 Free Electron Theory in Metals

 Band Theory of Solids

 Classical electron theory.

 Somerfield theory.
 Free Electron Gas In One-Dimensional Box.
 Density of states.
 Fermi-Dirac Distribution, Fermi Serface, Fermi Level, Fermi Energy.
 Electrical conductivity in Metals.
 Hall effect in Metals.
 Wiedemann-Franz Law.
 Bloch Theorem and Kronig-penney Model.
 Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor.
 Descriptions of Band theory of Solids.
 Free electron Theory

Free Electron Theory:

The free electron theory of metals aims to explain the properties of Materials. The Free electron
theory is applicable to all materials both metals and non metals. It explains the electrical ,thermal
and magnetic properties of solids etc.
Two types of free electron Theory:
 The classical free electron Theory.
 The Quantum free electron theory.
The classical free electron Theory:
Drude and Lorentz proposed this theory in 1900. According to this theory , Metals containing the
free electrons obey the laws of classical mechanics.
 Classical free electron theory

Classical free electron theory is based on the following Postulates :

1. A solid metal is composed of atoms and the atoms have nucleus, around which there are
revolving electrons.
2. In a metal the valance electrons of atoms are free to move throughout the volume of the
metal like gas molecules of a perfect gas in a container.
3. The free electrons move in a random directions and collide with either positive ions fixed to
the lattice or other free electrons and collisions are elastic in nature i.e. there is no loss of
energy.
4. The movement of free electrons obeys the classical kinetic theory of gasses. The mean
K.E. of a free ectron is equal to that of gas molecule (3KT/2) .
5. The electron velocities in a metal obey Maxwell-Boltzman distribution of velocities.
6. The free electrons move in a uniform potential field due to ions fixed in the lattice
7. When an electric field is applied to the metal the free electrons are accelerated. The
accelerated electrons move in opposite direction of the applied.
8. The electric conduction is due to the free electrons only.
 Drude Theory of conduction

To discuss Drude theory of conduction we need to know the characteristics of Metals.

Characteristics of Metals:
1. Conductivity depends on temperature. (T increase then C decrease)
2. Applied electric field in metal is equal to the same amount of current comes out through the Metals .
so, it’s obey ohms law.
( J∞E)
J=σE
J= current density, E= Electrostatic field, σ= Electrical conductivity.
3. Metal obey Widemann Franz Law :
K/σ ∞ T Drude drive this theoretical prove.
4. Resistivity above Debye's temperature is proportional to T. (ρ∞T )
5. At low temperature (ρ∞1/P )

6. At absolute zero , the resistivity tends to zero. (superconductivity)

Drude Theory of
conduction
Gas jar
Assumptions:
Metal --------
- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - --
--- --------
----------------- -- Molecules
--- Electrons - - -- - - - - -
----------------- -
--- - -- - - - - -
----------------- --
1. Free
- - - electron in metals behave like as a perfect gas. - - - - - - - -
----------------- --
Average
--- velocity in of electrons in metals = Average velocity of
-- - - - - - - -
gas.
--
 Drude Theory of
conduction
2. Due to increase temperature in both metal and gas molecules their average kinetic energy increase
which is equal to 3/2 KT.
K= Boltzmann constant, T = temperature.

3. + + + + + + + + + +
+ + v = Average velocity
+ + + + + + + + + + λ = wavelength
+ t t Ƭ = mean time = t +t
Ƭ Ƭ = 2t , t = Ƭ/2
E λ Force F= QE

Direction of the electric field opposite to the electric force.

Failure of classical free electron theory
1. The phenomena such as photo electric effect, Compton Effect and black body radiation could
not be obained by classical free electro theory.
2. According to classical theory the value of specific heat of metals is given by 4.5R (R =Universal
gas constant) where as the experimental value is nearly 3R(Dulang Petit law)
3. Electrical conductivity of semiconductor or insulator could not be explained by using this model.
4. According to classical free electron model (K/σT) is constant(Widemann-franz law) as this is
not constant at low temperature.
5. Ferromagnetism could not be explained by this theory.
6. According to classical free electron theory ,
Resistivity,
 QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY:
Somerfield applied quantum mechanics to explain conductivity phenomenon in
metals. He has improved the Drude- Lorentz theory by quantizing the free
electron energy and retaining the classical concept of force motion of electrons
at random.

