CE315 particular surface track for its working operations.

It is
the fastest means
HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING
PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION
Introduction Transportation engineering is a major
component of the civil engineering and mechanical Pipelines transportation is used for sending the liquids
engineering disciplines, according to specialization of and gases from one place to another place. Through this
academic courses and main competences of the involved means of transport, we can also send chemicals, bio
territory. fuels, and natural gas.

IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION
Transport increases mobility of labor and capital. Transit Modes
Transport contributes in growth of industries whose Mass transit
product requires
Mass-transit is characterized by fixed routes, published
Transport helps in increase in the demand for goods. schedules, designated networks, and specified stops.
Mass-transit vehicles include buses, light rail (trolleys)
Transport creates place utility. or rapid transit that either share space in mixed traffic or
Transport creates time utility of late transport has started operate on grade-separated rights of way.
creating the time utility also. Para-transit
Transport helps in stabilization of price. Para-transit is characterized by flexible and personalized
Transport ensures even flow of commodities into the service replace conventional fixed-route, fixed-schedule
hands of the consumers throughout the period of mass-transit lines.
consumption. Ridesharing
Ridesharing (as the name implies) is characterized by
MODES OF TRANSPORTATION two or more persons travelling together by
prearrangement, such as carpool, vanpool, or shared-ride
Mode of transportation (or transportation mode) refers to taxi.
different ways by which goods or people are transported
from one place to the other through land, air or sea.
Mode of transport is used to distinguish between CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD
different methods of moving people or goods from one TRANSPORTATION

ROADWAYS TRANSPORTATION Land Transport

A road is an identifiable route way or path between two Land transport is a transport or a movement of people,
or more places animals, and goods from one location to another location
or place by using land.
RAILWAYS TRANSPORTATION
ROAD TRANSPORT
In variance to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat
road o surface, rail vehicles are directionally managed by Road transport means transportation of goods and
the rail tracks on which they run. personnel from one place.

WATER TRANSPORTATION RAIL TRANSPORT

It involves the movement of goods through oceans and Rail transport is also known as train transport. It is a
seas. In water transport, the goods and passengers went means of transport, on vehicles which run on tracks
to the different parts of the world by water. (rails or railroads). It is one of the most important,
commonly used and very cost- effective modes of
AIR TRANSPORTATION commuting and goods carriage over long, as well as,
short distances.
Air transport is also known as aviation. The important
characteristics of air transport is that does not need a
Characteristics of Road Transportation  Traffic Performance and Control
Roads are used for various types of road vehicles, like Traffic studies analysis, need for new road links, traffic
passenger cars, buses, trucks two and three wheeled regulation and control, intersection design and their
automobiles, pedal cycles and animal drawn vehicles. controls with sign, signals and markings.
But railway tracks are used only by rail locomotives and
wagons, water ways are used by only ships and boats.  Materials, Construction and Maintenance

Road transport requires a relatively small investment for Highway material and mix design, highway
the government. Motor vehicles are much cheaper than construction, earthwork, construction of different types
carriers like rail locomotives and wagons, water and air of pavements, WBM, pavement failure, pavement
carriers. evaluation, maintenance of pavements.

Road transport completely offer a freedom to road users  Economics, Finance and Administration
to transfer their vehicles from one lane to another and to Road user cost and economic analysis of highway
from one road to another according to the need and projects, pavement types and maintenance measures
convenience. highway finance
Road transport is the only means of transport offer itself
to the whole community.
SCOPE OF HIGHWAY AND TRAFFIC
ENGINEERING
Highway engineering is one of the branches of civil
engineering. It deals with the process of design,
construction and maintenance of different types of roads.
Highway Development and Planning
It deals with these various phases:
 Development
Highway Engineering involves planning, designing,
 Planning  Alignment
building, operating, and maintaining highways, bridges,
 Highway material and tunnels. Highway Engineers plan and built the
highways that connect cities from towns, that offer the
 Traffic control faster travel times due to their wide width and high-
 Highway geometric design and location speed limits.

 Pavement design Objectives of Planning

 Construction and maintenance 1. A highway should be plan according to the volume of

traffic flow from particular place.
 Economic considerations
2. The highways develop must be efficient, but at a
 Financial and administration minimum cost, especially in cases of developing and
underdeveloped countries.
3. A highway should be safe and secure to people and
Scope of Highway and Traffic Engineering products.
Development, Planning and Location 4. The planning must have a forecast for next several
Historical background, basis for planning, master plan, years in order to plan fix period of maintenance, renewal
engineering surveys and highway alignment. and the widening.

 Highway Design, Geometrics and Structure Classification of roads

Road geometrics and their design, rigid and flexible Roads are paved routes or thoroughfares used by
pavement, design factors and thickness design, overlay vehicles to reach destinations, classified into various
design, design of drainage system. types.
A. Materials
1. Earthen roads are cheaper, soil-based, and suitable C. Based on Traffic Volume
for fewer traffic areas, with a good drainage system for
extended performance. 1. Light traffic roads average 400 daily vehicles.

2. Gravel roads are low-quality but superior to earthen 2. Medium traffic road carries 400-1000 daily vehicles.
roads due to a compacted mixture. 3. High traffic road has 1000+ daily vehicles
3. Murrum is a weathered rock material used for road D.Based on Economy
construction.
1. Low-cost roads, constructed using local soil or
4. Kankar roads are impure limestone, low quality, and materials, are preferred for low pedestrian traffic areas.
poorly performed in lime-rich areas.
2. Medium-cost roads require higher funds than low-
5. WBM roads use crushed stone aggregate for superior cost ones, such as village-to-town roads, for occasional
performance compared to earthen, gravel, murrum, and high traffic.
kankar roads.
3.High-cost roads, like state and national highways,
6. Bituminous roads are widely used, lowcost, suitable require significant capital and use bitumen or cement
for driving conditions, and depend on subgrade soil concrete.
conditions.
E. Based on Traffic Type
7. Cement concrete is popular for pavements in
concrete roads, costlier, and less flexible, requiring less 1. Pedestrian ways exclusively designed for
maintenance. pedestrians; no vehicles allowed.
. Based on Location and Function 2.Bicycle tracks ensure safe travel for cyclists on both
sides of pavement.
➢ LOCATION
3.Motorways, also known as expressways, allow high-
1. National highways connect major cities to the speed acceleration vehicles for quick and comfortable
country's capital, with minimum two-lane roads. travel.
2. Provincial Road connecting municipalities, including F. Based on Rigidity
provincial or national roads, terminals, wharfs, and
railway stations. 1. Flexible roads require proper maintenance for a
durable, flexible pavement surface, except concrete
3. City Roads or street within the urban area of a city roads.
not classified as provincial or national road.
2. Rigid Pavement is a concrete cement road with non-
4. Municipal Roads/ Street within the poblacion area flexibility.
of a municipality not classified as provincial or national
road. G. Based on Topography

5. Tourism Road is a marketed road for tourists, 1. Plain area road is a leveled constructed road.
promoting existing roads through advertising.
2. Hilly Road area is built in a spiral pattern all the way
6. Farm-to-market roads connect agricultural and around the hill.
fisheries production sites, coastal landing points, and
III. Road Pattern
post-harvest facilities.
Road patterns are essential for traffic management and
city settlement development. Road pattern was
FUNCTION constructed into different types.

1. Expressways are access-controlled roadways with 1. Rectangular or Block Pattern area is divided into
ramps for smooth entry and exit, allowing fast, rectangular plots with right-angled streets, wide main
comfortable, and safe travel without sharp curves or road, narrow branch roads.
busy intersections.
2. Radial Road Pattern is a circular pattern that radiates
2. Parkways are landscaped thoroughfares in parks, away from the center.
excluding heavy vehicles and encompassing various
Three types of Patterns
types of roads over time.
a. Radial or Star Pattern is road network combination photographs, simple instruments like compasses and
of radial and block patterns, forming a block-pattern barometers are utilized for rapid data collection.
network between main streets.
c. Preliminary survey collects data for area planning
b. Radial or Star & Circular Pattern Radial and and design using instruments like chain type, prismatic
circular road patterns combine, with major roadways compass, leveling instrument, and plane table theodolite.
radiating outward and concentric roads joining them.
d. Location survey examines field alignment using
c. Radial or Star & Grid Pattern is road network instruments like theodolite, level, plane table, tape.
combination of radial and grid pattern that used to
interconnect the main radial street. • Traffic surveys the detail information of traffic is
much necessary so as to design the road pavement,
3. Hexagonal pattern is a circular road network with fixing the number of traffic lanes, geometric design of
three intersecting roads and divided into appropriate roads and other economic aspects.
plots.
• Soil and material surveys are crucial for road cost
4. Minimum Travel Pattern the town's road plan analysis, collecting detailed information on soil
connects sector, suburban, and neighborhood centers via classifications and conducting field and laboratory tests
highways, ensuring shortest connections to the city for embankment suitability.
center and neighboring areas.
• Drainage surveys aid in designing cross drainage
5. Grid Pattern is a network of parallel lines, either real structures and adjusting road gradients, collecting
or imaginary, connecting streets at right angles to form information on high flood levels, water table depth, and
squares. rainfall intensity, ensuring proper surface drainage
system design.
6. Linear Pattern the road was expands linearly in one
direction due to natural resources on one side of city. • Topographic surveys aid in highway planning by
determining horizontal and vertical object locations on
IV. PLANNING SURVEY Earth's surface, revealing ground profile for proper road
Highway alignment and Survey alignment.

