• Steel : Types of Steel, chemical composition, applications of alloy steels

• Cement: Portland cement, constituents, Manufacture of Portland Cement, Setting and

hardening of cement (hydration, hydrolysis, equations).

• Polymer Chemistry: Concept of polymerization

• Types of Polymerization, Chain growth polymerization – mechanisms of free radical and

cationic polymerizations,

• Thermoplastic resins and Thermosetting resins: examples- Polyethylene, Styrene, Nylon 6,6

and Bakelite and applications,

• Conducting polymers:– Examples – and applications.

 Alloy
Alloying is a process of mixing several different elements into one, it is used for
many reasons, primarily for: increasing strength, corrosion resistance, or for
reducing costs.
Gold
 Ferrous Alloys
Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge
Melting point 1811 K (1538 °C, 2800 °F)

Ferrous alloys or metals are metals that consist mostly of

Iron (Ferrous).
Ferrous alloys properties can be improved by heat treating,
in the case of steel, by working (i.e. rolling or forging).

Hematite Hoba meteorite

Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon
containing less than 2% carbon 1%
manganese and small amounts of silicon,
phosphorus, sulphur and oxygen.

Steel is the world's most important

engineering and construction material.
Steel: Types
Steel is classified by its composition: iron is fused with carbon and any number of other
elements to achieve a specific end.

The four main types are:

❖ Carbon steel
❖ Stainless steel
❖ Alloy steel
❖ Tool steel
 Carbon Steel
Carbon steel is simply a steel alloy containing anything from 0.12% to 2%
carbon. It has variety of usages. its elemental nature makes carbon steel a
strong, durable material that is ideal for numerous uses. It accounts for
about 90% of all steel production.

Types of Carbon Steel:

● Low Carbon Steel (up to 0.3%).
● Medium carbon steel (0.3% to 1.25%).
● High carbon steel (1.25% to 2%).
● Ultra high carbon steel (2% or more).
Carbon steel contain
less than 2% carbon.
Uses
Cast iron contains 2% to
Different grades have different purposes, some of them are.
3.5% carbon, giving it a
❏ Railings, fences and gates.
rough texture and more
❏ Gears , axle, rails.
brittle nature.
Stainless Steel
When Chromium is added to steel the alloy is called Stainless Steel (12%-30%).

Types Of Stainless Steel

❖ Martensitic alloys:
Toughness is a hallmark of martensitic alloys, but they’re prone to corrosion. They’re formed by a
rapid-cooling process that makes them ideal for heat treatment. Uses in medical instruments, cutlery and
pliers.
❖ Ferritic alloys:
These are less-expensive steels with low amounts of carbon and nickel.
chromium-induced strength and sheen.
Automotive applications
❖ Austenitic alloys:
Austenitic alloys have higher chromium and nickel contents,
resistance to corrosion and causing them to become non-magnetic.
durable and easy to clean.
They’re present in commercial kitchen appliances
❖ Duplex alloys:
A combination of austenitic and ferritic alloys results in a duplex alloy.
inherits the properties of both while doubling strength.
construction industry,
 Alloy Steel
The alloy type is iron fused with one of several other elements,
each contributing its own unique attributes to the final product.

Types Of Alloy Steel

Aluminum: Lightweight, heat-resistant steel that’s ductile and easy to work with and is often used in
hot exhaust systems and power generators.

Copper: Corrosion-resistant steel that conducts heat very efficiently, making it a great choice for
electrical wiring and industrial heat exchangers.

Manganese: Impact-resistant steel that’s extremely tough. It can be found in bulletproof cabinets,
anti-drill plates and high-strength safes.

Silicon: Soft-natured steel that’s malleable and highly magnetic and creates strong permanent
magnets that are used in electrical transformers.

