CH2035 FOOD ENGINEERING 2

Semester 1, 2024-2025

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 Heat transfer when phase change.
 Boiling
 Boiling Heat Transfer Phenomena
 Boiling mechanisms for water
 Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool
Boiling
 Condensation
 Condensation Heat-transfer
Phenomena
 Laminar Flow Condensation On A
Vertical Wall
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 The heat transfer of a phase change heat transfer medium is
much more complex than the basic modes of heat transfer
(in Part I & II).
 The phase change processes
are as shown in Fig. 1:

Fig. 1: Phase change

processes
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 The basic purposes of thermal processing of
foods are as follows:
 to reduce or destroy microbial activity,
 to reduce or destroy enzyme activity,
 to produce physical or chemical changes,
 to make the food meet a certain quality
standard.
 Examples:
i. pasteurization and sterilisation of milk,
ii. gelatenization of starch & denaturation of
proteins to produce edible food
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  In general, food thermal processing can be classified as
following:
Mild Thermal Processing Severe Thermal Processing
 Blanching  Sterilisation
 Pasteurisation  Canning
 Baking
 Roasting
 Frying

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 Boiling Condensation

 Boiling is a phase change process from liquid to vapor in

which vapor bubbles are formed either on a heated surface
or in a superheated liquid layer adjacent to the heated
surface.
 Boilers are used to generate steam in the food processing
industry, which is necessary for the processing, packaging,
and storage of food products.
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 Boilers are used to heat water and other liquids, as well
as to produce hot air for drying and cooling food products.
 Boilers are also used to produce steam as a source to
power machinery used in food processing.
 Condensation is a phase change process from vapor to
liquid in which condensed liquid droplets are formed.
 In steam-heated vessels where the steam condenses and
gives up its heat; and in distillation and evaporation
where the vapours produced must be condensed.

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  The boiling process finds applications in the following cases:
i. Steam production (for generation of power and for
industrial processes and space heating) in steam plants;
ii. Heat absorption in refrigeration & air conditioning systems;
iii. Distillation and refining of liquids;
iv. Concentration, dehydration & drying of foods & materials,
v. Cooling the machines where the large quantities of heat are
released in relatively small volume (dissipation rates are as
high as 108 W /m2; the maximum heat transfer rate in
modern boiler is about 2 x 105 W/m2).

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  Boiling is the convective heat transfer process that involves
a phase change from liquid to vapour state only when the
temperature of the surface (Ts) exceeds the saturation
temperature (boiling point) corresponding to the liquid
pressure (Tsat).
 Heat is transferred from
the solid surface to the
liquid according to the
Newton law of cooling:
Q = h As(Ts- Tsat)
= h As ∆Te
where, ∆Te = Ts- Tsat
(excess temperature)
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 Classification of boiling:
[i] Pool Boiling:
 Boiling is called pool boiling in the absence of
bulk fluid flow.
 Any motion of the fluid is due to natural
convection currents and the motion of the
bubbles under the influence of buoyancy.
 the liquid above the hot surface is stagnant & its
motion near the surface is due to free convection
and mixing induced by bubble growth and
detachment.
 it occurs in steam boilers involving natural
convection.
[ii] Forced Convective Boiling (Flow Boiling):
 Boiling is called forced convective boiling or
flow boiling in the presence of bulk fluid flow.
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  In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move in a
heated pipe or over a surface by external means
such as a pump, the flow motion is also induced by
free convection and bubble induced mixing.
 it occurs in water tube boilers involving forced
convection.
 The pool boiling may further be divided into sub-
cooled or local boiling and saturated or bulk
boiling.
[iii] Sub-cooled or local boiling:
 If the temperature of the liquid is below the
saturation temperature, the process is known as
sub-cooled or local boiling.
 bubbles are formed in the vicinity of heat surfaces.
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  These bubbles after travelling a short path get condensed
in the liquid which has a temperature less than the
boiling point.
[iv] Saturated boiling:
 If the liquid is maintained at
saturation temperature, the
process is known as saturated or
bulk boiling.
 the liquid temperature exceeds the saturation temperature.
 These vapors formed at the solid surface (or liquid-solid
interface) are then propelled through the liquid by
buoyancy effects & eventually escape from a free surface
(liquid-vapour interface).
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  Fig. 2 shows the temperature
distribution in saturated pool
boiling with a liquid-vapour
interface.
 It is evident that although there is a
sharp decline in the liquid
temperature close to the solid
surface, the temperature through
most of the liquid remains slightly
above saturation.
 Consequently bubbles generated at
liquid-solid interface rise to and
are transported across the liquid-
vapour interface. Fig. 2: Pool boiling with
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liquid-vapour interface.
 Boiling regime:
 Boiling process depends upon the nature of the surface, thermo-
physical properties of the fluid & vapour bubble dynamics.
 Due to the involvement of large number of variables, general
equations describing the boiling process are not available.
 The boiling phenomenon corresponds to pool boiling or forced
convective boiling, there are three definite regimes of boiling
(i.e., interface evaporation, nucleate boiling, film boiling)
which are associated with progressively increasing heat flux, as
shown in Fig. 3.
 The specific curve has been obtained from an electrically
heated platinum wire submerged in a bath (pool) of water by
varying its surface temperature and the surface heat flux was
measured. [email protected]
Fig.3: Boiling
curve of
water plotted
from the
heat-flux
data from an
electrically
heated
platinum
wire.