A. The basic requirement for ideal highway

requirement is listed below.
a. Safe alignment essential for construction, operation,
maintenance, slopes, embankments, cutting.
b. Easy highway alignment, curves, and gradients for
construction, maintenance, operation. DESIGN CRITERIA FOR HIGHWAY AND
RAILWAY
c. Short is the distance between the initial and final
point need to be short so as to reduce the construction Railways and Highways
cost.
• Highway is a main, direct public road, especially a
d. Economical alignment is crucial for construction, multi-lane, high speed thoroughfare connecting major
operation, and maintenance, but it may result in difficult population centers
gradients and higher construction costs for vehicle
operation • Railway is a track, consisting of parallel rails, over
which wheeled vehicles such as trains may travel.
B. Different Types of Highway Planning Surveys
What are the objectives of highways?
a. Map study is an aerial photographs, charts, and
graphs are collected for topographical studies, displaying The objective is to provide safe roads for all road users,
features like rivers, hills, and valleys. Proper study helps and not just those in motor vehicle. The principle that
align roads and obtain basic details. "man is the reference standard" implies that roads must
be adapted to the limitations of human capacity. This
b. The study of reconnaissance survey involves leads to what is called the "safe system approach" which
examining an entire area for road or airfield use, aiming encourages:
to eliminate impractical or unfeasible routes and identify
promising sites. Utilizing existing maps and aerial • Simpler, self-explaining roads
• Designing roads that encourage / enforce safe speeds
• Forgiving roadsides 2. SAFETY
The most important design factor is safety.
• The World Bank's Sustainable safe Road Design Maximum safety is the goal of every design.
Manual also discusses. Consistency is a significant safety factor in
• Functionality- developing a hierarchy of mono- addition to highway design.
functional roads 3. COST
The designer's objective is to maximize design
• Homogeneity- avoiding differences in speed, direction efficiency without sacrificing other factors.
of travel, and mass of vehicles Alternative designs and places should be
researched, as well. "Desirable" design
• Predictability- ensuring that roads are easy to
Minimum-design rules are only applied, when
understand and there is not nasty surprise
necessary, by superseding circumstances.
Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them 4. MAINTENANCE
with: When a highway is exposed to a bad climate
and moving traffic, it will inevitably deteriorate.
✓ Clear information and guidance through a variety of They must be maintained to prevent future
road signs. degradation for economic reasons.
5. CONSTRUCTABILITY
✓ Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the
Traffic control during construction must be
road standards
carefully thought out early in the design process
Design Consideration to provide for needs. Plans must be clear to
avoid misrepresentation or misinterpretation.
a. Design Speed 6. HIGHWAY FUNCTION
b. Design traffic volume The highway functional concept is important to
the designer. The relationship of function to
c. Number of lanes administrative or legal classification is more
fully explained but, for purposes of design, there
d. Level of service are four (4) main functional highway
e. Sight distance classification:
➢ Local Roads and Streets
f. Alignment, super elevation and grades ➢ Collector Roads and Streets
➢ Arterials
g. Cross section
➢ Freeways
h. Lane width
o Local Roads and Streets - primarily serve as
i. Horizontal and vertical clearance access to residences, businesses, or other
abutting properties. Also included are Special
Purpose Roads, which include recreational
Design Process roads, resource development roads, and local
service roads.
A highway designer is concerned with at least four o Collector Roads and Streets - (Rural and
major areas of design at different stages of project Urban) collect traffic between local - roads and
planning and design phases: arterial streets and provide access to abutting
(1) location design properties.
o Arterials - (Rural and Urban) provide a high-
(2) alignment design speed, high-volume network for travel.
o Freeways - are not a functional class by
(3) cross-sectional design
themselves but rather principal arterials, which
(4) access design are defined as expressways with fully controlled
access. Freeways are considered separate
Consideration because of their unique design.
1. ENVIRONMENT
Preservation of the environmental status quo
and/or environmental enhancement is an equally
valid basis for design but the standards are not as
well defined.
Design Elements Important of Road Shoulder
❖ CROSS SECTION The cross section of a 1. Road shoulder serves as a place for
typical highway has latitude of variables to vehicles to stop when disabled or for other
consider such as: purposes. Road shoulder considerably reduces
1. The volume of traffic road accidents.
2. Character of the traffic 2. The road capacity is decreased and
3. Speed of the traffic accident opportunity increases if the shoulder is
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the too narrow or omitted in the design
driver 3. Shoulder should be continuous along
➢ Road Width the full length of the roadway. It also adds
• Two Lane Rural Highway - (7.20 width) for structural strength to the road pavement
safe clearance between commercial vehicles, 4. Shoulder increases the horizontal
recommended for main highways sight distance on curves. It reduces accident
• Collector Roadway- (6.00 width) Acceptable potential when vehicle stop during emergencies.
only for low volume traffic including few trucks
traveling thereon HIGHWAY MEDIAN
• Local Rural Roadway - (4.80 width) Minimum - A median is the portion of the roadway
surface width for a 30 km/hr. design speed separating opposing directions of the roadway,
• Urban Roadway- (3.60 width) Minimum or local lanes from through travel lanes.
design speed although 3.00m is allowed where - is the reserved area in the middle of roadways
space is limited. usually separates opposing lanes of traffic.
➢ Cross Slope - From the centerline of the two- NUMBER LINES
lane highway in both directions, unless there are The number of lanes on a section of highway is
extremely elevated curves that cause all water to being based on the following:
fall inward. a. a projected amount of traffic for the design
year
➢ Curb - steep raised of a roadway that b. highway service levels at estimated capacity.”
provides the following function: drainage
control, roadway edge delineation, right-of-way “The AASFilO's policies, meanwhile, accept
control and delineation of pedestrian walkways. 16 laned dual-divided roads with an inner
Used extensively in low-speed urban streets, but freeway four lanes in each direction, as well
not on high-speed rural highways and freeways as four additional lanes for the nearby
➢ Line Width motorway, in both directions. Reversible On
• Basic Lane width for appropriate roads is freeways, lanes are often found in the middle
3.35m. of the road. has excessive traffic flow that is
• On lower trafficked roads, the lane width can uneven.
be reduced.
• Single lane road traffic- 4.0m RIGHT OF WAY
• Two lane national road- 2 x 3.35 m lanes (total The right of way is the total land area acquired
6.7m)- minimum *Width can increase up to a for the construction of the roadway. Its width
maximum of 3. 65m.Additional Lane can be should be enough to accommodate all the
provided to improve safety of slow or vulnerable elements of the roadway cross section, any
road users such as cyclists or pedicabs. future widening of the road, and any public
➢ Road Sholder - the portion of the road utility facilities that will be installed along the
between the edge of the traffic lane and the roadway.
gutter, curb, side slope, or ditch. According to
AASHTO, a pavement's usable width must be CIRCULAR CURVES
sturdy enough to support cars. Simple circular curve is normal horizontal curve
which connect two straight lines with constant
“AASHTO means American Association of radius. A vehicle traveling in curved road is
State Highway and Transportation Officials is subject to centrifugal force. This force is
a standard setting body which publishes balanced by equal and opposite forces developed
specifications, test protocols, and guidelines through the super elevation and side frictions.
that are used in highway design and
construction throughout the United States. CIRCULAR CURVES
 Arc Definition - The degree of the than the equilibrium speed. It is the difference
curve is the central angle subtended by a 30 between the theoretical cant required for such
meters arc of the curve. high speeds and the actual cant provided.
Chord Definitions- The degree of curve 3. CAN’T EXCESS - (Ce) occurs when a Train
is the central angle subtended by 50 meters travels around a curve at a speed lower than the
chord. equilibrium Speed. It is the difference between
the actual cant provided and the theoretical cant
INTERSECTION required for such a low speed.
- refer to points where roads or highways cross 4. CAN’T GRADIENT AND CAN’T
each other at the same level DEFICIENCY GRADIENT - These indicate
- also known as at-grade intersections or level the increase or decrease in the cant or the
crossings deficiency of can’t in a given length of
transition. A gradient of 1 in 1000 means that a
Types of Intersections: Intersections at grade cant or a deficiency of can’t of 1 mm is attained
can include various configurations, such as or lost in every 1000 mm of transition length.
crossroads, T-intersections, or four-way 5. RATE OF CHANGE OF CAN’T OR
intersections. They are designed to facilitate the CAN’T DEFICIENCY - This is the rate at
safe and efficient movement of vehicles at points which can’t deficiency increases while passing
where roads intersect. over the transition curve, e.g., a rate of 35 mm
o Traffic Control Measures: Design criteria for per second means That a vehicle will experience
intersections at grade include considerations for a change in can’t or a cant deficiency of 35 mm
traffic control measures, such as traffic signals, in each second of travel over the transition when
stop signs, yield signs, or roundabouts. These travelling at the maximum permissible speed
measures help manage the flow of traffic and
minimize conflicts between vehicles. BUILDING SETBACK
o Lane Configuration: The design criteria for Seatback provide a buffer from railway
intersections at grade determine the appropriate operations; permit dissipation of rail-oriented
lane configurations, including the number of emissions, vibration and noises; and
lanes and turning lanes, to accommodate accommodate a safety barrier The standard
different traffic movements. recommended building seatback for new
o Sight Distance: Adequate sight distance residential development in proximity to railway
requirements are essential to ensure good operation are as follows.
visibility for drivers approaching the ▪ NOISE MITIGATION Noise resulting from
intersection. Clear visibility allows drivers to rail operation is a key issue with regards to the
react in a timely manner and make safe decisions live ability of residential development in
proximity to railway facilities.
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY ▪ VIBRATION MITIGATION Vibration
RAILWAYS caused by passing train is an issue that could
RAIL TRANSPORT (ALSO KNOWN AS affect the structure of a building as well as the
TRAIN TRANSPORT) IS A MEANS OF live ability of the units inside residential
TRANSPORT THAT TRANSFERS structures. The recommended minimum
PASSENGERS AND GOODS ON WHEELED vibration influence area to be considered is 75
VEHICLES RUNNING ON RAILS, WHICH meters from a railway corridor or rail yard.
ARE INCORPORATED IN TRACKS.

MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE SPEED

This is the highest speed permitted to a train on
a curve taking into consideration the radius of
curvature, actual cant, can’t deficiency, can’t
excess and the length of transition.
1. CAN’T - The cant of a railway track or
camber of a road is the rate of changes in
elevation (height) between the two rails or edges
of the road.
2. CAN’T DEFECIENCY - (Cd) occurs when
a train travels around a curve at a speed higher
  Geometric Design for Highways and Railways 2. Elevated railways 4. Tube Railway

 Geometric design of highways and railways

refers to their dimensional and spatial 1. Surface Railways
characteristics. Highways and railways vary in
shape, elevation and size depending on their With this system, railways are placed above the
purpose and location. ground. This is the most widely used rail system
on the planet and it’s also among the least
expensive.
What is a Highway?
A highway is either a public or a private road 2. Elevated Railway
and any other way on land. It is used for major roads, but
also includes other public roads and public tracks. In this system, the railways are provided at
higher or elevated portion above the surface. A
 a main road, main route continuous viaduct supported on piers, columns,
 another term for expressway etc. are constructed and the track is carried on its
Examples of a Highway: steel deck.

 Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) 3. Underground Railway

In this system, the railway is provided just below
the ground level. Tunnels are constructed for
*What is the difference between a highway and an carrying tracks through them and an over bridge
expressway? is necessary at every road-crossing to carry the
road traffic over the railway traffic.
Highway is a generic term given to roadways
that connect important cities and towns but an 4. Tube Railway
expressway is a high-speed road with little access and
consists of several facilities like access ramps and lane The railway provided underground at a greater
dividers. depth of about 18 m or more (up to 52 m) is
called tube railway. This system of railways is so
called as the section of the underground tunnels,
carrying the track, is circular like a tube.
Examples of an Expressway:
 CCLEX (Cebu-Cordova Link Expressway)  Geometric Designs for Railways
 NLEX (North Luzon Expressway) Geometric design of railways refers to the
 SLEX (South Luzon Expressway) importance of tracks to have a proper geometric
design in order to maximize the safety and
 Geometric Design for Highways smooth-running trains at maximum allowable
speed carrying the heaviest load of the axle.
Geometric design refers to the dimensions and
arrangements of the visible features of a roadway. This
includes pavement widths, horizontal and vertical Is Geometric Design in Highways and Railways
alignment, slopes channelization, intersections and other important?
features that can significantly affect the operations, Proper geometric design will help in the reduction of
safety and capacity of the roadway network. accidents and their severity. Therefore, the objective of
What is a Railway? geometric design is to provide optimum efficiency in
traffic operation and maximum safety at reasonable cost.
A railway is a route between two places along Geometric design also affects an objective called
which trains travel on steel rails. "livability," which is defined as designing roads to foster
broader community goals, including providing access to
Railways can be built above or below ground
employment, schools, businesses and residences,
level, depending on the geography and the
accommodate a range of travel modes such as walking,
topography of the location.
bicycling, transit, and automobiles, and minimizing fuel
There are four distinct railway systems: use, emissions and environmental damage.

1. Surface railways 3. Underground Advantages and Disadvantages of Geometric Design

railways of Highways and Railways
 ADVANTAGES: 3. Rail transport is generally not suitable for short
distances. It is preferred mostly when the consignment is
Highway to be taken to distant places.
1. Road transports are economical. 4. Railways have fixed routes. This mode of transport,
2. It is safe. Damage to goods is generally much less in therefore, lacks flexibility.
road transport because handling is minimum.
3. It is flexible. It can reach the actual place of loading  Cross Sections in Highway Design
and unloading.
A roadway cross-section is a vertical view of the
4. It gives access even to the common man. ground and road at right angles to the road's centerline. It
5. It is the only option, if goods are to be delivered includes different parts of the road like travel lanes,
within a particular locality. shoulders, and medians. Other elements can also be
present, such as barriers, curbs, gutters, guardrails,
sidewalks, and slopes.
Railways  Travel Lanes
1. Rail transports are the most suitable for carrying A travel lane is the part of the road designated
goods to distant places. for vehicle movement, excluding shoulders and bicycle
lanes.
2. It helps to transport bulky and heavy goods.
 Shoulder
3. Rail transports are more dependable than road
transport (bad road conditions make road transport A shoulder is the part of the road next to the
undependable). main traveled way that is designed to provide space
for stopped vehicles, emergency use, and to support
4. Bad weather does not affect rail transport as much as
the layers of the road surface.
it affects road transport.
 Median
5. It is as economical as road transport and in some cases
even more economical. A median is a part of a divided highway that
separates the lanes going in opposite directions.
 Marginal elements
DISADVANTAGES:
Roadside and Median Barriers
Highway
Curbs and Gutters
1. The carrying capacity is less.
Guard Rails
2. Its efficiency is very much determined by the
conditions of roads. Bad roads may cause such problems Sidewalk
as breakdown and result in delay in the consignment
reaching the market place. Cross Slope

3. It is slow. Side Slope

4. The rates are not standardized.

5. It is not suitable for carrying goods to very long Roadside and Median Barriers
distances.  Roadside Barriers
Roadside barriers help to protect vehicles from
Railways obstacles or slopes on the roadside and to shield
pedestrians and property from the flow of traffic.
1. Not all places are connected by trains.
 Median Barriers
2. Trains cannot carry goods to the doorstep. From the
destination point, one has to arrange to collect and carry A median barrier is a structure that runs along
the goods to the intended place. the center of a divided highway to keep vehicles from
crossing into oncoming traffic.
 Design speed affects the curvature (radius),
stopping sight distance, superelevation, and other
Curbs and Gutters features of this horizontal curve.
 Curbs  Horizontal Curve
Curbs are elevated structures typically A horizontal curve provides a transition between
constructed from either Portland cement concrete or two tangent strips of roadway, allowing a vehicle to
bituminous concrete (rolled asphalt curbs). negotiate a turn at a gradual rate rather than a sharp cut.
 Gutters  Widening of Pavement on Horizontal
Gutters or drainage ditches are typically placed Curve
on the side of the road next to the curb. They serve as the This is to enhance visibility and increase the
main system for water drainage on the highway. radius of the curve path for drivers, allowing them to
utilize the outer edge during vehicle turns.

 Guardrails
Guardrails are barriers placed along the outer Vertical Alignment
edges of sharp curves and areas with elevated ground Concerns the alignment of a road in the vertical
levels. direction, involving vertical curves and the ground's
 Sidewalks gradient.