Vanadium: High-impact steel that’s shock-absorbent and vibration-resistant, and often found in
automotive parts like springs.
Tool Steel
Tempering, the process of adding high heat, cooling quickly then heating again, creates tool steel that’s
extremely hard and heat-resistant.
Tool steels are up-front about their business: they’re used to tool manufacturing machinery.
They’re usually used in high-impact environments and are very abrasive.
Types Of Tool Steel

Air-hardening: The high chromium content in this steel allows it to be

exposed to high temperatures.

Water-hardening: This steel is water-quenched during use; it’s used to make

common tools.

Oil-hardening: This oil-quenched steel is exceptionally wear-resistant from

slipping, and is used to produce knives and shears.

Shock-resisting: Small amounts of carbon, silicon and molybdenum harden

this steel and suit it for punches and riveting tools.
 Low Carbon Steel (up to 0.3%).
Medium carbon steel (0.3% to 1.25%).
Carbon High carbon steel (1.25% to 2%).
Ultra high carbon steel (2% or more).

Martensitic
Ferritic
Stainless Austenitic
Duplex
Steel
Aluminium
Copper
Alloy
Manganese
Silicon, Vanadium

Air-hardening:
Water-hardening:
Tool Oil-hardening:
Shock-resisting:
Uses of Steel
❏ Culinary uses
● Kitchen sinks
● Cutlery
● Cookware
❏ Surgical Tools and Medical Equipment
● Hemostats
● Surgical Implement
● Temporary crowns
❏ Architecture
● Bridges
● Monuments And Sculptures
● Airport roofs
❏ Automotive And aerospace application
● Auto bodies
● Rail cars
● Aircraft
 CEMENT
• A cement is a material possessing adhesive and cohesive properties and capable of
bonding with other materials like stone, bricks etc.
• It is a binder, i.e. a substance that sets and hardens independently under water by virtue
of some chemical reactions.

Constituents

Ca Al+Si
(Calcarious) (Argillaceous)
 Classification of Cement
PUZZOLANA
NATURAL CEMENT SLAG CEMENT PORTLAND CEMENT
CEMENT

Consists of silicates of Made from blast Most important and

Made by calcining aluminum, iron and furnace slag and reliable cementing
naturally occurring calcium hydrated lime material used for
argillaceous limestone construction
by heating at high Made by simply Set more slowly than
temp mixing and grinding portland cement An extremely finely
natural puzzolana ground product obtained
Has hydraulic (deposits of volcanic Have lower strength by calcining together at
properties, quick ash) and slaked lime 1500̊C, an intimate and
Poor in abrasion
setting, relatively properly proportioned
resistance
lower strength Has hydraulic mixture of argillaceous
properties, used by (clay containing) and
mixing with portland calcareous(lime
Used in laying bricks
cement containing)
and setting stones
 Raw materials:
•Calcareous Materials, CaO
PORTLAND (such as limestone, chalk, etc)
CEMENT: •Argillaceous Materials, Al2O3
MANUFACTURE and SiO2 (such as clay, shale,
slate, etc)
•Powdered coal or Fuel Oil
•Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
 COMPOSITION OF CEMENT
INGREDIENTS PERCENTAGE USES
CaO 60-69% Controls strength and soundness

SiO2 17-25% Gives strength,

Al2O3 3-8% Quick setting, excess lowers strength

MgO 1-5% Color and hardness, excess causes cracking

Fe2O3 2-4% Imparts color, helps in fusion of ingredients

SO3 1-3% MAKES CEMENT SOUND

Alkali Oxides 0.3-1.5% Efflorescent
(Na2O+K2O)
Manufacturing Process
Mixing Burning

Grinding Packing
 Production Steps
•Dry Process: Raw materials are mixed with definite proportions and crushed into powders in a ball mill or tube mill to obtain “raw mix”
•Wet Process: The calcareous materials are crushed and powdered where as argillaceous materials is thoroughly mixed with water. Both
Mixing the materials in a definite proportion are fed into grinding mills to form a Slurry.