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I. Interface evaporation:
 Interface evaporation (evaporation process with no bubble
formation) exists in region I, called the free / natural
convection zone.
 Here the excess temperature, ∆Te,is very small & ≈ 5°C.
 In this region the liquid near the surface is superheated
slightly, the convection currents circulate the liquid & evapo-
ration takes place at the liquid surface.
II. Nucleate boiling:
 This type of boiling exists in Regions II.
 With the increase in ∆Te(excess temperature) the formation of
bubbles on the surface of the wire at certain localized spots
commences.
 The bubbles condense in the liquid without reaching the
liquid surface. [email protected]
 In fact, it is 1st subregion of Region II where nucleate boiling
starts.
 With further increase in ∆Te, the bubbles are formed more
rapidly and rise to the surface of the liquid resulting in rapid
evaporation, as indicated in 2nd subregion of Region II.
 The nucleate boiling is thus characterized by formation of
bubbles at the nucleation sites and the resulting liquid
agitation.
 The bubble agitation induces considerable fluid mixing and
that promotes substantial increase in the heat flux and the
boiling heat transfer coefficient.
 The equipment used for boiling should be designed to
operate in this region only.
 Nucleate boiling exists upto ∆Te ≈ 50°C.
 The maximum heat flux, known as the critical heat flux,
occurs at point C (see Fig. 3) and is of the order of l MW/m2 .
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III & IV. Transition boiling & Film boiling:
 Film boiling comprises of Regions III & IV.
 The trend of increase of heat flux with increase in excess
temperature is observed upto region III, & is reversed in
region IV (called film boiling region).
 This is due to the fact that the bubble formation is very
rapid and the bubbles blanket the heating surface and
prevent the incoming fresh liquid from taking their place.
 Eventually the bubbles coalesce and form a vapour film
which covers the surface completely.
 Since the thermal conductivity of vapour film is much
less than that of the liquid the heat flux drops with growth
in ∆te.
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 Within the temperature range 50°C < ∆Te < 150°C,
conditions oscillate between nucleate and film boiling
and the phase is referred to as transition boiling, unstable
film boiling or partial film boiling (region III).
 With further increase in ∆te, the vapour film is stabilised
and the heating surface is completely covered by a
vapour blanket and the heat flux is the lowest as shown in
between of Region III & IV (Point D in Fig. 3).
 Point D is also called as Leidenfrost point, where the heat
flux reaches a minimum.
 The surface temperatures required to maintain a stable
film are high and under these conditions a sizeable
amount of heat is lost by the surface due to radiation, as
indicated in the region III. [email protected]
 The phenomenon of stable film boiling can be observed
when a drop of water falls on a red hot stove.
 The drop does not evaporate immediately but dances a
few times on the stove; this is due to the formation of a stable
steam film at the interface between the hot surface and the
liquid droplet.
 Critical heat flux or burnout point:
 The critical heat flux or burnout point (Point
C in Fig. 3) is the point of maximum heat flux on the boiling
curve at which transition from nucleate to film boiling
initiates.
 This point is also called the boiling crisis because the
boiling process beyond that point is unstable unless of
course, point E is reached. [email protected]
The temperature at point E is extremely high and
normally above the melting of the solid.
So if the heating of the metallic surface is not limited to
point C, it is possible that the metal may get damaged or
it may even melt (For this reason, point C is often termed as
boiling crisis or burnout point).
Thus we may be interested to operate the equipment close
to this value and not beyond it.