A sidewalk is a paved path for walking, often The Vertical alignment of a Highway Influences:
alongside a road. 1. Vehicle Speed, Acceleration and deceleration
 Cross Slope 2. Sight distance
3. Vehicle operation cost
The cross slope is designed to drain water 4. Comfort while travelling at high speed
sideways from the roadway, reducing the risk of water  Tangent Grades
pooling on the pavement.
The grade also called slope, incline, gradient,
 Side Slope main fall, pitch or rise of a physical feature. Landform or
constructed line refers to the tangent of the angle of that
Side slopes are inclined surfaces that connect the
surface to the horizontal.
roadway shoulder to the right-of-way boundary.
 Vertical Curve
A vertical curve is designed to provide a smooth
transition between two sloped roadways. It
allows vehicles to handle changes in elevation at
 Horizontal and Vertical Alignments in a gradual rate instead of encountering a sudden
Highway Design and steep change.
Horizontal Alignment refers to the alignment of a  Super-elevation in Highway Design
road in the horizontal direction, which includes straight What is Super-elevation in Highway Design?
paths, curves, or deviations.
Highway design super-elevation, also known as
Design of Horizontal Alignment banking or cant, refers to the cross slope or tilt provided
Various design elements to be considered in the to the surface of a curved roadway. It is designed to
horizontal elements are: counteract the centrifugal force experienced by vehicles
traveling along curved sections of the road.
o Design Speed
o Horizontal Curve
o Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves Why do we need to study Super-elevation in Highway
Design?
Studying super-elevation in highway design is
 Design Speed important because it helps to:
o Ensure Safety
 o Smooth driving Earthworks are essential in highway design for
o Cost-effectiveness several reasons:
1. Road Construction

Why do we need to study Super-elevation in Highway Earthworks create the foundation of the
Design? highway, forming the roadbed by cutting into hills and
filling in low areas. This enables the construction of a
By tilting the road on curves, super-elevation stable and level roadway.
reduces the risk of accidents and helps vehicles stay
stable. It allows drivers to navigate curves more easily 2. Drainage Management
and at higher speeds, saving travel time and reducing
Earthworks play a critical role in designing
fuel costs.
effective drainage systems for the highway. Properly
Super-elevation in Highway Design shaped slopes and drainage structures prevent water
from accumulating on the road, reducing the risk of
Super-elevation in highway design has flooding and water-related damage.
advantages in enhancing safety and traffic flow
on curved sections, but it also comes with 3. Safety
disadvantages such as increased construction
Properly designed earthworks contribute to road
costs, drainage challenges, higher land
safety. Improved visibility, reduced steepness, and well-
requirements, and safety concerns at low speeds.
maintained slopes reduce the risk of accidents and
enhance overall road safety.
Disadvantages of super-elevation in highway design:
4. Cost-Effectiveness
o Increased construction and maintenance
Well-planned earthworks can optimize material
costs. usage and construction costs. By efficiently reshaping
o Drainage challenges and water pooling the land, excessive excavation and fill material can be
on the inside of curves. minimized.
o Requires wider land requirements,
leading to potential property
displacement.
 Earthworks in Highway Design
o Less effective at low speeds and may
cause discomfort for drivers. Earthworks are essential for creating safe, efficient,
and durable roadways in these various settings.
“Despite these disadvantages, super-elevation
remains a valuable tool in highway design as it allows
for safer and more efficient navigation of curved
sections, reducing the risk of accidents and improving
traffic flow.”
 Earthworks in Highway Design STRUCTURAL DESIGNS OF PAVEMENTS &
RAILWAYS

What is Earthworks in Highway Design? Pavements

Earthworks in highway design involve shaping - Among the costliest items associated with highway
the ground to build roads. It includes cutting into the construction and maintenance.
land to create roadways in elevated areas and filling - It carries vehicular loading and built over a prepared
lower areas to raise the road level. subgrade or foundation.
Earthworks also ensure proper drainage, - A paved surface performs two basic functions:
stability, and safety of the highway. Heavy machinery is
used for excavation and moving materials during this - helps guide drivers by giving them a visual perspective
process. of the horizontal and vertical alignment of the traveled
path thus giving drivers information related to the
driving task and the steering control of the vehicle.
Why Earthworks Important in Highway Design? - to support vehicle loads
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS • Has direct contact with the vehicular loads.
- Is the methodical investigation of the stability, • Good quality aggregates and high dense bitumen or
strength, and the rigidity of structures. asphalt is recommended for the construction of surface
course.
- The basic objective for every structural design is to
produce a structure that is capable of resisting all applied • Its main function is to provide:
loads without any failure to its intended life
• skid-resistance surface,
HIGWAY DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS
• friction, and
- a structure consisting of superimposed layers of
processed materials above the natural soil sub-grade, • drainage for the pavement.
whose primary function is to distribute the applied • Should be water tight against surface water infiltration.
vehicle loads to the subgrade.
• The thickness of surface course generally provided is
- Should be able to provide a surface of acceptable riding 25 to 50 mm.
quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable light
reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution. b. BINDER COURSE
Example of Pavements • Constructed using aggregates and bitumen but with less
quality than materials used for surface course.
a. ROADS/HIGHWAYS
• Thickness is about 50 to 100 mm.
b. PARKING PAVEMENTS
• If economy is not a problem, binder course and surface
c. SIDEWALKS course can be constructed monotonically using good
4. REQUIREMENTS OF PAVEMENT quality materials with 100 to 150 mm thickness.