• As the materials pass through the kiln their temperature is rised upto 1300-1700 °C
• The upper part where the temperature is ~400 °C, water in the slurry gets evaporated.
• The central part the temp is around 1000 °C, where decomposition of lime takes place : CaCO3 ⇌ CaO +CO2 
• The lower part temp is around 1500-1700 °C, where fusion takes place
• 2 Cao + SiO2 → Ca2SiO4 Dicalcium silicate, 3 Cao + SiO2 → Ca3SiO5 Tricalcium silicate
Burning 3 Cao + Al2O3 → Ca3Al2O6 Tricalcium Aluminate 4 CaO + Al2O3+ Fe2O3 → Ca4Al2Fe2O10 Tetracalcium
aluminoferrite
• The hot, hard, greyish clinkers cooled in the rotary kiln at the base with the air blast.

• Cooled Clinkers are ground to fine powders.

Grinding • Small quantity of retarding agent gypsum is added to prevent quick setting
• 3 Cao Al2O3 + x CaSO4. 7 H2O→ 3 Cao Al2O3 x CaSO4. 7 H2O (Tricalcium sulphoaluminate, Insoluble)

Packing • Packing & marketting

Summary
 DRY vs WET PROCESSES
DRY PROCESS WET PROCESS

1. It is adopted when the raw materials 1. It can be used for any type of raw materials.
are quite hard.

2. Fuel consumption is low. 2. Fuel consumption is higher.

3. Process is slow. 3. Process is comparatively faster.

4. Cement produced is of inferior quality. 4. Cement produced is of superior quality.

5. Cost of production of cement is less . 5. Cost of production of cement is somewhat higher.

Chemical Constituents of the cement
The Lime-Saturation Factor.

❑ The lime saturation factor (LSF) is a measure of the proportion of

lime in the clinker in relation to other components. It is an
important parameter in cement production as it affects the quality
of the cement produced. A good cement should have a lime
saturation factor between 0.66 to 1.02

❑ This factor has been used for kiln-feed control for many years in
Europe and only recently has also found acceptance
by American cement manufacturers.

0.66 > < 1.02

 Heat of Hydration
• The Chemical reactions between compounds in cement with water to form crystalline gel
along with evolution of some heat is called heat of hydration.

• C3A + 6H2O → C3A. 6H2O (Crystalline gel) + 880 KJ/Kg

• C4AF+ 7H2O → C3A:6H2O + CF:H2O + 420 KJ/Kg

• 2C2S + 4H2O → C3S2. 3H2O + Ca(OH)2+ 250 KJ/Kg

 Soundness of Cement
➢When water is added to the cement, then cement undergoes hydration reaction, then
hydration reaction produce very small change in volume of cement structure, it is called as
soundness of cement.

➢Soundness of cement is directly related to the amount of crystalline CaO & MgO present.

➢If amount of CaO is more, i.e., lime saturation factor is more than the range of 0.66 to
1.02., then such cement become unsound. So, the strength of such cements concretes
decreases.

➢If amount of MgO is more, i.e., more than 6. 0 %. In cement, then such cement become
unsound, i.e., produce more change in the volume of cement structure during hydration
reaction.

➢Dolomite is unsuitable, because it contain high amount of MgO ( More than 6. 0 %.)
Setting and Hardening of Cement
 Setting and Hardening of Cement

• Initial set or Flash set:

• When water is added to the cement, then it produce cement paste and form quite rigid
structure within short time is called initial set or flash set.
• Initial setting of cement is mainly due to hydration of C3A and hydration of C4AF.

C3A + 6H2O → C3A :6H2O (Crystalline gel) + 880 KJ/Kg

C4AF+ 7H2O → C3A :6H2O + CF:H2O + 420 KJ/Kg

• In order to retard this quick initial setting , 2-3 % gypsum is added in cement during its
grinding, which produce calcium sulpho-aluminate.
 Setting and Hardening of Cement
• Final set or Initial strength:
• After some days, quite rigid structure of cement converted in very hard rigid structure of
cement is called as final set or initial strength.

