Lecture 9

Qualitative Research
Methodology
 Lecture Outline
— Overview
— Qualitative Research
— Assumptions of Qualitative research
— Qualitative Research versus Quantitative
Research
— Strengths and Weakness of Qualitative
Research
— Steps in Qualitative Research
— Qualitative Research Methods – three methods
— Sampling Design
◦ Probability and Non-probability
 Overview
• The selection of which research approach is
appropriate in a given study should be based upon
the research issues, resources available, the skills
and training of the researcher, and the audience for
the research.

• Although some research may incorporate both

quantitative and qualitative methodologies (mixed
methods) – there are significant differences in the
assumptions underlying these approaches, data
collection and analysis procedures.
 Qualitative research
— Qualitative RM were developed in the social
sciences to enable researchers to study social and
cultural phenomena.
— Examples of qualitative methods are:
◦ action research,
◦ case study research and
◦ ethnography.
— Qualitative data sources include observation and
participant observation (fieldwork), interviews and
questionnaires, documents and texts, and the
researcher’s impressions and reactions,” (Myers,
1997).
 Qualitative Research
— Process of inquiry that focus on understanding a
social or human problem from multiple
perspectives and in a natural setting.

— Researcher who use qualitative methods seek a

deeper truth.
◦ They aim to “study things in their natural setting",
attempting to make sense of, or interpret,
phenomena in terms of meanings people bring to
them.

— The goal of qualitative research is to develop an

understanding of a social or human problem.
 Assumptions underlying Qualitative RM
• Reality is subjective. Multiple realities exist in any
given situation.

• Researcher interact and minimize the distant.

• Research is based on inductive forms of logic.
• Goal - uncover and discover patterns or theories
that could help explain a phenomenon of interest
(new questions arise from answer).

• E.g. case studies, grounded theory, ethnographic

studies and phenomenological studies.
 Research questions that are well suited to
quanlitative methods
1. When we want to explore a problem in depth. To
really get under the skin of a phenomenon, we will
need to go for ethnographic methods, interviews,
in-depth case studies and other qualitative
techniques.

2. Quantitative methods cannot develop hypotheses

and theories. The hypotheses to be tested may
come from a review of the literature or theory, but
can also be developed by using exploratory
qualitative research.
 Research questions that are not well suited
to quantitative methods
3. If the issues to be studied are particularly complex,
an in-depth qualitative study (a case study, for
example) is more likely needed than a quantitative
study. This is partly because there is a limit to how
many variables can be looked at in any one
quantitative study.

4. While quantitative methods are best for looking at

cause and effect, qualitative methods are more
suited to looking at the meaning of particular
events or circumstances.
 Qualitative vs quantitative research
— Quantitative and qualitative research
methods differ primarily in:
üits analytical objectives
üthe types of questions posed/asked
üthe types of data collection instruments
used
üthe forms of data produced
üthe degree of flexibility built into study
design
 Quantitative Qualitative
General • Seek to confirm hypotheses • Seek to explore phenomena
Framework • Use of more rigid instruments • Use more flexible instruments
• Use highly structured methods • Use semi-structured methods:
o questionnaires & surveys o in-depth interviews, focus
• Macro (larger sample) groups, and participant
observation
• Micro (small sample)
Analytical •To quantify variation •To describe variation
Objectives •To predict causal relationships •To describe & explain relationships
• ‘how many’ or ‘how much’, ‘to what • ‘what’, ‘how’ or ‘why’ of a phenomenon
extent’
Question • Closed-ended • Open-ended
format
Data format •Numerical & statistics •Textual, images or objects

Flexibility in •Study design is stable from • Some aspects of the study are
research beginning to end flexible (e.g. no fixed interview
design •Participant responses do not questions)
influence which questions • Participant responses will affect the
researchers ask questions researchers ask
•Study design is subject to statistical •Study design is iterative, that is, data
assumptions & conditions collection and research questions are
adjusted according.
Qualitative vs quantitative research
 Strength of Qualitative Research
• Data based on the participants’ own responses.
• Useful for studying a limited number of cases in depth
(individual & cross-case comparisons).
• Useful for describing complex phenomena.
• Provides understanding & description of people’s personal
experiences of phenomena.
• The researcher can study dynamic processes (i.e.,
documenting sequential patterns and change).
• Researcher can generate a tentative theory about a
phenomenon inductively.
• Data are usually collected in naturalistic settings.
• Researchers are responsive to changes that occur during
the conduct of a study (especially during extended
fieldwork) and may shift the focus of their studies.
 Weakness of Qualitative Research
—Knowledge produced might not be generalized to
other people or other settings (i.e., findings might
be unique to respondents).

— It is difficult to make quantitative predictions.