- The optimal thickness is required in order to effectively • Its function is to transfer the loads coming from surface
distribute the wheel load stresses and maintain a safe course to the base course.
level on the underlying sub-grade soil. c. BASE COURSE
- Capable of enduring various types of imposed stresses • It is an important layer of pavement structure and it
without succumbing to damage or deterioration. - distributes the loads from top layers to the underneath
Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of Subbase and sub-grade layers.
vehicles
• It provides structural support for the pavement surface.
- A sleek surface that offers a comfortable experience for
road users. • It is constructed with hard and durable aggregates
which may either stabilized or granular or both.
- An impermeable surface that effectively shields the
sub-grade soil from harm • The thickness of base course must be great enough to
reduce the load capacity on sub-grade and Subbase
- A design with an extended lifespan and minimal courses.
maintenance expenses
• The minimum base course thickness recommended is
- The thickness should be sufficient to transmit and 100 mm.
distribute the applied loads onto a larger surface area of
the underlying soil. • Sub surface drainage system can be provided with in
the base course.
- The thickness needs to be adequate to effectively
transfer and disperse the applied loads over a broader d. SUBBASE COURSE
area of the sub-grade soil
• Provided beneath the base course and it also functions
as same as base course.
• If the sub-grade soil is strong and stiff, then there is no
need to sub-base course.
5. PARTS OF PAVEMENTS IN HIGHWAYS
• Granular aggregates are used to construct sub-base
a. SURFACE COURSE course.
• Also called as Wearing Course
 • If sub-grade is weak minimum of 100 mm thick sub- • A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete
base course should be provided. or reinforced concrete slabs.
e. COMPACTED SUBGRADE • Technical term for any road surface made of concrete.
• Subgrade is the bottom most layer which is nothing but • Grouted concrete roads are in the category of semi-
natural soil layer compacted up to required depth rigid pavements.
generally about 150 to 300 mm to receive the loads
coming from top layers. • The design of rigid pavement is based on providing a
structural cement concrete slab of sufficient strength to
• This layer is termed as foundation for the pavement resists the loads from traffic
system.
• The rigid pavement has rigidity and high modulus of
• The sub-grade should be strong enough to take the elasticity to distribute the load over a relatively wide
stresses and also it is important to keep the stresses area of soil
coming from top layers should be within the limit of
sub-grade capacity. Difference between Flexible Pavement & Rigid
Pavement
• To reduce the amount of stress on soil sub-grade,
provide thick layers of base course, Sub-base course and FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
surface course. • Has a life span of 15 years.
Types of pavements • It uses Bitumen as a binder material.
Flexible Pavements • It distributes the load through grain-to-grain transfer.
- Technical term for asphalt-covered road surface. • Less initial cost
- Can adapt to the movement of loads of traffic without • High maintenance cost
experiencing a significant damage.
• Can take less load.
- Constructed with asphaltic cement and aggregates and
usually consists of several layers • Thicker
- Are areas of asphalt that “bend” or “deflect” due to • Joints are not required.
traffic loads, making them less susceptible to damage
RIGID PAVEMENT
and requiring fewer repairs over time.
• Has a life span of 30 years
- It transmits the wheel load stresses to the lower layers
by grain-to-grain transfer through • It uses Concrete as a binder material.
a. Functions of Flexible Pavements • It distributes the load over a wide area through slab
action.
• Flexible pavements serve three functions, and in order
to achieve these effectively, several layers are required: • More initial cost
• The initial (visible) function of flexible pavements is • Less maintenance cost
to provide a surface that is safe, smooth and durable
enough for the traffic anticipated to be using it, over the • Can take more load.
design life. • Less thick
• The second key function is to distribute loads from the • Joints are required.
vehicle tires onto a wider area underneath, so that the
subgrade does not deform under repeated loading. Composite pavements
• Lastly, it is important to protect the lower pavement • A structure comprising two or more layers that
layers and subgrade from any of the weakening effects combine different characteristics and that act as one
of water composite material.
b. Typical layers of a flexible pavement: • Utilizes both asphalt and concrete.
Rigid Pavements
 • The two most commonly used materials that compose b. Close Bridge Deck
this composite structure are a flexible layer and a rigid
layer i. offer protection to the tracks and infrastructure from
weather elements
• Composite pavements, when compared to traditional
flexible or rigid pavements, have the potential to provide ii. necessary in locations with adverse weather
better levels of performance both structurally and conditions or to accommodate electrified rail systems
functionally while being an economically viable that require overhead wires.
alternative to the traditional flexible and rigid pavement c. Ballasted Bridge Deck.
designs
i. is a type of railway bridge structure that incorporates a
II. Railways layer of ballast material beneath the tracks.
• A railway is a route between two places along which ii. Ballast refers to the crushed stone or gravel that is
trains travel on steel rails placed between and around the railroad ties (or sleepers)
• A railway is a permanent track composed of a line of and beneath the tracks on a railway line.
parallel metal rails fixed to sleepers iii. the rails are anchored directly National to timber
.• A railway structure is a wide array of construction track ties supported in the ballast section
intended to support the track itself. The common iv. provides a better riding track.
examples are Bridges, Testles, Viaducts, Scales,
Inspection Pits, Unloading Pits and Similar construction. v. The track modulus is consistent on the dumps of the
bridge as well as across the bridge. Thus, one is unlikely
to have surface runoff problems on the bridge dumps.
Structural design of railways This layer of ballast serves several important purposes in
1. Bridge Deck - bridge deck refers to the part of a railway track design:
bridge that carries the tracks and provides a platform for d. Distributing Loads:
trains to travel on.
The ballast distributes the weight of the trains and their
- It is the top surface of the bridge structure where the loads evenly across the bridge structure, preventing
rails are laid and the trains run. concentrated loads that could cause excessive stress.
- The design of the bridge deck is crucial for ensuring e. Stability:
the safe and smooth passage of trains, taking into
consideration factors such as load-bearing capacity, The ballast layer provides stability to the tracks and
structural integrity, and track alignment. helps resist lateral movement, ensuring that the tracks
maintain their proper alignment.
2 TYPES OF BRIDGE DECK
f. Drainage:
a. Open Bridge Deck
The open structure of the ballast layer allows for
i. type of bridge design where the tracks of a railway drainage of rainwater and other moisture, helping to
line are supported on an exposed or uncovered structure. prevent water-related issues such as erosion and track
ii. the rails are anchored directly to timber bridge ties instability.
supported directly on the floor system of the g. Vibration and Impact Absorption:
superstructure.
The ballasts layer helps absorb vibrations and impacts
iii. commonly used in areas where environmental from passing trains, contributing to a smoother and more
factors, such as wind, rain, and snow, are less of a comfortable ride.
concern or where the terrain makes constructing a roofed
structure less practical.
iv. less costly and are free draining
v. use over streets and highways requires additional h. Maintenance Access:
measures such as canopies, plates or wooden flooring to
Ballast allows for easy access to the tracks for
protect highway traffic from falling objects, water or
maintenance and repairs, as the ballast can be easily
other materials during the movement of trains.
shifted to access the underlying infrastructure.
Structural design Process RIGID & FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
a. Planning HIGHWAY FAILURE
- This phase involves consideration of the various THERE ARE MAIN CAUSES OF PAVEMENT
requirements and factors affecting the general layout and FAILURES
dimensions of the structure and results in the choice of
one or perhaps several alternative types of structure, 1. Rutting due to high variation in ambient temperature
which offer the best general solution. 2. Inexpensive Design and Fabrication
b. Design 3. Inadequate Stability
- This phase involves a detailed consideration of the 4. Loss of Binding Action
alternative solutions defined in the planning phase and
results in the determination of the most suitable 5. Uncontrolled Heavy Axle Loads
proportions, dimensions and details of the structural
6. Congestion
elements and connections for constructing each
alternative structural arrangement being considered. 7. Environmental Hazard
c. Construction 8. Accidents
- This phase involves mobilization of personnel; 9. Poor Maintenance
procurement of materials and equipment, including their
transportation to the site, and actual on-site erection. TYPES OF HIGHWAY FAILURE
THERE ARE FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF
PAVEMENT FAILURES
1.Cracking
FAILURE, MAINTENANCE, AND
REHABILITATION OF TRANSPORTATION 2.Distortion
INFRASTRUCTURE 3.Disintegration
OBJECTIVES 4.Skidding Hazard
To determine the failure, maintenance, and rehabilitation Cracking
of transportation infrastructure. To know the different
types of failures, maintenance, and rehabilitation with Fatigue cracking
regards with the transportation infrastructure.
- it is sometimes called alligator cracking due to the
WHAT IS TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE? interconnected cracks which resemble an alligator’s skin.
Are Foundational Structures & systems for transporting Block Cracking
people & goods.
- a series of large (one foot or more), rectangular cracks
COMMON TYPES OF TRANSPORTATION on an asphalt pavements surface. It typically covers large
INFRASTRUCTURE areas and may occur in areas where there is no traffic.
ROADS AND HIGHWAY RAILWAYS Edge Cracking
BRIDGE AND TUNNELS - Longitudinal cracks which develop within one or two
feet of the outer edge of a pavement.
SHIP CARATS
Longitudinal Cracking
PORTS
- it occurs parallel to the center line of the pavement.
AIRPORT RUNWAY These cracks are not load-related.
FAILURE OF TRANSPORTATION Transverse Cracking
INFRASTRUCTURE
- It occurs roughly perpendicular to the center line of the
Highway is any public or private road or other public pavement. They are not load related.
way on land.
Reflection Cracking
HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
 - It forms over joints or cracks in a concrete pavement Bleeding
or in an overlay of a deteriorated asphalt pavement.
- a pavement surface can become flushed with asphalt
Slippage Cracking and lose its skid resistance. It can be caused by too much
asphalt in the mix, excess tack or bond coat or by a poor
- crescent - shaped cracks which form because of low- construction of a seal coat.
strength asphalt mix or a poor bond between pavement
layers. MAINTENANCE OF TRANSPORTATION
INFRASTRUCTURE
DISTORTION Rutting
HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE
- is a linear, surface depression in the wheel path. It is
caused by deformation or consolidation of any of the Preservation and keeping of each type of roadway,
pavement layers or subjugate. roadside, structures and facilities as nearly as possible in
its original condition as constructed.
Shoving
Improving the operation of highway facilities and
- formation of ripples across pavement. This services to provide satisfactory and safe transportation.
characteristic shape is why this type of distress is
sometimes called wash boarding. Showing occurs at Categories of Maintenance for Transportation
locations having severe horizontal stresses, such as Infrastructure
intersections.
ROAD SURFACE
Depressions
SHOULDER AND APPROACH
- also called bird baths, are localized low spots in the
pavement surface. BRIDGE TRAFFIC SERVICE

Upheaval Maintenance Operations for Road Surfaces

- localized upward movement in a pavement due to GRAVEL ROADS

swelling of the sub grade. Frost heave is an example of SURFACE TREATMENT
this type of distress
SLICK ASPHALT SURFACE
Patch Failures
CONCRETE ROAD
- when pavements are patched, some distress may begin
to occur. The rate at which a patch deteriorates is Maintenance Operation Required for GRAVEL
influenced by compaction, materials selection, and the ROADS
quality of the surrounding or underlying pavement.
BLADING
DISINTEGRATION
Maintenance of unpaved roads that involves blading
Ravelling using a motor grader to restore the shape and surface of
the road
- wearing away of the aggregate particles from the
asphalt cement. This condition means that the asphalt RESHAPING or RESURFACING
has hardened or that has a poor-quality mixture was
the process that restores any type of roadway after years
used.
of wear and tear. Roads tend to become worn out due to
Pothholes the volume and intensity of traffic, weather conditions,
and natural effects.
- bowl-shaped holes caused by the localized
disintegration of the pavement surface. It typically MOTOR GRADER
results from the continued deterioration of another type
These heavy devices that mix gravel, cut into the road
of distress.
surface, evenly spread new road material, and reshape
SKIDDING HAZARD the road surface by moving gravel from the shoulder to
the
Polished Aggregate
Maintenance Operation Required for SURFACE
- some aggregates are susceptible to wearing to a TREATMENT of low type bituminous pavement:
smooth finish or texture under traffic. It should not be
used in wearing courses. PATCHING
SEAL COATING CRACK SEALING - The process of placing an
adhesive sealant on the pavement surface, preventing the
REMIXING AND REPAVING infiltration of moisture and non-compressible materials
PATCHING STREET SWEEPING - A sweeping removes cake
-The process of filling potholes or excavated areas in muds, abrasives, and other debris from the surface.
the asphalt pavement. Regularly cleaning and sealing joints and random cracks
keeps them free of water and sediment and protects the
TYPES OF PATCHING subgrade from water intrusion.
FULL DEPTH PATCHING - removal of the entire MAINTENANCE OPERATION FOR SHOULDER
pavement surface layer, regardless of its thickness, over AND APPROACH
the patching area. DEEP PATCHING - removal of four
inches or more of the pavement surface course. SHOULDER