• Final setting and hardening of cement is mainly due to hydrolysis of C3S and hydrolysis of
C2S .

2C3S + 6H2O → C3S2:3H2O (gel) + 3Ca(OH) 2 (Crystalline) + 500 KJ/Kg

2C2S + 4H2O → C3S2:3H2O (gel) + Ca(OH) 2 (Crystalline) + 250 KJ/Kg

• Thus during the setting and hardening of cement, constituents of cement undergoes
hydration and hydrolysis.
Summary of Setting and Hardening
Unhydrated Cement

Hydration

Crystalline Hydration
Metastable Gel
Products

Stable Gel Crystalline Products

Hydration
Cement + Gelation of Gelation of
of C3A and
Water Paste C3S C2S and C3S
C4AF
 Polymers
2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
« for the discovery and development of conductive polymers »

Alan Heeger Hideki Shirakawa Alan McDiarmid

University of California University of Tsukuba University of Pennsylvania
at Santa Barbara
Applications Plastic
 Terminology
Polymer: (Greek poly-, "many" + -mer, "parts") is a large molecule, or macromolecule,
composed of many repetition of small, simple chemical subunits called monomer.

The repeating chemical units are covalently linked with each other.

Number of repeating (monomer) units present in the polymer is known as Degree of

Polymerization (DP).
Polymerization:
Chemical Reaction in which a monomer is converted to polymer under specific condition.
Functionality

Functional groups are structural features of organic compounds other than carbon–carbon single
bonds and carbon–hydrogen single bonds. Multiple bonds between carbon atoms and bonds from
carbon to atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and the halogens are components of functional
groups.
 Characteristics of Polymer
• Molecular mass: Macromolecules, 1-1000 KDa
• Crystallinity: Semi-crystaline or Amorphous Crystallites provide strength and hardness and
Amorphous region provide flexibility
• Bonding between polymer chains: van der Waal’s, dipole-dipole or H-bonding
• Chemical, electrical, optical, mechanical and thermal property depends upon Size, Shape,
and intermolecular force
• Low density, Light weight, corrosive resistant
• Most are Thermal and electrical Insulators
• Easily moldable to different size
Classification of Polymer
 Types of Polymerization
Polymerization

Addition Condensation Copolymer

Free Radical Polymerization Mechanism
The polymerization reaction involves three steps such as
a) Initiation.
b) Propagation or branching and
c) Termination.
Free Radical Polymerization Mechanism
Cationic Polymerization Mechanism
 Condensation Polymerization
• The monomers having certain functional
groups such as -OH, - COOH, - NH2 etc.
show the tendency to undergo
polymerizations by the elimination of one
molecule of a simple by-product such as
H2O, HCl, salt or alcohol etc.

• Unlike addition / chain polymerizations,

polymer loses simple molecules at every
combination, as a result does not have
exact multiple number of monomer units.

• This type of polymerization occurs

stepwise, hence the rate of polymerization
is comparatively slow, it depends on the
catalyst, temperature and the reaction
time
 Copolymerization
• It is a joint polymerization of two or more
monomers.

• High molecular weight compounds obtained

by copolymerization
 PLASTICS
• Polymers are called as plastics since they can be moulded to desired shape by application of
heat and pressure.

Plastic Thermosetting

Thermoplastic
 Thermosetting
❖ On heating change irreversibly into hard and rigid
materials, forms almost a permanent set.

❖ On reheating the article does not soften again.

❖ During moulding acquire three-dimensional cross-linked

structure with strong covalent bonds.

❖ On reheating, these bonds retain their strength and hence

such a plastic does not soften on reheating.

❖ Can't be reclaimed from waste due to their irreversibility.

