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Gaseous Electronics Theory and Practice 1st Edition
Gorur Govinda Raju Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Gorur Govinda Raju
ISBN(s): 9780849337635, 0849337631
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 13.39 MB
Year: 2005
Language: english
DK6044_half 9/16/05 3:31 PM Page 1

Theory and Practice

DK6044_series 10/7/05 3:38 PM Page 1

ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks

FOUNDING EDITOR

Marlin O. Thurston
Department of Electrical Engineering
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio

1. Rational Fault Analysis, edited by Richard Saeks and S. R. Liberty

2. Nonparametric Methods in Communications, edited by
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3. Interactive Pattern Recognition, Yi-tzuu Chien
4. Solid-State Electronics, Lawrence E. Murr
5. Electronic, Magnetic, and Thermal Properties of Solid Materials,
Klaus Schröder
6. Magnetic-Bubble Memory Technology, Hsu Chang
7. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
8. Electromagnetics: Classical and Modern Theory and Applications,
Samuel Seely and Alexander D. Poularikas
9. One-Dimensional Digital Signal Processing, Chi-Tsong Chen
10. Interconnected Dynamical Systems, Raymond A. DeCarlo and Richard Saeks
11. Modern Digital Control Systems, Raymond G. Jacquot
12. Hybrid Circuit Design and Manufacture, Roydn D. Jones
13. Magnetic Core Selection for Transformers and Inductors: A User’s Guide
to Practice and Specification, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
14. Static and Rotating Electromagnetic Devices, Richard H. Engelmann
15. Energy-Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Application, John C. Andreas
16. Electromagnetic Compossibility, Heinz M. Schlicke
17. Electronics: Models, Analysis, and Systems, James G. Gottling
18. Digital Filter Design Handbook, Fred J. Taylor
19. Multivariable Control: An Introduction, P. K. Sinha
20. Flexible Circuits: Design and Applications, Steve Gurley,
with contributions by Carl A. Edstrom, Jr., Ray D. Greenway,
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21. Circuit Interruption: Theory and Techniques, Thomas E. Browne, Jr.
22. Switch Mode Power Conversion: Basic Theory and Design, K. Kit Sum
23. Pattern Recognition: Applications to Large Data-Set Problems, Sing-Tze Bow
24. Custom-Specific Integrated Circuits: Design and Fabrication, Stanley L. Hurst
25. Digital Circuits: Logic and Design, Ronald C. Emery
26. Large-Scale Control Systems: Theories and Techniques, Magdi S. Mahmoud,
Mohamed F. Hassan, and Mohamed G. Darwish
27. Microprocessor Software Project Management, Eli T. Fathi
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for Microelectronics)
28. Low Frequency Electromagnetic Design, Michael P. Perry
29. Multidimensional Systems: Techniques and Applications,
edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas
DK6044_series 10/7/05 3:38 PM Page 2

