8.

AC
POWER
CIRCUITS by Ulaby & Maharbiz
 Effective Value of a time varying signal
A wall power outlet gives 110 V.
However, it is a time varying sinusoidal signal.
Then, what do we mean by saying it is 110 V?
We mean by it that it has the same power delivering capability of
a constant (DC) signal of 110 V has.
How do we define the power delivering capability of a time varying signal?
It is defined on one ohm basis. To explain this, consider a resistance.
The voltage versus current relationship of a resistance is
v(t) = i(t)R.
Thus,

2 v 2 (t)
the power delivered to a resistance R is given by = v(t)i(t) = i (t)R = .
R
If R = 1Ω, power delivered equals the square of the signal.
The power delivering capability of a time varying signal x(t) on one ohm
basis is normally called simply as the Power of the signal, and it simply
equals x2 (t). If the signal x(t) varies with respect to time, so does x2 (t).
The Effective Value of a time varying signal is that value of a DC signal
that can deliver the same amount of power as the time varying signal does
on the average.
Let us consider a periodic signal x(t) of period T . Then, the average power
of the signal x(t) over the period T can be computed as
1 Z T
Average of p(t) over the period T = x2 (t)dt.
T 0

For a constant signal (DC signal) E, the average as well as the instantaneous
power are the same as E 2 .
The effective value E of a time varying periodic signal x(t) with period T is
given by
2 1ZT 2
E = x (t)dt.
T 0
Hence v
u1 Z T
u
Effective value of x(t) = t x2 (t)dt.
T 0

Clearly, the effective value of x(t) is computed by performing

three operations on x(t).
 2

These three operations are Root, Mean, and Square of x(t) as illustrated
below, v
u 1 Z T
u
Effective value of x(t) = u
u T 0
u x2 (t) dt.
| {z }
Root % Mean Square
t | {z }

Because of the significance of the three operations, Root, Mean, and Square,
the effective value is also normally called as the Root Mean Square value or
for short RMS value.
Determination of the RMS value of a sinusoidal signal:
Let us consider a sinusoidal signal
x(t) = A cos(ωt + θ).
Then, the RMS value of x(t) is given by
v v
u1 Z T u1 Z T
u u
t 2
x (t)dt = t A2 cos2 (ωt + θ) dt
v
T 0 T 0
u 2 Z
uA T
= t
[1 + cos(2ωt + 2θ)] dt
v
2T 0
u 2 Z
uA T A2 Z T
= t
dt + cos(2ωt + 2θ) dt
v
2T 0 2T 0
u 2 Z
uA T A
= t
dt = √ .
2T 0 2
In the above, the second equality follows by the trigonometric
equality 2 cos2 (α) = 1 + cos(2α), and the rest follows by obvious integrations.
It is worth noting that the average of a sinusoidal signal over a period T = 2π
ω
is indeed zero.
The above development leads to a very commonly used expression,
the RMS value of a sinusoidal signal = Amplitude
√
2
.
Note that the RMS value of a sinusoidal signal depends only on its amplitude,
but neither on its frequency nor on its phase angle.
Phasors: We introduced and worked with Amplitude of a sinusoidal signal
as the magnitude of its phasor. Instead, we can work with RMS phasors
as well where we use the RMS value as the magnitude of the phasor.
Time varying Sinusoid Amplitude Phasor RMS Phasor
√
A cos(ωt + θ) = 2ARM S cos(ωt + θ) ⇒ A6 θ ARM S 6 θ.
One can work consistently with either Amplitude Phasors or RMS Phasors.
It is common to work with RMS Phasors.
 2

Example 1: Determine the RMS value of the periodic pulse train p(t) shown below where
the width of each pulse ∆ equals 0.2T . (The pulse train p(t) is formed when a DC signal A
is ON for a period ∆ and OFF for a period T − ∆ and so on. In this regard ∆ is called the
duty period.)
Periodic pulse train p(t)
→∆← →∆← →∆← →∆←
A A A A
··· ···
• • • • • • • • -
−T 0 ∆ T 2T t→
s s
Z Z
1 T A2 0.2T
The RMS value of p(t) = x2 (t)dt = dt
T 0 T 0
s s
A2 A2 A
= (0.2T ) = =√
T 5 5
Home-Work: Based on the above example, construct a signal whose RMS value equals
Peak value of the signal
√ .
2 2
Example 2: Determine the RMS value of the triangular periodic pulse train p(t) shown
below where the width of each pulse ∆ equals 0.2T .