SEAL COATING -A highway shoulder is a portion of the road that falls

outside the outer lane and is designed for emergency use
-The process of applying thin liquid layer added over a by traffic. Efforts should be made to maintain a smooth
paved surface to protect it from damage caused by UV transition between the travel way and the shoulder.
rays, rain and snow, and fluids from vehicles.
Hard and Soft Shoulder:
ADVANTAGES:
A Hard Shoulder consists of a hardened strip of land, it
COST EFFECTIVE could be concrete while a Soft Shoulder usually consists
of gravel or dirt.
SKID-RESISTANT
EARTH SHOULDERS
ANTI-GLARE SURFACE
It should be lightly bladed as needed in order to prevent
DUST-FREE DRIVING SURFACE
shoulder buildup and to provide a uniform slope
REMIXING AND REPAVING sufficient to properly drain the roadway surface

Repaved Method SOD SHOULDERS

-When the existing bituminous surface is replasticized, Are earth shoulders on which a turf has solid been
scarified, evenly distributed and a small amount of new established. Normally they require very little
mix is then overlayed by a single machine maintenance and holes, ruts, and settlements should be
repaired with sod or stabilized material.
. Remix Method
PAVED SHOULDERS
-Existing bituminous materials are recycled.
Repairs to bituminous or concrete paved shoulders
REASONS WHY SURFACES BECOME SLICK should be in the same manner as for similar roadway
AND DANGEROUS: surface
They may result from the application of too much
bituminous material. Aggregate particles in the surface
can polish and become
RETEXTURING - This method includes the DRAINAGE MAINTENANCE
mechanical reworking of the existing surface to improve
The means of removing surplus water or liquid waste:
its frictional characteristics and therefore the resistance
to skidding. Typically, the removal of material from 1. Cleaning of ditches, culvert, drop inlets and catch
basins to accommodate free flow of water.
SEAL COAT OR CHIP SEAL - A bituminous surface
treatment (BST), also known as a seal coat or cheap seal, 2. Removal of sediments, branches and other debris
is a thin protective wearing surface that is applied to a gathered at trash racks, culvert and structure entrances.
pavement or base course.
3. Repair of eroded channels and dikes.
Maintenance Operation Required for CONCRETE
ROAD 4. Riprap and bank protection to prevent recurrence.
BRIDGE MAINTENANCE
What is Bridge Maintenance? SOLUTIONS OR METHODS OF
REHABILITATION.
The maintenance of the bridge means the up-keeping of
the bridge components in good and serviceable condition RESURFACING
so as to ensure a longer life of the bridge as envisaged at
the time of its design and construction. Process of installing a new layer of asphalt over existing
pavement.
Why is it important?
RECONSTRUCTION
It is necessary for bridges to serve its purpose in the long
run. There are two distinct types of approaches regarding Process of installing both the subgrade asphalt layer and
bridge maintenance: proactive and reactive. the top pavement overlay layer

Two Types of Approaches Regarding Bridge Resurfacing VS Reconstruction

Maintenance - Faster - Produces a lot of smoke which can be
Reactive Maintenance irritating.

Reactive maintenance operates on a “run-to-failure” - Requires long period of time

philosophy that minimizes maintenance time and - Health standards are followed.
investment. It is performed after equipment has broken
down- it is costly because of damage repair RESTORATION WORKS
Proactive maintenance - Replacement of defective joints
Proactive maintenance is preventive and addresses - Repair of spoiled joints
possible issues before it occurs and is done to preserve
- Substantial pavement work
and improve equipment lifetimes and safety outcomes.
- Strengthening of sub-base
REHABILITATION OF TRANSPORTATION
INFRASTRUCTURE - Recycling existing materials
Rehabilitation - Adding sub-drains
Restoration of the pavement surface to the required level - Improving shoulders
of service.
- Removing and replacing deteriorated materials
Types of Damages
Why Rehabilitate the Roads?
Road Cracking
- Improve the smoothness
Road Rutting
- Extend the pavement life
Pot Holes
- Improve the skid resistance
ROAD CRACKING
- Construct the sections with poor foundation
External Factors - repeated loading from traffic
- Improve drainage facilities
Internal Factors - seismic activities
Efficiency Rating
RUTTING
- Rating of sufficiency
Asphalt layer
- Accident data
Structural layer
- Skid tests
Subgrade layer
– Maintenance report
POTHOLES
- Public comments and suggestions
Traffic
Rehabilitation
Water
Measures to improve, strengthen or salvage existing
deficient pavements to continue service with only
routine maintenance. Deficient pavements exhibit Bituminous over Bituminous Overlays
distress in excess of what can be handled through routine
maintenance What is a BOB Overlay?

Different types of Rehabilitation • A new bituminous surface is paved over an existing

bituminous pavement.
Pavement Evaluation
• Can be a non-structural or structural overlay:
-Considerable progress has been made in techniques to
evaluate pavement condition. – Non-structural overlay

Asphalt Pavement Rehabilitation • Generally used as a short-term fix.

Asphalt pavement rehabilitation typically involves – Structural overlay

milling and resurfacing of the existing asphalt pavement • Thicker mat that will increase pavement strength.
to mitigate the effects of per ride rutting, cracking, and
other distresses. Fundamentals of BOB Overlays
Concrete Pavement Rehabilitation 1. Pavement Evaluation
Concrete pavement rehabilitation may involve use of 2. Resurfacing Design
concrete pavement restoration (CPR) techniques, asphalt
3. Resurfacing Thickness
overlay over existing or fractured concrete pavement,
bonded concrete overlays, or unbonded concrete
overlays.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Pavement Recycling and Reclaiming
WHAT IS TRAFFIC ENGINEERING?
Pavement recycling and reclaiming is another important Traffic engineering is the phase of transportation
process for rehabilitating asphalt pavements. engineering that deals with the planning, geometric
Construction equipment and materials have greatly design and traffic operations of roads, streets and
evolved over the last few years to allow for low-cost, in- highways, their networks, terminals and relationships
place recycling and reclaiming of asphalt pavements with other modes of transportation.
What is an Overlay?
OBJECTIVES OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
- Placement of a new course of pavement on the · Safety is the primary objective
remaining pavement structure
· Speed while speed of travel is much
– Bituminous or Concrete to be desired.
· Comfort – Involves the physical characteristics of
– Mill and Overlay/Inlay vehicles and roadways and their influenced by our
Fundamentals of Overlays perception of safety
· Convenience – The ease of making trips and the ability
• Planning of transport systems to accommodate all travel needs
· Economy – Try to provide the best possible systems
– Selection of overlay type for the money. There is little in modern transportation
• Preparation – Crack and joint repair systems that can be termed “cheap”.
· Environmental compatibility – Provide sustainable
– Pothole patching transport systems. All transportation systems have some
negative impacts on the environment.
– Rut filling (minor)
Components of Traffic Systems
– Milling Four critical components of traffic system are:
· Road users - drivers, pedestrians, bicyclists and
• Production passenger
– Mix design · Vehicles - private and commercial
· Roadways - Streets and highways
• Placement · Control devices - direct, guide, and inform drivers by
offering visual or tactile indicators.
– Traffic control
– Tack coat – Density TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
Traffic characteristics is useful to the highway engineer Broadly, two types of vehicular characteristics are there
in developing highway and transportation plans, –
performing economic analyses, establishing geometric  static vehicular characteristics
design and criteria, selecting and implementing traffic  dynamic vehicular characteristics
control measures, and evaluating the performance of
transportation facilities.
Static Vehicular Characteristics
Importance of Traffic Characteristics  Dimensions
 Traffic characteristics are necessary for road  Weight
design.  Maximum turning radius
 Traffic characteristics also help in the design of  Dynamic
vehicles. 
There are two main types of basic traffic Vehicular Characteristics
characteristics as follows:  Speed of vehicle
 Road user characteristics  Braking system of vehicle
 Vehicular characteristics  Acceleration of vehicle