30. AC Motors for High-Performance Applications: Analysis and Control,

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31. Ceramic Motors for Electronics: Processing, Properties, and Applications,
edited by Relva C. Buchanan
32. Microcomputer Bus Structures and Bus Interface Design, Arthur L. Dexter
33. End User’s Guide to Innovative Flexible Circuit Packaging, Jay J. Miniet
34. Reliability Engineering for Electronic Design, Norman B. Fuqua
35. Design Fundamentals for Low-Voltage Distribution and Control,
Frank W. Kussy and Jack L. Warren
36. Encapsulation of Electronic Devices and Components, Edward R. Salmon
37. Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, J. Lewis Blackburn
38. Testing Active and Passive Electronic Components, Richard F. Powell
39. Adaptive Control Systems: Techniques and Applications, V. V. Chalam
40. Computer-Aided Analysis of Power Electronic Systems,
Venkatachari Rajagopalan
41. Integrated Circuit Quality and Reliability, Eugene R. Hnatek
42. Systolic Signal Processing Systems, edited by Earl E. Swartzlander, Jr.
43. Adaptive Digital Filters and Signal Analysis, Maurice G. Bellanger
44. Electronic Ceramics: Properties, Configuration, and Applications,
edited by Lionel M. Levinson
45. Computer Systems Engineering Management, Robert S. Alford
46. Systems Modeling and Computer Simulation, edited by Naim A. Kheir
47. Rigid-Flex Printed Wiring Design for Production Readiness, Walter S. Rigling
48. Analog Methods for Computer-Aided Circuit Analysis and Diagnosis,
edited by Takao Ozawa
49. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
50. Power System Grounding and Transients: An Introduction,
A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos
51. Signal Processing Handbook, edited by C. H. Chen
52. Electronic Product Design for Automated Manufacturing, H. Richard Stillwell
53. Dynamic Models and Discrete Event Simulation, William Delaney
and Erminia Vaccari
54. FET Technology and Application: An Introduction, Edwin S. Oxner
55. Digital Speech Processing, Synthesis, and Recognition, Sadaoki Furui
56. VLSI RISC Architecture and Organization, Stephen B. Furber
57. Surface Mount and Related Technologies, Gerald Ginsberg
58. Uninterruptible Power Supplies: Power Conditioners for Critical Equipment,
David C. Griffith
59. Polyphase Induction Motors: Analysis, Design, and Application,
Paul L. Cochran
60. Battery Technology Handbook, edited by H. A. Kiehne
61. Network Modeling, Simulation, and Analysis, edited by Ricardo F. Garzia
and Mario R. Garzia
62. Linear Circuits, Systems, and Signal Processing: Advanced Theory
and Applications, edited by Nobuo Nagai
63. High-Voltage Engineering: Theory and Practice, edited by M. Khalifa
64. Large-Scale Systems Control and Decision Making, edited by Hiroyuki Tamura
and Tsuneo Yoshikawa
65. Industrial Power Distribution and Illuminating Systems, Kao Chen
66. Distributed Computer Control for Industrial Automation, Dobrivoje Popovic
and Vijay P. Bhatkar
67. Computer-Aided Analysis of Active Circuits, Adrian Ioinovici
68. Designing with Analog Switches, Steve Moore
DK6044_series 10/7/05 3:38 PM Page 3

69. Contamination Effects on Electronic Products, Carl J. Tautscher

70. Computer-Operated Systems Control, Magdi S. Mahmoud
71. Integrated Microwave Circuits, edited by Yoshihiro Konishi
72. Ceramic Materials for Electronics: Processing, Properties, and Applications,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Relva C. Buchanan
73. Electromagnetic Compatibility: Principles and Applications, David A. Weston
74. Intelligent Robotic Systems, edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas
75. Switching Phenomena in High-Voltage Circuit Breakers,
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76. Advances in Speech Signal Processing, edited by Sadaoki Furui
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77. Pattern Recognition and Image Preprocessing, Sing-Tze Bow
78. Energy-Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Application, Second Edition,
John C. Andreas
79. Stochastic Large-Scale Engineering Systems, edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas
and Keigo Watanabe
80. Two-Dimensional Digital Filters, Wu-Sheng Lu and Andreas Antoniou
81. Computer-Aided Analysis and Design of Switch-Mode Power Supplies,
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82. Placement and Routing of Electronic Modules, edited by Michael Pecht
83. Applied Control: Current Trends and Modern Methodologies,
edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas
84. Algorithms for Computer-Aided Design of Multivariable Control Systems,
Stanoje Bingulac and Hugh F. VanLandingham
85. Symmetrical Components for Power Systems Engineering,
J. Lewis Blackburn
86. Advanced Digital Signal Processing: Theory and Applications,
Glenn Zelniker and Fred J. Taylor
87. Neural Networks and Simulation Methods, Jian-Kang Wu
88. Power Distribution Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications,
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89. Modern Digital Control Systems: Second Edition, Raymond G. Jacquot
90. Adaptive IIR Filtering in Signal Processing and Control, Phillip A. Regalia
91. Integrated Circuit Quality and Reliability: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Eugene R. Hnatek
92. Handbook of Electric Motors, edited by Richard H. Engelmann
and William H. Middendorf
93. Power-Switching Converters, Simon S. Ang
94. Systems Modeling and Computer Simulation: Second Edition,
Naim A. Kheir
95. EMI Filter Design, Richard Lee Ozenbaugh
96. Power Hybrid Circuit Design and Manufacture, Haim Taraseiskey
97. Robust Control System Design: Advanced State Space Techniques,
Chia-Chi Tsui
98. Spatial Electric Load Forecasting, H. Lee Willis
99. Permanent Magnet Motor Technology: Design and Applications,
Jacek F. Gieras and Mitchell Wing
100. High Voltage Circuit Breakers: Design and Applications, Ruben D. Garzon
101. Integrating Electrical Heating Elements in Appliance Design, Thor Hegbom
102. Magnetic Core Selection for Transformers and Inductors: A User’s Guide
to Practice and Specification, Second Edition, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
103. Statistical Methods in Control and Signal Processing, edited by
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104. Radio Receiver Design, Robert C. Dixon
DK6044_series 10/7/05 3:38 PM Page 4