Triangular periodic pulse train p(t)

→∆← →∆← →∆← →∆←
A A A A
· · · AA A
A
A
A
A
A
···
• A• • A• • A• • A• -
−T 0 ∆ T 2T t→
s s
Z Z  2
1 T 1 0.2T A
The RMS value of p(t) = x2 (t)dt = (0.2T − t) dt
T 0 T 0 0.2T
s s
A2 A2 A
= (0.2T ) = =√
3T 15 15

Home-Work: Show that the RMS value of the symmetrical periodic triangular signal given
below equals √A3 .
Symmetrical triangular waveform
A
A
A

A
A

A
A

A
A

··· A
A
···
A
A
-
A
A

• • • • • •
−2 −1 0 1 2 → t Secs
A
A

A
A

A
A

A
A

A
−AA

 Average Value

Sine wave

Truncated sawtooth
Average Value for

These properties hold

true for any values of
φ1 and φ2
 332:221 Principles of Electrical Engineering I
Power Calculations

Consider the circuit configuration shown where Source circuit delivers power to the Load
circuit. Either Source circuit or Load circuit could contain independent or dependent sources
or circuit elements such as resistances, capacitances, inductances, and mutual inductances
or their combinations. Consider the terminals a and b. Let the voltage across the terminals
a and b and the current delivered by the Source circuit to the Load circuit be respectively
v(t) = VM cos(ωt + θv ) and i(t) = IM cos(ωt + θi ).
For the directions of v(t) and i(t) as shown, Source circuit delivers instantaneous power
p(t) = v(t)i(t) to the Load circuit which consumes it.

For the directions

of voltage and current
as marked, Source Circuit
delivers power to the
Load Circuit.

Instantaneous power consumed or generated is given by

p(t) = v(t)i(t) = VM IM cos(ωt + θv ) cos(ωt + θi ).
The above expression can be written in a number of ways by utilizing the following trigono-
metric equalities:
1
cos(α) cos(β) = [cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)] and cos(α ± β) = cos(α) cos(β) ∓ sin(α) sin(β).
2
We rewrite p(t) as follows:
p(t) = v(t)i(t) = VM IM cos(ωt + θv ) cos(ωt + θi )
Constant = 1 VM IM cos(θv − θi ) + 1 VM IM cos(2ωt + θv + θi )
2 2
1 1
= VM IM cos(θv − θi ) + VM IM cos(2ωt + 2θi + θv − θi )
2 2
= P
|{z} + P cos(2ωt + 2θi ) − Q sin(2ωt + 2θi ) ,
| {z } | {z }
Average real power Power fluctuations in a resistance Power fluctuations in a reactance
where
1
P =VM IM cos(θv − θi ) = VRM S IRM S cos(θv − θi ) = Average real power
2
1
Q = VM IM sin(θv − θi ) = VRM S IRM S sin(θv − θi ) = Peak of reactive power.
2
Real PowerTerminology:
Power factor = cos(θv − θi ), Reactive factor = sin(θv − θi ).
Reactive Pwer
 2

Average
real
power

Next, we consider resistance, inductance, and capacitance each separately and simplify the
expressions for P and Q. The basis of simplification is the knowledge of θv − θi for each
element.
Resistance:
θv − θi = 0, the voltage and current associated with a resistance are in phase.
2
VRM 2
P = VRM S IRM S = = IRM S R, Note that cos(θv − θi ) = cos(0) = 1.
S
R
Q = 0, Note that sin(θv − θi ) = sin(0) = 0.
Resistance consumes only real average power. It does not consume any reactive power as
there is no energy storage associated with a resistance.