 Road User Characteristics SPEED AND TRAVEL TIME

Types of Road User Characteristics Speed of travel is a simple and widely used measure of
Broadly, two types of road user characteristics are there the quality of the traffic flow.
–
 Internal road user characteristics There are three basic classes or measures of speed of
 External road user characteristics travel:
1.Spot speed
2.Overall speed
Internal Road User Characteristics 3.Running speed
Internal road user characteristics are the internally
related characteristics of road users (human beings). Spot speed
These are again of two types: -Is the “instantaneous” speed of vehicle as it passes a
 Temporary internal road user characteristics specified point along a street or highway.
 Permanent road user characteristics
Overall speed
Temporary Road User Characteristics -This is the effective speed with which a vehicle covers a
1. Fatigue particular route between two terminals;
2. Alcohol Running speed
3. Illness/Disabilities This is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a
4. Anger given stretch of highway while the vehicle is actually in
5. Climate, season, and time motion; the clause “while the vehicle is actually in
Permanent Road User Characteristics motion” is significant
1. Vision
2. Hearing TRAFFIC VOLUME
3. Strength Traffic Volume is defined as the procedure to determine
4. Reaction time the volume of traffic or no of vehicles moving on the
5. Judgement power roads at a particular section during a particular time
External Road User Characteristics period.
Environmental factors are included in external road user Volume is the number of vehicles observed or predicted
characteristics such as: to pass a point during a time interval.
 facilities provided for traffic Traffic Volume Count is counting of the number of
 atmospheric conditions vehicles passing through a road over a period of time.
 locality
 land use SPOT SPEED
 altitude Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a
specified location. Spot speed can be used to design the
Vehicular Characteristics geometry of road like horizontal and vertical curves,
Design of dimensions and weight of vehicles is governed super elevation etc speed data.
by vehicular characteristics.
DELAY
Delay is a measure that most directly relates driver's hour, under the ideal roadway and traffic conditions that
experience and it is measure of excess time consumed in can possibly be attained.
traversing the intersection. Possible capacity is the maximum number of vehicles
that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway during
one hour, under the prevailing roadway and traffic
ORIGIN AND DESTINATION conditions.
- An O-D survey's purpose is to determines preliminary Practical capacity is the maximum number of vehicles
preparations for organizing, Urban transportation that can pass a given point in a lane or roadway during
planning, it is essential to define the study area and sub- one hour,
divide it into zones to define external cordon lines,
internal and screen-lines for data accuracy. Level of Service
External cordon lines - The external cordon line should When a road is carrying a traffic volume equal
intersect roads where it is safe and convenient to carry to its capacity under ideal roadway and traffic
out traffic surveys conditions,
Screen-lines - It is an imaginary line splitting the area Factors Affecting Capacity and Level of Service:
within external cordon into two parts. Roadway Conditions: Restrictive physical and
geometric elements such as lane-width, lateral clearance,
There are five methods for conducting origin and and horizontal alignment of road shoulders, gradients
destination studies. and pavement surface condition.
·Road-side interview method Control Conditions: Refer primarily to interrupt flow
·License plate method facilities such as STOP and YIELD signs and traffic
·Return post card method signals that have significant impact on capacity.
·Tag on-car method Traffic Conditions: The capacity and level of service
·Home interview method are affected by the composition of different types of
vehicles in the stream, variation of traffic flow, traffic
interruption, and lane distribution.
PARKING
Due to the rise in traffic on the roadways, one of the
main problems is parking. It has an impact on how
transportation is developed TRAFFIC OPERATION, REGULATION AND
CONTROL
There are two (2) types of parking facilities Traffic Operations
On-street parking In order to have safe traffic operations on roads, it is
·Off-street parking essential to impose adequate traffic regulations and
traffic control devices.
The traffic regulations should cover all aspects of control
Accident Studies of vehicles, driver and all other road users.
Accident studies is used to find the scene of an accident,
identify what is the reason of accident and take safety The various types of conflicts at an intersection are:
measures for design control. •Diverging Conflicts
•Crossing Conflicts
Various Record that maintains accident studies: •Merging Conflicts
·Location files
·Spot maps Traffic Control and Devices
·Condition diagram The various aids and devices used to control, regulate
· Collision diagram and guide traffic may be called traffic may be called
traffic control devices.
CAPACITY OF URBAN ROADS AND HIGHWAYS
Capacity is the maximum traffic flow that can be Traffic Signs
accommodated in a highway facility during a given time The traffic signs should be backed by law in order to
period under prevailing roadway, traffic and control make them useful and effective. Traffic signs have been
conditions. divided into three categories. These are Regulatory
Signs, Warning Signs and Informatory Signs.
THREE TYPES OF CAPACITY
Basic capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that Regulatory Signs
can pass a given point on a lane or a roadway during one
 Regulatory or mandatory signs are meant to •Channelizing islands
inform the road users of certain laws, regulations and •Pedestrian loading islands
prohibitions; the violation of these signs is a legal •Rotary
offence. The regulatory signs are classified under the
following sub-heads: DESIGN OF INTERSECTION AT GRADE AND
Stop and Give away Signs GRADE
Prohibitory signs The design of at grade Intersection is used for the design
No Parking and No Stopping signs of alignment, is to minimize the conflicts of points
Speed Limit and Vehicle Control Signs between pedestrian and turning vehicle.
Restriction Ends sign
Compulsory Direction Control and other Signs ROAD INTERSECTION
An Intersection is the area shared by the joining or
Warning Signs crossing shared by the two roads. It is also a point of
Warning or Cautionary signs are used to warn large number of major conflicts besides a point of
the road users of certain hazardous conditions that exist decision
on or adjacent to the roadway.
Traffic Signals THEY ARE MAINLY TWO TYPES OF
INTERSECTIONS
•The traffic signal works on light signals and includes 1.At Grade Intersections
three colours: red, yellow and green. Here 'red' indicates 2.Grade Seperated Intersections
that the vehicles must stop, 'yellow' means that the
vehicles must slow down and finally 'green' means to go AT GRADE INTERSECTION
ahead. An Intersection is an At grade junction where two or
more roads or streets meet or cross at the same level.
They are Classified as
1.Channelized Intersection
2.Un Channelized Intersection
3.Rotary Intersection
Type of Traffic Signals
 Traffic control signals CHANNELIZED INTERSECTION
 Fixed-time signal ·Vehicles approaching an Intersection are directed to
 Manually operated signal definite paths by Islands, marking etc. and this method
 Traffic actuated (automatic) signal of control is called Channelization.
 Pedestrian signal
 Special traffic signal UN CHANNELIZED INTERSECTION
Road Markings ·They are the lowest class of Intersection, Easiest in. the
Road or traffic markings are made of lines, design but most complex in traffic operations resulting
patterns, words, symbols or reflectors on the pavement, maximum conflict area and more number of accidents,
kerb, sides of islands or on the fixed objects within or unless controlled by
near the roadway.
•Pavement markings ROTARY INTERSECTION
•Kerb markings ·Rotary Intersection of roads is also called as traffic
•Object markings rotary which is nothing but enlarged Intersection of
•Reflector unit markings roads where vehicles cross roads or change their
•Road Delineators direction without stopping.

Traffic Islands DESIGN ELEMENTS OF ROTARY

Traffic Islands are raised areas constructed within the INTERSECTION
roadway to establish physical channels through which DESIGN SPEED
the vehicular traffic may be guided. It should be passed with low speed which will results the
A traffic island is a solid or painted object in a road that safety without collision.
channels traffic
SHAPE OF CENTRAL ISLAND
The traffic islands may be classified based on the The shape of central island should not contain any
function as: corners. It should be formed by curves to allow the
•Divisional islands comfortable rotations around it.
 It is a modification that combines some elements of a
RADIUS OF ROTARY ROADS diamond interchange with one more loop of cloverleaf
The radius of rotary roadway is dependent upon the interchange only the more critical turning conflicts.
shape of central island and the frictional forces.
DIRECTIONAL INTERCHANGE
WEAVING ANGLE AND WEAVING DISTANCE A directional Interchange provides a direct path of left
The Weaving angle should be small but minimum of 15* turns, These Interchanges contains ramps for one or
is maintained. more directions or semi direct left turning movements.

WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY AT ENTRY AND

EXIT TRAFFIC FLOW AND ANALYSIS OF ROADS
The Width of carriageway at entry and exit is dependent INCLUDING QUEUING ANALYSIS AND LEVEL
of volume of traffic in that particular region or area. OF SERVICE ASSESSMENT

WIDTH OF ROTARY ROADWAY

The width should be equal to the effective width of TRAFFIC FLOW
weaving section.
 Traffic flow analysis involves studying the
CURVES AT ENTRANCE AND EXIT
movement of vehicles, examining factors such
Entry Curve radius can be provided as same as the radius
as traffic volume, speed, density, and queuing.
of central island The vehicle
 It helps transportation professionals gain insights
accelerates at exits hence the radius of curve at exits
into traffic patterns, identify bottlenecks, and
should be greater than the radius of curve at entrance.
develop strategies to improve traffic flow.
SIGHT DISTANCE
The Sight distance provided at rotary Intersection should Classifications of Traffic Flow
be higher as possible and value must be less than
stopping sight distance.  UNINTERRUPTED FLOW
 INTERRUPTED FLOW
GRADE SEPERATED INTERSECTION
This are the Intersections at which the vehicles cross at UNINTERRUPTED FLOW
different levels. They cause less hazard and delay than
grade Intersections.  It refers to the movement of vehicles on
UNDERPASS roadways without the presence of traffic
It is an Underground passageway, completely enclosed control devices such as traffic signals or stop
except at the openings, commonly at each end. signs.
 It typically occurs on highways, expressways, or
OVERPASS freeways where vehicles can travel at relatively
It is also known as Flyover, is a bridge, road, railway or high speeds and have fewer interruptions.
similar structure that crosses over another road or
railway. TWO CATEGORIES OF UNINTERRUPTED
FLOW
TRUMPET INTERCHANGE
It is used where one highway terminates at another  Free Flow
highway.  Stable Flow
 Congested Flow
DIAMOND INTERCHANGE
It is the simplest form of grade separated intersection Free Flow
between two roadways.
 Free flow represents the ideal traffic condition
CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGE where vehicles are able to travel at or near the
Cloverleaf interchange is a two-level interchange in posted limit with minimal hindrance or
which left turns a handled by a ramp road. congestion.
 It occurs when traffic volume is relatively low,
PARTIAL CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGE and there are no significant disruptions or
bottlenecks on the roadways.
Stable Flow  Speed
 Time
 Stable Flow occurs when traffic volume
increases and reaches a point where vehicles are FLOW
still able to maintain relatively steady speeds,
but with slightly reduced speeds compared to
free flow conditions.  Flow is the equivalent hourly rate at which
 It represents a stable and consistent movement vehicles pass point on a highway during a time
of vehicles, with consistent spacing between period less than an hour.
vehicles.