ASSUMPTIONS:
1. The electrons are free to move with in the metal like gaseous molecules. They are confined
to the metal due to surface potential.
2. The velocities of electrons obey Fermi-Dirac distribution because electrons are spin – half
particles.
3. The electrons would go into different energy levels and obey Pauli’s exclusion principle.
4. The motion of the electron is associated with a wave called matter wave, according to the
deBroglie hypothesis.
5. The electrons can not have all energies but will have discrete energies according to the
equation En=n2h2/8ma2 where a is the dimension of the metals.
 Derivation of Sommerfeld theory

K.E K.E K.E

=0 P.E =MAX
P.E = ELECTRO P.E =
MAX NS 0
Wave equation will be ,
d2ψ/dx2 + 2m/ћ2(E-U) ψ =0 [ψ= wavefunction of electron]
If potential energy U=0 then,
=>d2ψ/dx2 + 2m/ћ2Eψ =0 [K2= 2m/ћ2]
d2ψ/dx2 + K2ψ =0 ( 2nd order differential equation)
ψ = C.F + P.I (P.I =0)
ψ= eαx[C1cosβx +C2sinβx]
D2ψ+K2ψ = 0 [d/dx =0]
(D2+K2)ψ=0
D2 +K2=0
D2 = -K2
D2 = i2K2 => D = ±ik =>D = 0±ik
So, α = 0 , β = k .
 Sommerfeld Theory
Putting α and β in (1)
ψ = C1cos(kx) + C2sin(kx)
I : x=0 , ψ=0 , ψ= C1
C1 = 0 , ψ = C2sin(kx)
II) x=L , ψ=0
Ψ = C2sin(KL)
0 = C2sin(KL)
sin(KL) = 0
sin(KL) = Sin(nπ) , => KL = ±nπ
 K2 = n2π2/L2 , K2 = 2mEn/ћ2
n2π2/L2 = 2mEn/ћ2
 En= n2π2ћ2/2mL2
This is the Expression for nth energy level .
 Sommerfeld Theory
• Energy level are discontinuous and Quantized .
• En= n2π2ћ2/2mL2
• N=1 , E1= π2ћ2/2mL2
• N=2 , E2= 4π2ћ2/2mL2= 4E1
• N=3, E2= 9π2ћ2/2mL2 = 9E1

n3 9E
1

n2 4E
1

n1 E
1
Quantize
d
 Free Electron Gas in One-Dimensional Box

01

(1)

(2)
(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)
(2)

(4) (4)
(7)
(7)

(8)
(7)

(9)
(5) (8)

(10)
 (9)

02.

02.
(9)
(9)

(9)

(11)
 Fermi Dirac distribution
In fermi Dirac distribution all the particles in the system are indistinguishable and its obey
Pauli's exclusion principle (not more than two electrons can occupy the same energy level) on
filling the Particle in the energy levels. This is applicable for fermions (electrons, protons,
neutrons) are the particles with odd half integral spins (0, ½,3/2, 5/2….)
According to fermi Dirac distribution , the probability of electron occupying an energy level is,
f(Ei) = 1/EeEi– Ef/KT+1
Ei is the energy of ith level.
Ef is the energy of the fermi level.
K is Boltzmann constant .
T is the absolute temperature.
f(Ef) is the fermi function.
 Effect of temperature on fermi Dirac Distribution
When the material is at a temperature T(0)K, below the fermi energy levels are totally fulfilled
and above the energy level are empty. When it Receives thermal energy from surrounding the
electrons are thermally Excited into Higher energy levels. The occupation of electrons in energy
levels obeys a fermi Dirac Statistical distribution law.
Variation of Function with temperature:

0.
5

0
t
 Temperature effect
From this curve we can observe the probability of finding an electron at different temperatures.
Case I:
At T>0 if Ei = Ef ..f(E)=1/2
f(E) = 1 / eEi – Ef/KT+ 1 = 1/ e0/KT+1 = 1/ e0+1 = 1/1+1 =1/2
f (E) = ½
Case II:
At T=0 K if Ei >Ef f(E) = 0
f(E)= 1/eEi –Ef/0 +1 = 1/e∞+1 = 1/∞+1 =0
f(E) = 0
Case III.
At T=0 K if Ei <Ef f(E) = 1
f(E) = -ve
When T>0 if Ei =Ef f(E)= 1/2
 Fermi level
So The fermi level can be defined as,
The Energy Level for Which the Probability of occupation is ½ or 50% at any temperature.
Properties of Fermi Function:
1. It is applicable for all insulators , semiconductors and Metals .
2. In semiconductor the probability of hole occupying an energy level
Ei is f(E) = 1 / eEi – Ef / KT+ 1
3. In semiconductor the probability of the hole occupying an energy Ei is,
f(E) = 1 / eEi – Ef / KT+ 1
1. At T> 0 K if Ei =Ef f(E) = ½
2. At T= 0 K if Ei >Ef f(E) = 0
3. At T= 0 K if Ei <Ef f(E)=1
From the fermi Dirac distributions We understood that, Below the fermi level are totally
fulfilled and above the level are totally empty.
 Fermi Function

According to fermi Dirac Statistics :

f(E) = 1/1+ exp ( Ei - Ef / KT)
Where k is the Boltzmann constant
1. Indistinguishability of the electrons
2. Electrons wave nature .
3. The Pauli Exclusion principle.
The function f(E) called the fermi Dirac distribution function gives the probability that an available
energy state E Will be occupied by an electron by an absolute Temperature T. The Quantity Ef is called
the fermi level, and it represents an important Quantity in the analysis of semiconductor behavior .
For an energy
E= Ef the occupation probability , f(E )=1
This is the probability for electrons to occupy the fermi level .
Problem 01: The atomic radius of sodium is 1.86Å. Calculate the fermi energy of
sodium at absolute zero.
 Drift velocity (vd):
 The amount of velocity gained by the electron by the application of unit
electric field is known as drift velocity.

Relaxation time (tr):

 The duration of a time required for an electron to decay its drift velocity to
1/e times of its initial velocity.
 When electric field is applied on an electron then it drifts in opposite
direction to the field applied. After removal of electric field the drift
velocity decays exponentially.
 Let us assume that the applied field is cut off after the drift velocity of the
electron has reached it’s steady value.
Thermal conductivity
 Thermal conductivity

v
Thermal conductivity
Widemann and Franz Law
 Hall Effect
Hall effect:
The hall effect is when a magnetic field is applied at right angles to the current flow in a thin film
Where an electric field is generated , which is mutually perpendicular to the current and the
magnetic field is directly proportional to the product of the current density and the magnetic
induction.
Ix/J
Є Z

- - - - E
X
- - - -
Bz
b
+ - Ix
X

+ + + + + y

- - - - -
 Hall Effect
According to ohm’s law J∞E, J = σE
t = Thickness of the conductor.
b =width of the conductor .
Magnetic field create force on electron Lorentz force ,
Fm= q (Vd×BZ)
q = -e , Vd=-Vdi , BZ=Bzk
Fm= -e(-Vdi × BZk)
= + e [VdBZ](i×k)
= e [VdBZsin90] (-j)
= -e VdBZ j
We know ,
FH=Fm
-eEH= -eVdBZ
 Hall Effect
=> EH= VdBZ
Vd= EH/BZ
J = -neVd= -ne EH/BZ
EH= -1/ne JBz( RH= -1/ne )
EH= RHJxBZ-------(1)
RH= EH/JxBZ= VH/ bJxBZ ( J = Ix/A = Ix/bt )
RH= VHbt/bIXBZ= VH/Ix× t/ BZ
RH = VHt/IXBZ(RH = Hall coefficient )
 Application of Hall
effect
Used to find out the mobility of electron
µ = Vd/Ex
Vd= µEx
EH= µEXBZ---------(2)
Comparing 1 and 2 we get ,
RHJxBZ= µEXBZ
RH= µEX/σEx
µ = RH/ σ
Mobility = Hall coefficient / Electrical conductivity
 Bloch Theorem And Bloch Function
The quantum free electron theory of metals assume that a conduction electron in a metals
experiences a constant zero potential and so is completely free to move about in a crystal.
This theory successfully explains the phenomenon of specific heat of solids, electrical
conductivity, thermionic emission, Thermal conductivity and Paramagnetism but free electron
model fails to explain when some solids are good conductors and others are insulators.
a
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
 Bloch Theorem
Inside a crystal there is an infinite array of lattice points , positively charged ions through which
electrons moves. The potential of electron near or at the positive ion site is zero and is maximum
exactly between two positive ion sites. Thus electron moves in a periodic potential produced by
positive ion . The potentials varies parodically with the same period as lattice.
V(x) = v (x+a)