Inductance:
0 0
θv − θi = 90 , the current in an inductance lags its voltage by 90 .
0
P = 0, Note that cos(θv − θi ) = cos(90 ) = 0.
V2 S 2 0
Q = VRM S IRM S = RM
ωL
= IRM S ωL, Note that sin(θv − θi ) = sin(90 ) = 1.
Inductance consumes only reactive power. On the average, it does not consume any real
power as it merely stores in a magnetic field whatever power is consumed in some time
interval and delivers it back in another interval (This illustration was done as Home-Work).
By convention, reactive power of an inductive circuit is positive.

Capacitance:
0 0
θv − θi = −90 , the current in a capacitance leads its voltage by 90 .
0
P = 0, Note that cos(θv − θi ) = cos(−90 ) = 0.
2
IRM 0
2
Q = −VRM S IRM S = −VRM S ωC = − ωC , Note that sin(θv − θi ) = sin(−90 ) = −1.
S

Capacitance consumes only reactive power. On the average, it does not consume any real
power as it merely stores in an electric field whatever power is consumed in some time
interval and delivers it back in another interval (This illustration was done as Home-Work).
By convention, reactive power of a capacitive circuit is negative.
 3

Complex power S:
Let V = VRM S 6 θv be the RMS voltage phasor,
and I = IRM S 6 θi be the RMS current phasor,
both associated with the same element. Then,

P = VRM S IRM S cos(θv − θi ) Phase Angle of S is

Q = VRM S IRM S sin(θv − θi ).

Define Complex power S as

S = P + jQ.
Power
A triangle called Power Triangle can be drawn
Triangle
with P as real part and Q as the imaginary
part. It is easy to see that S = P + jQ = V I ∗ .
We consider some special cases:
Resistance: In this case, both V and I are in
phase, hence θv − θi = 0.
2
VRM
2
Only P = IRM SR = R
S
exists and Q = 0.
Triangle coalesces to a simple horizontal line.
0
Inductance: In this case, I lags V by 90 ,
0
hence θv − θi = 90 .
2
VRM
2
Only Q = IRM S ωL = ωL exists and P = 0.
S

Triangle coalesces to a simple vertical line.

0
Capacitance: In this case, I leads V by 90 ,
0
hence θv − θi = −90 .
2
IRM
2
Only Q = −VRM S ωC = − ωC exists and P =
S

0. Triangle once again coalesces to a simple

vertical line.

For sources, only way to calculate Complex power S is by V I ∗ . One cannot do

any other way.

Conservation of Complex power:

Complex power in any circuit is conserved. That is, whatever is generated in some branches
is consumed by the other branches of the circuit.

Maximum Power Transfer to a load:

Suppose we have complete freedom to prescribe the load impedance. Then, the load impedance
that can absorb the Maximum Power from the circuit is given by the conjugate of Thevenin
impedance of the circuit as seen from the load.
It is easy to prove this as will be done in the class.
 Summary and Terminology
√
A sinusoidal signal is of the form A cos(ωt + θ) or 2ARMS cos(ωt + θ),
A is the amplitude of the sinusoid and ARMS is the RMS value of it,
θ is the phase angle of the sinusoid, ω is the radian frequency of the sinusoid; ω = 2πf where f is
the frequency in Hertz; also f = T1 where T is the period of the sinusoid.
For a given ω, a sinusoidal signal is characterized by its amplitude A (or by its RMS value ARMS )
and its phase angle θ. Thus, we can represent the sinusoid by a phasor. One can use either
Amplitude phasor or RMS phasor,
√
A6 θ ⇔ A cos(ωt + θ) or equivalently ARMS 6 θ ⇔ 2ARMS cos(ωt + θ).
For sinusoidal inputs, in order to determine steady state values of circuit vari-
I +
ables, one transforms the time-domain circuit to phasor domain, and then
V
uses phasor analysis using the concept of impedances. Once a required phasor =Z V
value is known, it can be transformed back to time-domain. Note that the ratio I
−
of a voltage phasor to the current phasor of an element (which is not a source)
is called the impedance of the element, and is denoted by Z. The generalized Generalized
Ohm’s law VI = Z renders the phasor analysis conceptually exactly same as Ohm’s law
the analysis with resistances alone (chapters 1 to 5 of the text book).
Instantaneous Power = p(t) = v(t)i(t)

i + i +
Power generated Power consumed
v by the small box v by the small box
− = vi − = vi

Power computations are done easily in terms of phasors.