❖ They are insoluble in almost all organic solvents, due to

their cross-linked three-dimensional structure.
 Thermoplastics
❖ These show reversible change on heating i.e they
soften on heating but regain their original
properties on cooling.
❖ They gain or lose hardness with rise or fall in
temperature.
❖ Their chemical nature does not get affected even on
repeated heating and cooling,
❖ These resins can be reclaimed from waste.
❖ They are soft, weak , less brittle as compared to
former type of plastics resins.
❖ The method usually used to manufacture is addition
polymerisation
❖ They are soluble in specific organic solvents
Bulk or Commodity Polymers
Applications
Polyethylene
 High-Density Polyethylene

❖ More closely packed structure, more crystalline, higher density, and

chemical resistance slightly higher than that of LDPE.
❖ Resists alcohols, acids, bases, esters, and aldehydes
❖ Specific Gravity: 0.94 to 0.97
❖ Melting point 130 to 135 0C
❖ Carbon chains are 10,000 to 100,000 carbon atoms long
❖ Translucent
 Low-density Polyethylene (LDPE)
• Small amount of branching on the chain gives a more open structure
• Melting point of 109 to 125 0C
• Does not react at room temperature
• Resists alcohols, esters, acids, and bases. Limited resistance to
aldehydes.
• Translucent to opaque
• Used for plastic food or garment bags, spray bottles, plastic lids.
 Polystyrene
• Monomer(s): Styrene (reaction below)
• Contains: Phenyl rings
• Mn Range: 100,000–400,000
• Key Characteristic: Thermoplastic
• Mechanism: Addition
• This includes free radicals, cationic, anionic
• Steps: Initiation, Propagation, Termination
Tacticity and Crystallinity

Commercial
Mostly amorphous

Isotactic Syndiotactic Atactic

Increase crystallinity
Commercial
 Applications
General Purpose High Impact Expanded

Clear, hard, brittle Tough, hard Tough, lightweight, rigid-

foam

Packaging Lab supplies Food containers

 Conclusion
❖ Polystyrene (PS) is a thermoplastic polymerized from styrene monomer by addition

❖ Cheap to produce, hence one of the most popular polymers

❖ Pure PS is brittle (GPPS), adding polybutadiene makes it tougher (HIPS)

❖ Foam form of PS can be produced by adding a blowing agent (EPS- expanded polystyrene)

❖ Applications include packaging and containers

 Nylon
• Nylon is known as “polyamide” as it contains 85% amide
linkages

Types of Nylon:
1. Nylon 6,6 2. Nylon 6
3. Nylon 11 4. Nylon 6, 10

✓ Hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid subsequently polymerizes with further elimination of water to
produce nylon polymer
✓ The reaction is carried out in an inert atmosphere (nitrogen gas) at 280 O C for 4 hours
 Properties of Nylon 6,6
Effect of sunlight:
Tensile strength:
Nylon is affected by prolonged exposure to light
Regular filament------ 65000-85000 lb/sq inch
High tenacity ----- 90,000-130000 lb/sq inch there is gradual loss of strength
staple---------------- 60000-66000 lbs/sq inch Effect of acid :
Dilute acids have little effect on nylon
• Elongation:
• Regular filament: 26-32 % Hot acids like HCl and H2SO4however decompose nylon
• High tenacity filament: 19-24% Alkalies:
• Staple: 37-40% It has excellent resistance to alkalis
• Elastic recovery:
• Highly elastic fiber and standard filament has 100 % Effect of Insects:
recovery till 8% extension It is not affected by insects
• High tenacity filament has 100 % recovery till 4 %
extension Effect of microorganisms:
It is not weakened by molds or bacteria
Application
Bakelite
Bakelite Monomer
 Phenolic Resins: Bakelite

Preparation:
The reaction mixture is heated
and allowed to reflux under
atmospheric pressure at about
100ºC. The vacuum is applied
for the removal of volatiles.
 Properties
✓It can be quickly moulded.
✓Very smooth moulding can be
obtained from this polymer.
✓Bakelite mouldings are heat-
resistant and scratch-resistant.
✓They are also resistant to
several destructive solvents.
✓Owing to its low electrical
conductivity, Bakelite is resistant
to electric current.
 Bakelite: Applications
➢ Used in the manufacturing of electrical plugs and
switches. Handles of cooker.