V(x)

x
 Bloch Theorem.
Consider 1-D crystal lattice which positive charge ions are arranged periodically along x axis.
Fig 1-D Periodic potential in a crystal:
The corresponding 1-D Schrodinger equation for moving electron can be written as ,
d2ψ/dx2 +8π2m / ћ2 [E – V(x)] = 0 -------(2)
Bloch proved that an equation 2 with potential has a solution of the form ,
Ψ(x) = eikx Uk(x) ---------(3)
Thus the solutions are plane waves of the type eikx, modulated by a function Uk(x) Having the
periodicity of crystal lattice.
Uk(x) = Uk(x+a) --------(4)
In 3-D equation 3 and 4 can be written as,
Ψ(r) = eik.r Uk(r)
Where T = n1a+n2b+n3C = Translational vector .
n1, n2, n3 are integers.
 Bloch Theorem
• In 3-D equations 3 and 4 can be written as,
Ψ(r) = eik.r Uk(r) -------(5)
Uk(r) = Uk(r + T)--------(6)
Equation 5 represent Bloch theorem equation 6 is called Bloch functions,

Ψ(x Ψ(x+N
) a)
a a a
L

From (4) =>

Uk(x) = Uk(x+a)------(7)
Ψ(x+Na) = eik(x+Na) Uk(x+Na) -----(8)
Using 7 and 8 =>
Ψ(x+Na) = eikx eikNa Uk(x) = eikNa ψ(x) ------(9)
 Bloch Theorem
From 9 it is clear that,
Ψ(x+Na) = ψ(x) only when ,
eikNa = 1
eikNa = ei2πn
kNa = 2πn
K = 2πn / Na = 2πn / L [L=Na]
Equation 9 in 3-D can be written as ,
Ψ(r+T) = eik.T ψ(r)-------(10)
Using complex conjugate:
Ψ*(r+T) = e-ik.T ψ*(r)--------(11)
Multiplying 10 and 11 then,
Ψ(r+T) Ψ*(r+T) = Probability of finding the electron at r.
So, The probability of finding the electron is uniform throughout the crystal lattice.
KRONIG-PENNEY MODEL
Kroning Penney Model
Kronig Penney Model
Kronig Penney Model
Kronig Penney Model
Kronig Penney Model
Kronig Penney Model
Kronig Penney Model
Kronig Penney Model
Problem 02: Using the kronig -penney model, show that for P<<1, the
energy of the lowest band is,

Solution: From equation (15), the energy of the lowest band corresponds to,
(03)
 Valence Band
The energy band that consists of valence electrons energy levels is known as valence Band.
The valence band is present below the conduction band are loosely bound to the nucleus of the
atom.
Conduction Band:
The energy band that consists of free electrons energy levels , is known as the conduction Band .
FOR electron to be free , External energy must be applied such that the valence electron get
pushed to the conduction band and become free.
Forbidden Band:
The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is known as the forbidden band
which is also known as the forbidden band or forbidden Gap. The electrical conductivity of a
solid is determined from forbidden gap and also the classification of the materials as conductors,
Semiconductors and insulators.
 Classification of solids
The solids are classified into three type based on the forbidden gap. Those are conductors ,
semiconductors and insulators .
Conductors:
In case of conductors, the valence bands and conduction bands are overlap to each other.

Conduction Band

Overlap region

Valence Band

In conduction band , plenty of free electrons are available for conduction . The energy gap of
conductor is zero. The charge carrier in conductors is zero. Conductors has negative temperature
coefficient . All Metals are the examples of conductors.
 Semiconductors
In case of semiconductors the forbidden gap is very small as shown in figure:

Conduction Band

Forbidden Energy gap 1 eV

Valence Band

Germanium and silicon are the best examples for semiconductors. In germanium the forbidden
gap is 0.7 eV . In silicon the forbidden energy gap is 1.1 eV. At 0 K the valence band is
completely full fiilled and the conduction band is totally empty. When a small amount of energy
is supplied, the electrons can easily jump from valence band to conduction band.
The charge carriers in semiconductors are both electron and holes.
 Insulators