Complex Power Consumed or generated by an element = P + jQ = V I ∗
where V and I are RMS phasors, V = VRMS 6 θv and I = IRMS 6 θi .
P + jQ
Average real power P = VRMS IRMS cos(θv − θi ) Watts
Reactive power Q = VRMS IRMS sin(θv − θi ) Vars (Volt-Amp-Reactive)
Power triangle is shown on the right where θ1 = θv − θi . Q
cos(θv − θi ) is called power factor, and
θ1
sin(θv − θi ) is called reactive factor.
P

Reactive power Q is positive for inductive reactive power, and negative for capacitive
reactive power. Reactive power is the electrical power that oscillates between the magnetic field
of an inductor and the electrical field of a capacitor; Reactive power is never converted to non-
electrical power. It is absorbed in some interval and given away in some other interval. Q is the
maximum value of such power fluctuations.
Volt-Amperes or Apparent Power:
It is the magnitude of complex power = |S|; VA (Volt-Ampere) is its unit.

Element Impedance Average Power Reactive Power

Ohms Watts Vars

2
VRMS
Resistance R R 2 R=
P = IRMS Q=0
R
2
VRMS
Inductance L jωL P =0 2 ωL =
Q = IRMS ωL
2
IRMS
1 2 ωC
Capacitance C jωC P =0 Q=− ωC = −VRMS
 332:221 Principles of Electrical Engineering I
Power Factor Correction
Most of the industrial factories utilize induction motors to turn their wheels. An induction
motor consumes both average real power as well as lagging (inductive) reactive power. Thus
a typical industrial load has a power factor less than unity. Power companies charge for
the consumption of real as well as reactive powers although at different rates. One can
reduce the consumption of lagging reactive power from the power company by connecting
an appropriate value of capacitance in parallel with the load. This is because a capacitance
consumes a leading reactive power and thus the combined lagging and leading reactive powers
can be as small as desired. This implies that the power factor of the load in parallel with
a capacitance can be improved to a level as close to unity as desired. In other words, the
cost of paying for the reactive power can be decreased to as small as desired. The following
problem illustrates the concepts involved.
Example:
Consider the phasor domain circuit shown. Let the input
voltage Vg be 220 V (RMS) at 60 Hz. The given load
consumes 100 KW of real average power and has a lagging +
+ LOAD ZL
power factor of 0.8. Determine the value of capacitance Vg − −jXc
C that needs to be connected in parallel with the load −
such that the combined power factor of the load and the
capacitance in parallel with it is 0.95.
Repeat the above if combined power factor needed is unity.
The power triangle of the existing load is as shown by the triangle
on the right where cos(θ1 ) is 0.8. We note that
0 75 KVar
cos(θ1 ) = 0.8 ⇒ θ1 = 6 36.87 , sin(θ1 ) = 0.6, and tan(θ1 ) = 0.75.
θ1
Since tan(θ1 ) = 0.75, the lagging reactive power consumed is 75 100 KW
KVar.
We can construct a power triangle where cos(θ2 ) is 0.95. We note that
0
cos(θ2 ) = 0.95 ⇒ θ2 = 6 18.19 , sin(θ2 ) = 0.312, and tan(θ2 ) = 0.3286.

Since tan(θ2 ) = 0.3286, the lagging reactive power consumed is θ2 32.86 KVar
32.86 KVar. The triangle on the right illustrates this. 100 KW

We need to have the resultant reactive power (lagging) as 32.86 KVar. This implies that the
leading reactive power that needs to be supplied by the capacitance is 75 − 32.86 = 42.14
KVar. We note that the leading reactive power that can be supplied by a capacitance of C
Farads is ωC|Vg |2 . Thus we have the required capacitance as
42140 42140
C= = = 2310 µF.
ω|Vg | 2 2π(60)|220|2
If the required combined power factor is unity, the leading reactive power that can be supplied
by the capacitance must annihilate the lagging reactive power of the original load. This
implies that the capacitance must supply 75 KVar. In this case, we have the required
capacitance as
75000 75000
C= = = 4110 µF.
ω|Vg | 2 2π(60)|220|2
 332:221 Principles of Electrical Engineering I
AC Power Calculation

Example 1: Vg I3 L1 V1 I1 Vo
Consider the phasor domain circuit 5Ω j10Ω
shown. Let the output voltage Vo be + I2 −j5Ω +
1 + j0 V (RMS). Determine the power +
Vg − j10Ω L2 10Ω Vo
consumed or generated by each branch. − −
Verify the principle of conservation of
power in the given circuit.