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 Boiling occurs when the temperature of a surface wall, Ts
exceeds that of the liquid saturation temperature, Tsat.
 The heat transferred from the heated wall to the liquid can be
found by: Q = h As(Ts- Tsat) = h As ∆Te
 So, Q/As = h ∆Te
 The curve of heat transfer coefficient (h) versus ∆Te (as
shown in Fig.4) has approximately the same pattern as Fig. 3.
 The values of h are quite large.
 At the beginning of nucleate boiling region, h has a value of
about 5700 - 11 400 W/m2.K
 At the end of the nucleate boiling region, h has a peak value of
almost 57000 W/m2.K.
 These values are quite high, and in most cases the percent
resistance of the boiling film is only a few percent of the
overall resistance of heat transfer.
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 Fig.4: Plot of
heat transfer
coefficient
versus excess
temperature
based on
heat-flux data
from an
electrically
heated
platinum wire.

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The boiling mechanism regions of commercial interest
are the nucleate boiling and film boiling regions.
Nucleate boiling occurs in kettle-type and natural-
circulation reboilers.

Kettle-type reboiler Natural circulation reboiler

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 In the nucleate boiling region, the heat flux is affected by
∆Te, pressure, nature and geometry of the surface and
system, as well as the physical properties of the vapor and
liquid.
 Simplified empirical equations to estimate the boiling
heat transfer coefficients (h) for water boiling on the
outside of submerged surfaces at 1.0 atm abs pressure
have been developed.
 For a horizontal surface (in the natural convection
region):
 h (W/m2.K) = 1043 T1/3 (K1/3), Q/As (kW/m2) < 16
 h (W/m2.K) = 5.56 T3 (K3), 16 < Q/As (kW/m2) < 240

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For a vertical surface (in the natural convection region):
 h (W/m2.K) = 537 T1/7 (K1/7), Q/As (kW/m2) < 3
 h (W/m2.K) = 7.95 T3 (K3), 3 < Q/As (kW/m2) < 63
For forced convection boiling inside tubes (h, W/m2.K) ,
the simplified relation below can be used:
 h = 2.55 T 3 eP/1551
 where P is pressure in kPa.

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  Film Pool Boiling:
 In stable film boiling, the heat transfer is due to both
convection and radiation.
 The heat transfer rate is low in view of the large
temperature drop used, which is not utilized effectively.
 If the temperature difference is quite high, some
additional heat transfer occurs by radiation.
 Bromley (1950) suggested a correlation for film boiling
from the outer surface of horizontal tubes:

 The above equation is tedious to solve, the equation can

be simplified within 5% error as:
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 The convective coefficient (in the absence of radiation), is
given by:

where D is the tube diameter, kv is the thermal conductivity

of the fluid which fills the void space.
 The vapour properties in the film (Tf) in the above equation
are evaluated at the arithmetic mean of the surface and
saturation temperatures.
1
𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 + 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2 [email protected]
 The radiation heat-transfer coefficient and is calculated by
assuming an emissivity of unity for the liquid:
4
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67×10-8 kg s-3 K-4)
and ϵ is the emissivity of the surface.

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EXAMPLE 1:
 It is known that the heat flux for the water-brass combination
is 1.072×107 W/m2.
 A heated brass plate is submerged in a container of water
at atmospheric pressure.
 The plate temperature is 116.7◦C.
 The saturation temperature is 100 ◦C
 Calculate the heat transfer coefficient of the plate.
SOLUTION:
 ∆Te =TS −Tsat = 116.7◦C - 100◦C = 16.7◦C
 Q/As = h ∆Te, h = (Q/As )/ ∆Te = 1.072×107 W/m2/ 16.7◦C
= 6.42 x 105 W/m2.◦C [email protected]
 EXAMPLE 2:
 Water is being boiled at 1 atm abs pressure in a jacketed kettle with steam
condensing in the jacket at 115.6oC.
 The inside diameter of the kettle is 0.656 m and the height is 0.984 m.
 Both the bottom and the sides up to a height of 0.656 m are jacketed.
 The kettle surface for heat transfer is 3.2 mm stainless steel with a thermal
conductivity, k of 16.27 W/m.K.
 The condensing steam coefficient hi inside
the jacket has been estimated as 10 200 W/m2.K.
(a) Predict the boiling heat transfer coefficient h0
for the bottom surface of the kettle if the inside
metal surface temperature is 108.2oC.
(b) Calculate the heat transfer rate for the bottom
surface of the kettle
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  Solution:
The bottom is slightly curved but it will be assumed to be flat.
Temperature difference, ∆Te = Ts - Tsat
= (108.2 - 100 )oC = 8.2oC
The heat transfer coefficient for boiling:
ho = 5.56 (8.2)3 = 3065.6 W/m2.◦C
 Therefore, Q/As = ho ∆Te = 3056.6 (8.2)
= 25 064 W/m2
𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑 2 (3.142)(0.656)2
 The bottom surface area, As = = = 3380 m2
4 4
 The heat transfer rate, Q = (25 064)(3380)= 84 716.3 W
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EXAMPLE 3:
 Water at 5 atm flows inside a tube of 2.54-cm
diameter under local boiling conditions where the
tube wall temperature is 10◦C above the saturation
temperature.
 Estimate the heat transfer in a 1.0-m length of tube.