— It is more difficult to test hypotheses & theories.
— It generally takes more time to collect the data.
— Data analysis is often time consuming.
— The results are more easily influenced by the
researcher’s personal biases.
An outline of the main steps of qualitative research
1. General research questions

2. Selecting relevant site(s) and subject

3. Collection of relevant data

4. Interpretation of data

5. Conceptual and theoretical work

5a. Tighter specification of the research question (s)

5b. Collection of further data

5c. Interpretation of data

6. Writing up findings/conclusions
What are some qualitative research
methods?

In-depth
Interviews

Participant Focus
Observation Group

Methods
•Interview is the verbal conversation between two people with
the objective of collecting relevant information for the purpose
of research.
•Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a
participant’s experiences (McNamara, 1999).
•The interviewer can pursue in-depth information around the
topic.
•Types of interview: Personal Interview, Telephone Interview,
Focus Group Interview & Depth Interview
• Focus group interview is an unstructured
interview which involves a moderator leading
a discussion between a small group of
respondents on a specific topic.
• Participant observation has its roots in
anthropological studies, where researchers would
travel to faraway places to study the customs and
practices of less known societies.
• It involves participating in a situation, while, at the
same time, recording what is being observed.
• It offers the chance to obtain unique insights into
the organization or social group.
In summary, doing qualitative research
involves…
— Inductive logic/reasoning
— Understanding perspectives of participants
— Exploring new issues
— Qualitative data
— Non probability sampling
— Using open-ended questions & observation
— Obtaining feedback from participants
— Theory building and hypotheses development
 Which Method Should Be Used?
— Debates have been on-going on which method is
better than the other.
— This is because each has its own strengths and
weaknesses which vary depending upon the
research topic the researcher wants to address.
— This then leads to the question “Which method
should be used?”
◦ If the study aims to find out the answer to an
issue/research questions through numerical
evidence - use Quantitative Research.
◦ If the study intends to explain further why a
particular event happened - use Qualitative
Research.
 Worth noting…….
— Quantitative and qualitative research are often cast
as opposing fields. Both can be also be combined
in a project.
— Qualitative can facilitate quantitative research
◦ (1) can provide hypotheses
◦ (2) fill in the gaps, help interpret relationships
— Quantitative can facilitate qualitative through
locating interviewees and help with generalising
findings.
— They can complement each other. Together they
can give us a micro and macro level versions and
so we can examine the relationships between the
two levels.
Sampling Design
 Sampling Design
• The basic idea of sampling – selecting some
of the elements in population to draw
conclusions about the entire population.

• Samples should be purposeful – so the

selection of the participants/respondents
should be based on a clear criterion or
rationale that are related to the research
question.

• The generalization of the findings could be

limited by the sampling process.
 What is sampling?
• Sampling is process of selecting a few (sample)
from a bigger group (sampling population) so that
estimation or prediction is made with regard to the
prevalence of a particular unknown piece of
information concerning the big group.

• Sample is a subgroup of the population in which

one is interested. The population is usually denoted
by N and sample size is n.

• Researchers work with samples rather than

populations because it is more economical and
practical.
 Sampling Terminology
— Population – the universe of units from which the
sample is to be selected.
— Sample – segment of the population that is selected
for investigation. Method of selection maybe based
on probability & non-probability approach.
— Sampling frame – the lists of all units in the
population from which the sample will be selected.
— Representative sample – a sample that reflects the
population accurately.
— Sampling bias – a distortion in the
representativeness of the sample that arises when
some members of the population stand little or no
chance of being selected as sample.
 Basic terms and concepts in sampling…...
— Probability sampling – a sample that has been
selected using random selection so that each in the
population has a known chance of being selected (to
minimize the sampling error).
— Non-probability sampling – a sample that has not
been selected using a random selection method –
implies that some units in the population are more
likely to be selected than others.
— Sampling error – error in findings deriving from
research due to the difference between a sample
and the population from which it is selected.
— Non response – some members of sample refuse to
cooperate or provide data/information.
 Why sampling is important?
— The population we seek to study are
frequently huge.

— The larger the population being studied,

the greater the risk that a sample drawn
from that population may be
unrepresentative.

— Because of size, cost time or lack of

accessibility often makes it impossible for
researchers to collect data directly from
the entire group of interest.
 Greater Greater
accuracy of speed of data
results collection

Availability of
Lower cost populations
elements
Why
sample?
 Sample Size
• Sample size matters in order to have
sufficient power to detect a meaningful
result at a certain level of statistical
significance.

• Generalization of the findings is possible

depending upon the size of the sample
• how representative it is of the wider
population. The larger the sample, the more
confidence we might have in generalising
the findings.
 Sample versus Census
— Census
◦ the enumeration of an entire population (data
collected in relation to all units in a population,
rather than in relation to a sample)
— 2 conditions appropriate for a census study:
◦ when the population is small
◦ when the elements are quite different from
each other.
– When the population is small and variable, any
sample drawn may not be representative of the
population.
 Factors to consider in sampling
Specification of
data/information
to be collected

Target
Sampling population
technique issues
Factors

Data
Sample collection
Size issues
The sampling design process
Define the population

Determine the
sampling frame
Select sampling
technique & size

Determine the
sampling process

Execute the sampling

process
 Types of sampling designs
Simple random sampling
Probability
The likelihood of any one of the Systematic sampling
member of the population being Stratified sampling
selected is known.
Cluster sampling

Convenience
Non-probability
The likelihood of any one of the Snowball
member of the population being
Quota
selected is not known.
Judgmental/Purposive
 Probability sampling designs
Simple Random Sampling

• Selecting the sample at random from the sampling frame.