We first need to solve the circuit before we compute power consumed or generated by each
branch. One easy way of solving this circuit is to start at the output end on the right and
proceed towards the source end while systematically calculating the currents I1 , I2 , and I3
as well as voltages V1 and Vg . We will compute these variables in the order of I1 , V1 , I2 , I3 ,
and Vg as shown below:
The current I1 = V10o = 10
1
= 0.1 A.
Then, the voltage across the capacitance is I1 (−j5) = −j0.5 V.
This enables us to compute V1 as 1 − j0.5 V.
0
Now the current I2 can be computed as j10 V1
= 1−j0.5
j10
= −0.05 − j0.1 = −0.11186 63.43 A.
0
We note that I3 = I1 + I2 = 0.1 − 0.05 − j0.1 = 0.05 − j0.1 = 0.11186 −63.43 A.
Finally, we note that
0
Vg = V1 + I3 (5 + j10) = 1 − j0.5 + (0.05 − j0.1)(5 + j10) = 2.25 − j0.5 = 2.36 −12.53 V.

We note that the complex power generated by the source equals

0 0 0
Vg I3∗ = (2.36 −12.53 )(0.11186 63.43 ) = 0.257146 50.9 = 0.1625 + j0.2 VA.
This as well as other power calculations are shown in the following table.

Element Average Power Average Power Reactive Power Reactive Power

generated consumed generated consumed
watts watts vars vars

Vg voltage Source 0.1625 0.2

5Ω resistance |I3 |2 5 = 0.0625

j10Ω inductance L1 |I3 |2 10 = 0.125

j10Ω inductance L2 |I2 |2 10 = 0.125

−j5Ω capacitance −|I1 |2 5 = −0.05

10Ω resistance |I1 |2 10 = 0.1

T otal of each column 0.1625 0.1625 0.2 0.2

Yes, there is power balance for both real and reactive powers.
 332:221 Principles of Electrical Engineering I
AC Power Calculation
Example 2: I1 + V1 − I2 + V2 −
Consider the phasor domain circuit
shown where Z1 Ix Z2
+ + +
Vg = 150V (RMS), Zx = 12 − j16 Ω,
Vg + Zx Vx + 39I
Z1 = 1 + j2 Ω, and Z2 = 1 + j3 Ω. − − x
Solve the given circuit, and determine − − −
the power consumed or generated by
each branch. Verify the principle of con-
servation of power in the given circuit.
The circuit can be solved by a number of methods. We use here mesh analysis and write
two mesh equations as

150 = I1 Z1 + Ix Zx ⇒ 150 = I1 (1 + j2) + (I1 − I2 )(12 − j16)

0 = Ix Zx − I2 Z2 − 39Ix ⇒ 0 = (I1 − I2 )(12 − j16) − I2 (1 + j3) − 39(I1 − I2 ).

We can solve the above equations to get I1 = −26 − j52 A and I2 = −24 − j58 A.
Then, we have Ix = I1 − I2 = −2 + j6 A,
V1 = I1 Z1 = 78 − j104 V, V2 = I2 Z2 = 150 − j130 V, and Vx = Ix Zx = 72 + j104 V.
The complex power generated or consumed can be computed as V I ∗ . The computations are
shown in the following table.

