster fisheries of North America
are in Chesapeake Bay. The young oysters, or “spat,” after they attach
themselves to the bottom in shallow water, are transplanted. New
oyster beds are formed in this way. The beds are sometimes strewn
with pieces of rock, broken pottery, etc., to encourage the oysters to
attach themselves. The dark spot in the fleshy body of the oyster is
the digestive gland, or liver. The cut ends of the tough adductor
muscles are noticeable in raw oysters. The starfish is very destructive
in oyster beds.
Pearls are deposited by bivalves around some irritating particle
that gets between the shell and the mantle. The pearl oyster
furnishes most of the pearls; sometimes pearls of great value are
 obtained from fresh-
water mussels. Name
articles that are made
partly or wholly of
mother-of-pearl.
Study of a Live Snail or
Slug.—Is its body dry or
moist? Do land snails and
slugs have lungs or gills?
Fig. 202.—A Snail. Why? How many pairs of
tentacles have they? What is
l, mouth; vf, hf, feelers; e, opening of egg duct; f, their relative length and
foot; ma, mantle; lu, opening to lung; a, vent. position? The eyes are dark
spots at bases of tentacles of
snail and at the tips of the
rear tentacles of slug. Touch the tentacles. What happens? Do the tentacles simply
stretch, or do they turn inside out as they are extended? Is the respiratory opening
on the right or the left side of the body? On the mantle fold or on the body? (Figs.
202–3–4.) How often does the aperture open and close?
Place the snail in a moist
tumbler. Does the whole under
surface seem to be used in
creeping? Does the creeping surface
change shape as the snail creeps?
Do any folds or wrinkles seem to Fig. 203.—A Slug.
move either toward the front or the
rear of its body? Is enough mucus
left to mark the path travelled? The fold moves to the front, adheres, and smooths
out as the slug or snail is pulled forward.
Cephalopods.—The highest and best developed molluscs are the
cephalopods, or “head-footed” molluscs. Surrounding the mouth are eight or ten
appendages which serve both as feet and as arms. These appendages have two rows
of sucking disks by which the animal attaches itself to the sea bottom, or seizes fish
or other prey with a firm grip. The commonest examples are the squid, with a long
body and ten arms, and the octopus, or devilfish, with a short body and eight arms.
Cephalopods have strong biting mouth parts and complex eyes somewhat
resembling the eyes of backboned, or vertebrate, animals. The large and staring
eyes add to the uncanny, terrifying appearance.
The sepia or “ink” discharged through the siphon of the squid makes a dark
cloud in the water and favours its escape from enemies almost as much as does its
swiftness (Fig. 205). The squid sometimes approaches a fish with motion so slow
as to be imperceptible, and then suddenly seizes it, and quickly kills it by biting it
on the back behind the head.
 The octopus is more sluggish
than the squid. Large species
called devilfish sometimes have a
spread of arms of twenty-five feet.
The pearly nautilus (Fig. 206)
and the female of the paper
argonaut (Fig. 207) are examples
of cephalopods that have shells.
The cuttlefish is closely related to
the squid.
General Questions.—
Fig. 204.—Circulation and Respiration in The living parts of the
Snail. mussel are very soft, the
name mollusca being
a, mouth; b, b, foot; c, vent; d, d, lung; h, derived from the Latin word
heart. Blood vessels are black. (Perrier.)
mollis, soft. Why is it that
the softest animals, the molluscs,
have the hardest coverings?
To which class of molluscs is the
name acephala (headless)
appropriate? Lamellibranchiata
(platelike gills)?
Why is a smooth shell suited to a Fig. 205.—A Squid.
clam and a rough shell suited to an
oyster? Why are the turns of a
snail’s shell so small near the centre?
Why does the mussel have no use for head, eyes, or projecting
feelers? In what position of the valves of a mussel is the hinge
ligament in a stretched condition? How does the shape of the
mussel’s gills insure that the water current and the blood current are
brought in close contact?
The three main classes of molluscs are: the pelecypoda (hatchet-
footed); gastropoda (stomach-footed); and cephalopoda (head-
footed). Give an example of each class.
 Fig. 206.—Pearly Nautilus. (Shell sawed
through to show chambers used when it was
smaller, and siphuncle, S, connecting them.
Tentacles, T.)

Fig. 208.—Paper
Fig. 207.—Paper Argonaut (female). × Argonaut (male). × ½.
⅓ (i.e. the animal is three times as long
and broad as figure).
 Comparison of Mollusks

Mussel Snail Squid

Shell
Head
Body
Foot
Gills
Eyes
Comparative Review.—(To occupy an entire page in notebook.)

Grasshopper Spider Crayfish Centipede Mussel

Bilateral or
radiate
Appendages
for
locomotio
n
Names of
divisions
of body
Organs and
method of
breathing
Locomotion
 CHAPTER X
FISHES

Suggestions.—The
behaviour of a live fish in
clear water, preferably in a
glass vessel or an aquarium,
should be studied. A skeleton
may be prepared by placing a
fish in the reach of ants.
Skeletons of animals placed
on ant beds are cleaned very
thoroughly. The study of the
perch, that follows, will apply
to almost any other common
fish.
Movements and
External Features.—What is the general shape of the body of a
fish? How does the dorsal, or upper, region differ in form from the
ventral? Is there a narrow part or neck where the head joins the
trunk? Where is the body thickest? What is the ratio between the
length and the height? (Fig. 209.) Are the right and the left sides
alike? Is the symmetry of the fish bilateral or radial?
The body of the fish may be divided into three regions—the head,
the trunk, and the tail. The trunk begins with the foremost scales; the
tail is said to begin at the vent, or anus. Which regions bear
appendages? Is the head movable independently of the trunk, or do
they move together? State the advantage or the disadvantage in this.
Is the body depressed (flattened vertically) or compressed (flattened
laterally)? Do both forms occur among fishes? (See figures on pages
123, 124.)
How is the shape of the body advantageous for movement? Can a
fish turn more readily from side to side, or up and down? Why? Is
the head wedge-shaped or conical? Are the jaws flattened laterally or
vertically? The fish swims in the water, the bird swims in the air.
Account for the differences in the shape of their bodies.

Fig. 209.—White Perch (Morone Americana).

Is the covering of the body like the covering of any animal yet
studied? The scales are attached in little pockets, or folds, in the skin.
Observe the shape and size of scales on different parts of the body.
What parts of the fish are without scales? Examine a single scale;
what is its shape? Do you see concentric lines of growth on a scale?
Sketch a few of the scales to show their arrangement. What is the use
of scales? Why are no scales needed on the head? How much of each
scale is hidden? Is there a film over the scale? Are the colours in the
scale or on it?
The Fins.—Are the movements of the fish active or sluggish? Can
it remain stationary without using its fins? Can it move backward?
How are the fins set in motion? What is the colour of the flesh, or
muscles, of a fish? Count the fins. How many are in pairs? (Fig. 209.)
How many are vertical? How many are on the side? How many are
on the middle line? Are the paired or the unpaired fins more effective
in balancing the fish? In turning it from side to side? In raising and
lowering the fish? In propelling it forward? How are some of the fins
useful to the fish besides for balancing and swimming?