• Number each cases in sampling frame with a unique
number.
• Select cases using random numbers until reaching targeted
sample size.
 Probability sampling designs
— Systematic Random Sampling

• Selecting at regular intervals from the sampling frame.

◦ Number each cases in sampling frame with a unique
number. Every kth element in the population is sampled
beginning with random start
◦ (k = total population / size of desired sample)
◦ Select the first case using random number. Select
subsequent cases systematically.

• Randomly pick a value from {1, 2, 3}. For example, if 2 is chosen, then we
will pick {2, 5, 8, 11, 14}, the x's. The set {2, 5, 8, 11, 14} is an example of a
primary unit.
 Probability sampling designs…..
Stratified Sampling
n Modification of random
sampling in which the
population is divided into
two or more relevant &
significant strata.
n E.g. university student divided by
faculty, class level, field of study,
gender, ethnicity etc.
n Choose the stratification
variables.
n Divide sampling frame.
n Number each of the cases within
each stratum with number.
n Select sample (random or
systematic)
Probability sampling designs…..
Cluster Sampling
n Similar to stratified sampling
but the groups or cluster are
based on naturally
occurring grouping such as
type of manufacturing firm
or geographical area.
n Choose cluster grouping.
n Number each of the cluster
with unique number.
n Select the sample
 Stratified versus Cluster Sampling
— Stratified — Cluster
— Population divided into few — Population divided into many
subgroups subgroups
— Depends on the researcher. — Division naturally formed. E.g.
Divide the target dividing the population into
population into groups natural groupings like city
(more formally called blocks, voting districts or
"strata"). school districts.
— Homogeneity within — Heterogeneity within
subgroups subgroups
— Homogeneity between — Heterogeneity between
subgroups subgroups
— Randomly selected — Randomly selected clusters
respondents from strata
 Non-probability sampling designs

Convenience
Non-probability
The likelihood of any one of the Snowball
member of the population being
Quota
selected is not known.
Judgmental/Purposive
 Non-probability sampling designs
1. Convenience sampling
◦ Least reliable design
◦ Select cases which are cheapest and easiest to
obtain.
◦ May still be useful procedure in early stages of
exploratory research/pilot study.
 Convenience sampling

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 2.Purposive/Judgment sampling
— The sample are chosen only on the basis of the
researcher’s knowledge and judgment.

— Select cases that will best answer the research

questions and fulfill the research objectives.

— Researcher selects sample members that

confirms to some criterion.
◦ E.g. in a study of labor problems – talk to only
with those who have experienced on-the-job
discrimination.
— Appropriate to be used in the early stages of an
exploratory study.
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 3.Quota sampling
— In quota sampling the researcher selects people
according to some fixed quota.

— The units are selected into a sample on the basis

of pre-specified characteristics so that the total
sample has the same distribution of characteristics
assumed to exist in the population being studied.
◦ Characteristics (control dimension) might include
age, place of residence, gender, class,
profession, marital status, etc.

— The decision on how many people to be included

as participants is decided while designing the
study.
 Quota sampling
— Focus only on people who knows very well about
the research topic.
◦ Divide the population into specific groups.
◦ Calculate the quota for each group.
◦ Collect data from selected cases in each quota.

— Normally used for interview survey.

 4.Snowballing Sampling
— Use this sampling method if the
sample for the study is very rare or is
limited to a very small subgroup of
the population. Also known as chain
referral sampling.
— Normally used when it is difficult to
identify members of the desired
population. Make contact with one or
two cases in the population & identify
further cases.
— Snowball sampling is often used to
find and recruit “hidden populations,”
that is, groups not easily accessible
to researchers through other
sampling strategies.
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Calculation of actual sample size (N)
— N = n X 100
re%
N = Actual sample size required
n = the minimum sample size
re = the estimated response rate

Neuman (2000) suggests response rates of

10 – 50% for postal survey, 90% for face-
to-face interviews.
 Analyzing qualitative data
— Qualitative data consists of words and
observations, not numbers. Analysis
and interpretation are required to bring
order and understanding.

— The basic approach for analyzing and

interpreting qualitative data referred to
as content analysis.
 Analyzing qualitative data
The analysis process:
— Get to know the data – read & re-read the text.
— Focus of the analysis
◦ depends on the purpose of the evaluation and how the
results will be used.
◦ Focus based on question, topic, time period, event, case,
individual or group.
— Categorize the information – identify themes or
patterns such as ideas, concepts, behaviour,
interactions, incidents, terminology used.
— Identify patterns & connections within & between
categories.
— Interpretation – Nvivo – software for qualitative
analysis
 Quantitative
versus
Qualitative
Qualitative
Research Sampling

Summary