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SOLUTION:
 ∆Tx =10◦C, P = (5)(1.0132×105 N/m2) = 0.5066 MPa
 For forced convection boiling inside tubes, the heat-
transfer coefficient is then calculated as:
ℎ = (2.55)(10)3 𝑒𝑒 0.5066⁄1.551
= 3535 W/m2.oC
 The surface area for a 1-m length of tube:
A = Π dL = (3.142) (0.254)(1.0) = 0.0798 m2
 The heat transfer is:
Q = h A (Ts – Tsat)
= (3535)(0.0798)(10)
= 2821 W/m [email protected]
 Many empirical relations have been developed to estimate
the boiling heat-transfer coefficients for water.
 These heat-transfer coefficients may be modified to take into
account the influence of pressure by using the empirical
relation:

 hp = heat-transfer coefficient at some pressure p

 h1 = heat-transfer coefficient at atmospheric pressure.
 p = system pressure
 p1= standard atmospheric pressure

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 Table 4: The boiling heat-transfer coefficients to water at
atmospheric pressure

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EXAMPLE 4:
A horizontal tube 3 mm in diameter and 7.5 cm long is
submerged in water at 1.6 atm.
Calculate the heat flux for a temperature excess of 13.14◦C.
[Given that: the boiling point for water at 1.6 atm is 113.6oC]

SOLUTION:
 For horizontal surface (at 1 atm),
ℎ = (5.56)(13.14)3 = 12 614 W/m2.oC
 At 1.6 atm, hp = (12 614)(1.6/1)0.4 = 15 223 W/m2.oC
 Q/A = hp (∆Tx) = (15 223)(13.14) = 200 034 W/m2
= 0.2 MW/m2
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  The condensation process is the reverse of the
boiling process & involves the change of a vapor
phase to a liquid phase.
 Just as liquid superheat is required to induce
the nucleation of bubbles in boiling, vapor
subcooling is required to induce the
nucleation of droplets in condensation.
 Condensers:
 Oil refinery - oil is evaporated in distillation
column and condensed into liquid
fuels like gasoline and kerosene
 Desalination plant – water vapor is
produced by evaporation from brine
and condensed as pure water
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 Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is
reduced below its saturation temperature.
 When a vapor is exposed to a surface below saturation
temperature, condensation in the form of a liquid film or
individual droplets occurs on the surface.
 Film condensation:
 The condensate wets the surface & forms a liquid film.
 The surface is blanketed by a liquid film which
serves as a resistance to heat transfer.
 Condensate film thickness is thin – heat transfer
coefficients are large.
 Example - steam at a saturation temperature of 305 K
condenses on a 2 cm outer diameter tube with a wall
temperature of 300 K, the average film thickness is 50μm
(0.05 mm) and the average heat transfer coefficient is 11,700
W/m2.K. [email protected]
 If the condensate flow rate is small, the surface of the film
will be smooth and the flow laminar because temperature
difference is small, and the wall is short.
 If the condensate flow rate is high, waves will form on the
surface to give wavy laminar flow.
 If the condensate flow rate is yet higher, the flow becomes
turbulent.