In case of insulators , the forbidden energy gap is very wide as shown in figure:
Conduction Band

Forbidden energy gap more than 6ev

Valence band

In insulators the valence electrons are bonded very tightly to their parent atoms. In case of
insulators forbidden energy gap is always more than 6 eV. Due to this fact electron can not jump
from valence band to conduction band.
 Classifications of semiconducting materials

Semiconductors are materials whose electrical properties lies between conductors and insulators . Example:
silicon (si) and germanium (Ge).
The conductivity of semiconductors lies between 10-8Ώ-1m-1to 10-3Ώ-1m-1

Elemental semiconductors:
Composed of single species of atoms.
Column IV of periodic table.
Compound semiconductors :
Combination of atoms of column III and V some atoms from column II and VI .
Binary: SiGe , AlP , Zns .
Ternary : GaAsP.
Quaternary: InGaAsP.
 Semiconducting Materials

Empty conduction Band

Small band
gap

Valence band filled with electrons

semiconducting materials have a filled valence band just like insulator but at room temperature.
It is possible for some electrons to acquire the energy to jump up to the conduction band. The
electrons move easily thorough this conduction band under the application of an electric field.
This is an intrinsic semiconductors.
Empty conduction Band

Electrons

At room temperature some conduction will occur.

 Energy band diagram of semiconductors
E
C
E
g

E
V

Energy plotted as a function of position .

Conduction band : Lowest energy state for a free electron.
Valence Band : Highest energy state for a filled outer shell .
Band Gap:
 Difference in energy levels between Ec and Ev
No electrons in the band gap .
Band gap for silicon (1.12 eV)
Band gap approximately 10 eV for insulators.
Difference between conductor, insulator and semiconductor:
Conductor Insulator Semiconductor
The conductivity of conductor is very high. The conductivity of insulator is very low. The conductivity of semiconductor is moderate.

It has very low resistivity. It has very high resistivity. It has moderate resistivity.

It has no forbidden gap. It has large forbidden gap. It has small forbidden gap.

Conductor has positive temperature coefficient of Insulator has negative temperature coefficient of Semiconductor has negative temperature coefficient of
resistance. resistance. resistance

In conductor, both the effect of resistance and In insulator, effect of resistance is decreases and effect In semiconductor, effect of resistance is decreases and
temperature are increases of temperature is increases. effect of temperature is increases.

There is large number of electrons available for There is small number of electrons available for There is moderate number of electrons available for
conduction. conduction. conduction.

Examples: Paper, Mica glass. Silicon, Germanium.

Metals, aluminium, copper.
 Electrons , Holes, Electron and hole pair:
Si and Ge are tetravalent element . Each atom of Si(Ge) has 4 valence electrons in the crystal
lattice .
At T= 0 K all electrons are bound in covalent bonds no carriers available for conduction.
For T > 0 K Thermal fluctuations can break electrons free creating electron hole pairs both can
move throughout the lattice and therefore conduct current.
 Electron hole pair
For T > 0, some electrons in the valence band receive enough thermal energy to be excited across the band
gap to the conduction band.
The result is a material with some electrons in an otherwise empty conduction band and some unoccupied states
in an otherwise filled valence band.
Holes and electrons are the two types of charge carriers responsible for current in semiconductor materials . A hole
is the absence of an electron in a particular place in atom .
Electron Hole Pair:
If the conduction band electron and the hole are created by the excitation of a valence band electron to the
conduction band , they are called an electron Hole pair.
Semiconductors is divided into two types one is intrinsic semiconductor. The pure form of the semiconductor
becomes zero at room temperature while the extrinsic semiconductor is very less conductive at room temperature .
The detailed explanation of two semiconductor given below:
Intrinsic semiconductors:
An extremely pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor on the basis of the energy band
phenomenon, an intrinsic semiconductor at absolute Zero temperature.
 Intrinsic semiconductor

Conduction band

Valence band

Lower energy band

it’s valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is completely empty. When the
temperature is raised and some heat energy bis supplied to it. Some of the valence electrons are to
conduction band , leaving behind in the valence band .

Free electrons

Holes

Lower Energy Band

 Temperature effect on intrinsic semiconductors

 At T= 0 K , Charge carriers band is filled with electrons conduction band is empty .