➢ Used in the manufacturing of varnishes, electrical

insulation and protective coating.

➢ Bakelite is a good insulator used in non-conducting parts

of radio and electric devices like switches, automobile
distribution caps, insulation of wires, Sockets, etc.

➢ It is used to make clocks, buttons, washing machines,

toys, kitchenware, etc.

➢ It can be made into different colors so it is used in

producing vibrant and attractive products.
 Conducting Polymer
✓ Conductive polymer (Intrinsically conducting polymer) are
organic polymer that conduct electricity.

✓ Polymeric materials having conductivities on par with

metallic conductors are called as conducting polymers.

✓ Polymers having conjugated double bond are conducting in

nature due to presence of delocalized pi electrons.

✓ Conductivities as high as 1.5 X 107 ohm-1 m-1 .

Polyacetylene

Polypyrrole
 Polymers
2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
« for the discovery and development of conductive polymers »

Alan Heeger Hideki Shirakawa Alan McDiarmid

University of California University of Tsukuba University of Pennsylvania
at Santa Barbara
 Types
Such polymers essentially contain conjugated π- electrons backbone which is
responsible for electrical charge. In an electric field ,conjugated π-electrons of
the polymer get excited, thereby can be transported through the solid polymeric
Intrinsic material.
Conducting Polymers

These are obtaining by exposing a polymer to a charge transfer agent

p-Doping: polymer is treated with Lewis acid
2(C2H2 )n+ 3I2 → 2(C2H2 )n++2I3-
Doped n-doping: Polymer is treated with Lewis base
(C2H2 )n+ B → (C2H2 )n-+B+

These polymers conductivity is due to presence of externally added ingredients.

A) Conductive element filled polymers-Polymer act as a binder to hold the
Extrinsic conducting elements e.g. carbon black, metal oxide.
B) Blended conducting polymers-A conventional polymer is blended with
conducting polymers

Co-ordination It is a charge transfer complex containing polymer obtained by combining a

metal atom with poly dentate ligand
 Conduction Mechanism

The poly unsaturated hydrocarbon consist of hydrogen atom

and sp2 hybridized carbon atom.

The localised electrons in the s bonds form the backbone of

the polymer chain while the electrons in the π bonds are
delocalised along the chain and responsible for electrical
properties.

In an electric field, conjugated π-electrons of the polymer get

excited, thereby can be transported through the solid
polymeric material.

Overlapping of conjugated π-electrons over the entire

backbone results in the formation of valence bands as well as
conduction bands which extends over the entire polymer
molecule.
Benzenoid amine Quinoid imine
 Applications
Conducting polymers have many applications, including:
Electronics
Conducting polymers are used in microelectronics, batteries, photovoltaic devices, light emitting diodes (LEDs), and
electrochromic displays. They are lightweight and act as current carriers in electronis components.
Sensors
Conducting polymers are used in chemical and biosensors, which are based on the changes in the optical and electrical
properties of the polymers.
Biomedical
Conducting polymers are used in biosensors, neural prosthetic devices, drug delivery, and actuators. They are attractive
for their responsiveness to electrical stimuli, easy functionalization with biomolecules, and ionic and electronic
conductivity.
Antistatic coatings
Conducting polymers are used for anti-static coatings, such as on floppy disks.
Electromagnetic shielding
Doped polyaniline is used for electromagnetic shielding of electronic circuits.
Microwave-absorbing material
Polypyrrole (PPy) is used as a microwave-absorbing material for “stealth” screen coatings.
Application
 Recent Research

HOMO: 5.2 ev
LUMO: 3.2 ev
Eopt : 1.9 V