Laminar steady film

condensation on a
vertical plate

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 Dropwise condensation:
 The condensed vapor forms droplets on the surface.
 The droplets slide down when they reach a certain size.
 No liquid film to resist heat transfer.
 As a result, heat transfer rates that are more than 10 times
larger than with film condensation can be achieved.
 Because of the higher heat-transfer rates, dropwise
condensation would be preferred to film condensation, but it is
extremely difficult to maintain since most surfaces become
wetted after exposure to a condensing vapor over an extended
period of time.
 Various surface coatings and vapor additives have been used in
attempts to maintain dropwise condensation, but these methods
have not met with general success. [email protected]
 Because of lack of sustainability of
dropwise condensation, present day
condensers are designed based on film-
wise condensation.
 Film condensation on a vertical plate
may be analyzed in a manner first
proposed by Nusselt (1916).
 Consider the coordinate system shown
in Fig. 5.
 Liquid film starts forming at the top of
the plate and flows downward Fig. 5: Film condensation
under the influence of gravity. on a vertical plate.
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  Film height (δ) increases in the flow direction x.
 Heat in the amount hfg is released during condensation
and is transferred through the film to the plate surface.
 hfg is the the latent heat of condensation of the vapor
 Ts must be below the saturation temperature (Tsat) for
condensation.
 The temperature of the condensate is Tsat at the interface
and decreases gradually to Ts at the wall.
 The heat transfer at the wall in the area dx:

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 The average value of the heat-transfer coefficient is
obtained by integrating over the length of the vertical
plate:

where, ρ = density of water

ρv = density of water vapor
kf = thermal conductivity of water
L = length of plate
μf = viscosity of water

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 For laminar film condensation on horizontal tubes, Nusselt
obtained the relation:
d = the diameter of
the tube.

 when condensation occurs on a horizontal tube bank with n

tubes placed directly over one another in the vertical
direction, the heat-transfer coefficient may be calculated by
replacing the diameter in equation above with nd.

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 When a plate on which condensation occurs is sufficiently
large or there is a sufficient amount of condensate flow,
turbulence may appear in the condensate film.
This turbulence results in higher heat-transfer rates.
As in forced-convection flow problems, the criterion for
determining whether the flow is laminar or turbulent is the
Reynolds number, & for the condensation system it is
defined as:

where, DH =hydraulic diameter, A =flow area, P = shear, or

“wetted,” perimeter, V =average velocity in flow.
Since m.=ρAV, where ˙m is the mass flow through the
particular section of the condensate film
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 Reynolds numbers the mass flow may be
related to the total heat transfer and the
heat-transfer coefficient:

 For a vertical plate of unit depth, P =1;

for a vertical tube, P =πd.
 The critical Reynolds number is
approximately 1800, and turbulent
correlations for heat transfer must be
used at Reynolds numbers greater than Flow regimes during
this value. film condensation on
a vertical plate
 The film temperature:
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EXAMPLE 5:
 A vertical square plate, 30 by 30 cm, is exposed to steam at
atmospheric pressure.
 The plate, saturation, and film temperature is respectively
98◦C, 100◦C and 99◦C.
 The physical properties of the film at 99◦C : ρf =960 kg/m3,
μf =2.82×10−4 kg/m· s, kf =0.68 W/m· ◦C.
 The enthalpy of vaporization: hfg =2255 kJ/kg
 Check to determine if the condensate film is laminar or
turbulent.
 Calculate the heat transfer rate of steam condensed.
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 SOLUTION:
 Assume laminar condensation:

 Checking the Reynolds number:

 so that the laminar assumption was correct.

 The heat transfer is now calculated from:

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EXAMPLE 6:
 One hundred tubes of 1.27-cm diameter are arranged in a
square array and exposed to atmospheric steam.
 The plate, saturation, and film temperature is respectively
98◦C, 100◦C and 99◦C.
 The physical properties of the film at 99◦C : ρf =960 kg/m3,
μf =2.82×10−4 kg/m· s, kf =0.68 W/m· ◦C.
 The enthalpy of vaporization: hfg =2255 kJ/kg
 Calculate the mass of steam condensed per unit length of
tubes for a tube wall temperature of 98◦C.

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 SOLUTION:
 The heat transfer coefficient equation is used by replacing d
by nd, where n=10. Thus,

= 7049.8 W/m2.oC
The total surface area:

The heat transfer:

= (7049.8)(3.99)(100-98) = 56.26 kW/m

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 The total mass flow of condensate:

56.26 𝑥𝑥 103
= 6 =0.02495 kg/s = 89.8 kg/h
2.255 𝑥𝑥 10

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