 AT T > 0 K Hole Pairs are generated EHPS are the only charge carriers in intrinsic material.
 Since electron and holes are created in pairs  The electron concentration in conduction band ,
n ( electron / cm3) is equal to the concentration of hole in the valence band ( Holes /cm3)
 Each of these intrinsic concentrations is denoted by ni .
 N=P = ni
 At a given temperature recombination rate ri and the generation gi will be ,
 ri= gi
 Each of these rates is temperature dependent . For example increases , the number of free
electrons and holes creation increases Exponentially.

Temperature (k)
 Temperature effect on intrinsic semiconductors

The conductivity of a semiconductor is influenced by temperature .

The conductivity of the semiconductors materials when the temperature increases.
The application of heat makes of heat makes it possible for some electrons in the valence band to
move the conduction band.
The more heat applied the higher number of electrons that can gain the require energy to make the
conduction band transition and become available as charge carriers .
Intrinsic semiconductor:
Intrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that had an impurity introduced to them at a regular
rate to make them conductive.
While insulating materials may be doped to make them into semiconductors, intrinsic
semiconductors can also be doped to make an extrinsic semiconductors .
Extrinsic semiconductors are divided into two categories as a result of doping atoms with an
additional electron ( n- type for negative ) an atoms with one fewer electron (p-type for positive)
Problem 03. In intrinsic GaAs, the corresponding effective masses are 0.068mo and 0.5 mo,
respectively where mo is the rest mass of an electron. Given the energy band gap at 300 K
as 1.43 eV, determine the intrinsic carrier concentration.

Solution: Given,
 Doping

Doping is the purposeful introduction of impurities into a very pure , or intrinsic semiconductor in
order to change its electrical characteristics . The kind of semiconductor determines the
impurities.
Extrinsic semiconductors are those that are light to moderately doped.
DOPING:
Doping is the process of introducing an impurities into a semiconductors. During the production
of extrinsic semiconductors , the amount and kind of impurities to be introduced to the material
must be carefully monitored. In most cases, one impurity atom is introduced to every 108
semiconductor atoms.
Impurity is used to enhance the number of free electrons or holes in a semiconductor crystal
making it more conductive.
Extrinsic semiconductors are divided into two categories based on the type of impurity added.
 N Type semiconductor.
 P Type Semiconductor.
 Donors n- type Material
N- type semiconductors are extrinsic semiconductors in which dopant atoms can provide
additional conduction electrons to the host material (Phosphorus in silicon).
 Donors N type material
Donors:
 Add atoms with 5 valence band electrons (N,P,As, Sb, Bi) etc.
Donates an extra electron that can freely travel around .
Leaves behind a positively charged nucleus. (Can not move)
The crystal is still electrically neutral .
Added negative carriers .
ND=The concentration of donor atoms 1015-1020cm-3
Electron freely move about the crystal ( Mobility µ = 1350 cm2/v)
 positively charged ion : immobile
Negatively Charged ion : mobile
Positively charged ion called Minority carrier.
Negatively charged ion called majority carrier.
 Acceptors P type Materials
• P type semiconductors are extrinsic semiconductors in which dopant atoms can
accepts additional electrons from host atoms and forming Hole.
 Acceptors P Type materials
Acceptors :
 Add atoms with only 3 valence band electrons (B,Al, Ga, In, Ti) .
Acceptors accepts electron and provides extra hole to freely travel around .
Leaves behind a negatively charged nucleus (can not move)
Called p type silicon (added positive carriers )
NA=The concentration of acceptor atoms
Movement of the hole requires breaking of a bond. (µ = 500 cm2/v )
Positively charged ion : mobile
Negatively Charged ion : immobile.
Positively charged carriers are called majority carriers.
Negatively charged carriers are called minority carriers.
 Effect of doping on fermi level
P- Type 1-
Material f(E)
E
c

E 0.
v
1
5

 Low probability of a free electron in the conduction band

 High Probability of hole in the valence band
 Moving Ec closer to Ev ( Higher Doping)
 Increasing the number of available majority carriers.
 Effect of Doping on Fermi Level

E
Ec
Ef

Ev
1 F(E
0.
)
5
 High Probability of a free electron in the conduction band .
 Moving Ef closer to Ec (Higher Doping) increase the number of available majority carriers .