Element Power generated or consumed (Volt − amps)

Vg Voltage Source Vg I1∗ = (150)(−26 + j52) = −3900 + j7800 generated

Dependent Voltage Source 39Ix I2∗ = (−78 + j234)(−24 + j58) = −11700 − j10140 consumed

Z1 V1 I1∗ = (78 − j104)(−26 + j52) = 3380 + j6760 consumed

Z2 V2 I2∗ = (150 − j130)(−24 + j58) = 3940 + j11820 consumed

Zx Vx Ix∗ = (72 + j104)(−2 − j6) = 480 − j640 consumed

Yes, there is power balance for both real and reactive powers since the sum of consumed
complex powers equals to the generated complex powers.
 1

Principles of Electrical Engineering I

Maximum Power Transfer

Consider the interconnection of two circuits α and

i b
β as shown in Figure 1. The circuit α is an ac- +
tive circuit with sources (both independent and α v β Load
-
dependent) while the circuit β is a passive load
a
on the circuit α. Let the equivalent impedance of
circuit β be RL + jXL . Determine RL + jXL such
Figure 1
that power transferred by the circuit α to the load
RL + jXL is maximum
Equivalent
of Circuit α

By replacing the circuit α by its Thevenin

equivalent, we can redraw the circuit of
Figure 1 as that in Figure 2.

Let the resistance of load be RL .

Current I is given by
VT h
I= Figure 2
RT h + RL + j(XT h + XL )

Power consumed by RL (using RMS phasors),

|VT h |2 RL
P = |I|2RL =
(RT h + RL )2 + (XT h + XL )2
We need to determine RL and XL such that P is maximum.
Let us first fix XL and determine RL such that P is maximized. To do so, set
∂P
= 0.
∂RL
Differentiation formula,
h i V dU − dV U
d V −1 U = V −1 dU−V −2 dV U = .
V2
Applying the above rule, we get
h i
∂P |VT h |2 (RT h + RL )2 + (XT h + XL )2 − 2RL (RT h + RL )
= h i2 = 0.
∂RL (RT h + RL )2 + (XT h + XL )2

This yields
q
RL = (RT h )2 + (XT h + XL )2 .
 2

One can verify that this maximizes the power P . Note that RL equals the magnitude of the
impedance corresponding to the rest of the elements in the circuit.
If we have the freedom to select XL as well in order to maximize the power P , we need to
set
∂P
= 0.
∂XL
This yields

∂P −|VT h |2 [2RL (XT h + XL )]

=h i2 = 0.
∂XL (RT h + RL )2 + (XT h + XL )2

Thus,

XL = −XT h .

Now, when both RL and XL are free to be selected to maximize the power P , we have
q
XL = −XT h and RL = (RT h )2 + (XT h − XT h )2 = RT h .

In other words, the load impedance is the complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance
(ZL = ZT∗ h ) in order to maximize the power P consumed by the load.
Second derivative of P with respect to RL as well as XL confirms that P is maximum when
ZL = ZT∗ h . Verify yourself.

RT h 2 |VT h |2
Maximum Power = |V Th | = where VT h is the RMS voltage.
(2RT h )2 4RT h
Example 8-7: Maximum Power

RMS

RMS RMS

RMS

Cont.
Example 8-7: Maximum Power
 All these problems are important although we do not collect the HW
HW from Nilsson and Riedel 8th and 9th editions

Nilsson and Riedel 8th edition:

10.2, 10.6, 10.17, 10.21, 10.29, 10.32

Nilsson and Riedel 9th edition:

10.1, 10.6, 10.18, 10.25, 10.30, 10.32
 HW

Principles of Electrical Engineering I

Quiz 6 – Final Exam problems are harder than these problems

Student’s name in capital letters:

Consider the circuit shown. Let Vg = 2 V and − Voc +
a b
Ig = 1 A. It is known that V1 = (1 − j2) V and
V2 = (1+j)(1−j2) = 3−j1 V. Also, I1 = 2+j,
I2 = −2 − j, I3 = −1 − j, I4 = −1 − j. De-
V1 V2 Vg
termine the average real power as well as the I2 1Ω j1Ω
c
reactive power generated or absorbed by each A B
element. Enter the values in the appropriate I1 I3 I4
+
columns in the table below. Indicate the units. −j1Ω Ig + V
Is there a power balance within the allowable − g
−
numerical accuracies? Both concepts and alge-
bra are important. If your concepts are wrong, g h
G
we cannot grade your algebra.

Element Average Power Average Power Reactive Power Reactive Power

generated consumed generated consumed

Vg Source

Ig resistance

−j1Ω capacitance

j1Ω inductance

1Ω resistance