Congested Flow DENSITY

 Congested Flow is characterized by irregular  Sometimes referred to as concentration,

speeds, frequent braking, and decreased  The number of vehicles travelling over a unit
efficiency. length of highway at an instant time.
 It can lead to queuing, traffic backups, and  The unit length is usually 1 kilometer (km)
reduced levels of service.  The unit of density is vehicles per mile (veh/mi).

INTERRUPTED FLOW SPEED

 It refers to the movement of vehicles on

roadways where traffic control devices such as  Speed (u) is the distance traveled by a vehicle
traffic signals, stop signs, or roundabouts are during a unit of time.
present.  It can be expressed in miles per hour (mi/hr),
 Unlike uninterrupted flow, which occurs on kilometers per hour (km/hr), or feet per second
highways or freeways, interrupted flow is (ft/sec)
typically observed in urban or suburban areas
where intersections and junctions are prevalent.
BASIC TRAFFIC STREAM MODELS
TWO CATEGORIES OF INTERRUPTED FLOW

 Signalized Flow - Traffic stream models describe the relationship

 Unsignalized Flow among traffic variable such as speed, flow, and
density
Signalized Flow - Why do we need traffic models?
With the knowledge of some traffic
characteristics, such as volume, we can
 Signalized flow occurs at intersections
use the models to predict traffic flow
controlled by traffic signals.
performance, such as speed, density,
 It provides an orderly movement of vehicles but
capacity, etc.
may result in some delays, especially during
peak hours or when traffic volumes are high.
DIFFICULTY OF SPEED-FLOW-DENSITY
Unsignalized Flow RELATIONSHIP

 Unsignalized flow occurs at intersections or

junctions without traffic signals.  Unique demand-capacity relationship vary
 It can lead to more variability in traffic - Over time of day
movements and require drivers to exercise - Over length of roadway
caution and judgement.  Parameters of flow, speed, density are difficult
to estimate
UNINTERRUPTED FLOW CAN BE FURTHER - As they vary greatly between sites
CLASSIFIED INTO THREE CATEGORIES  Other factors affect
- Design speed
 Traffic Flow - Access control
 - Presence of trucks vehicle arrives at a point on the highway and
- Speed limit the time the front of the next vehicle arrives at
- Number of lanes the same point (in seconds)

Space Headway

 difference in position between the front of a

vehicle and the front of the next vehicle (in
meters)
MEAN SPEED
Time Space Diagram
 Mean speed is a term that can refer to the
average speed of an object in an interval of
time.  Traffic engineers represent the location of a
 It is calculated by dividing the distance travelled specific vehicle at a certain time with a time-
by the object by the duration of the interval. space diagram.
 Mean speed can also refer to the arithmetic  It is a two- dimensional diagram shows the
mean of speeds of vehicles passing a point trajectory of a vehicle through time as it moved
over a duration of time. from a specific origin to a specific destination.
 Mean speed is a scalar quantity, meaning it has
magnitude but no direction.
QUEUING THEORY
Two Types of Mean Speed

It is the study of traffic behavior near a certain

Time-Mean Speed section where demand exceeds available capacity.
Queues can be seen in many common situations:
boarding a bus or train or plane, freeway bottlenecks,
 It is the arithmetic mean of the speed of shopping checkout, exiting a doorway at the end of class,
vehicles passing a point on a highway during paying at registrar and so on.
an interval of time.

QUEUING MODELS
Space-Mean Speed
 The purpose of traffic queuing models is to
provide a means to estimate important
It is the harmonic mean of speed passing a measures of highway performance, including
point during a period of time. vehicle delay and traffic queue lengths.
HEADWAY  Queuing models are derived from underlying
assumptions regarding arrival patterns,
departure characteristics, and queue
 Headway is the distance or duration between disciplines.
vehicles in a transit system measured in space
or time
Pavement Materials and Design
TYPES OF HEADWAY
Pavement Materials include asphalt, concrete, stones
such as flagstone, cobblestone, and setts, artificial stone,
bricks, tiles, and sometimes wood.
Time Headway
Pavement Designs is simply the process of planning,
designing, and constructing pavements for road
 difference between the time when the front of a
crossings, parking lots, playground, footpaths, and many Flexible Pavement Materials
other applications.
Bitumen
Types of Pavements
Bitumen is a black adhesive compound produced
Rigid Pavement - is a type of concrete pavement that is artificially from crude oil within the petroleum refining
designed to provide durability, has a long lifespan, and process. It is a basic constituent of the upper layers in
has the ability to withstand heavy loads. pavement construction.
Flexible Pavement - are areas of asphalt that "bend" or Concrete Made of Asphalt (Coated Macadams)
"deflect" due to traffic loads, making them less
susceptible to damage and requiring fewer repairs over Asphalt concrete is formed by coating graded aggregate
time. with bituminous binder, creating a skeleton that
withstands compressive and shear forces from moving
Specifications on Pavement Materials vehicle tires.
Highway pavement consists of layers of processed Heat Rolled Asphalt
materials placed on the in-situ dirt subgrade, providing a
skid-resistant, long-lasting, and easy-to-maintain surface. Hot rolled asphalt (HA) and asphalt concrete are similar,
It supports vehicle wheel loads and distributes them to with HA being a dense, airdense mixture of aggregate,
the subgrade. Pavement designers must design cost- fines, binder, and filler, while asphalt concrete's strength
effective layers to distribute wheel stresses evenly, is derived from its mechanical interlock.
preventing overstressing during the highway's design Aggregates
life.
The maximum nominal aggregate size is determined by
Major Variable in the Design of a Highway Pavement material thickness and surface texture, with the layer
1) The thickness of each layer in pavement. thickness at least 1 1/2 times or 2 1/2 times the aggregate
size.
2) The material contained within each layer of the
pavement. Surface Dressing and Modified Binders

3) The type of vehicle in the traffic stream. Surface dressing involves applying a thin bituminous
binder coating to pavement slab surfaces, mixing stone
4) The volume of traffic predicted to use the highway chippings, and altering the binder's stiffness using
over its design life. cutback bitumen and bitumen emulsion.
5) The strength of the underlying subgrade soil. 2 Binders Used during Surface Dressing
Highway Pavement Components 1. Cutback Bitumen (Liquid Asphalt)
Foundation Bitumen from refining can be blended with volatile
solvents like kerosene or creosote to create a viscous
the subgrade soil plus layer of graded stone (subbase solution with lower temperatures and lower viscosity.
and perhaps capping) directly on top of it a platform for
the base materials and serve to isolate the subgrade The classification of cutbacks is based on the following
beneath it from the impacts during the highway's two characteristics:
building phase may be made of these layers.
• The viscosity of the cutback itself.
Base
• The penetration of the non-volatile residue
is the top structural layer, and its major job is to
distribute the stresses and strains caused by the applied 2. Bituminous Emulsions (Emulsified Asphalt
wheel loads so that the materials below it don't become Bitumen is made easier to handle by forming an
overload. emulsion, typically heated and then shredded in a
Surfacing colloidal mill with hot water and an emulsifier.

Pavement surfacing should minimize water seepage, Joints in Concrete Pavements

provide high riding pleasure, and offer acceptable sliding Pavement slab joints allow movement due to moisture
resistance. It should have texture, durability, regularity, content and temperature changes. Transverse joints
and flexibility. Flexible pavements typically have a release shrinkage and temperature stresses, affecting
binders course and surface course.
longitudinal direction. Longitudinal joints deal with
induced stresses across pavement width.
Contraction Joints
The joint must open to release induced stresses and
prevent vertical movement between adjacent slabs.
Expansion Joints
differ in that a full discontinuity exists between the two
sides, with a compressible filler material included to
permit the adjacent concrete to expend. These can also
function as contraction or warping joints.
Warpping Joints
Warping stresses are necessary in plain unreinforced
concrete slabs, allowing small angular movements
between adjacent slabs.
Construction Joint
Work typically ends at contraction or expansion joints,
but construction joints can be used if this isn't possible.
Longitudinal joints may be needed to counteract slab
warping effects.

Reinforcement in Pavement
Reinforcement, such as prefabricated mesh or bar mats,
helps limit surface cracking and maintain particle
interlock in aggregates.
Pavement Materials
1. Soil
2. Aggregates
3. Bitumen
4. Cement
5. Recycled Materials
6. Geosynthetics