105. Electrical Contacts: Principles and Applications, edited by Paul G. Slade

106. Handbook of Electrical Engineering Calculations, edited by Arun G. Phadke
107. Reliability Control for Electronic Systems, Donald J. LaCombe
108. Embedded Systems Design with 8051 Microcontrollers: Hardware
and Software, Zdravko Karakehayov, Knud Smed Christensen
and Ole Winther
109. Pilot Protective Relaying, edited by Walter A. Elmore
110. High-Voltage Engineering: Theory and Practice, Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Mazen Abdel-Salam, Hussein Anis, Ahdab El-Morshedy,
and Roshdy Radwan
111. EMI Filter Design: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
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112. Electromagnetic Compatibility: Principles and Applications, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, David Weston
113. Permanent Magnet Motor Technology: Design and Applications,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Jacek F. Gieras and Mitchell Wing
114. High Voltage Circuit Breakers: Design and Applications, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Ruben D. Garzon
115. High Reliability Magnetic Devices: Design and Fabrication,
Colonel Wm. T. McLyman
116. Practical Reliability of Electronic Equipment and Products, Eugene R. Hnatek
117. Electromagnetic Modeling by Finite Element Methods, João Pedro A. Bastos
and Nelson Sadowski
118. Battery Technology Handbook, Second Edition, edited by H. A. Kiehne
119. Power Converter Circuits, William Shepherd and Li Zhang
120. Handbook of Electric Motors: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Hamid A. Toliyat and Gerald B. Kliman
121. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, Colonel Wm T. McLyman
122. Energy Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Application, Third Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Ali Emadi
123. Power-Switching Converters, Second Edition, Simon Ang and Alejandro Oliva
124. Process Imaging For Automatic Control, edited by David M. Scott
and Hugh McCann
125. Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Ali Emadi
126. Adaptive Antennas and Receivers, edited by Melvin M. Weiner
127. SPICE for Power Electronics and Electric Power, Second Edition,
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128. Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice, Gorur Govinda Raju
129. Noise of Polyphase Electric Motors, Jacek F. Gieras, Chong Wang,
and Joseph Cho Lai
DK6044_title 10/7/05 3:36 PM Page 1

Theory and Practice

Gorur Govinda Raju University of Windsor

Ontario, Canada

Boca Raton London New York

A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.
DK6044_Discl.fm Page 1 Tuesday, October 11, 2005 9:29 AM

Published in 2006 by
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Raju, Gorur G., 1937-

Gaseous electronics : theory and practice / Gorur G. Raju.
p. cm. – (Electical and computer engineering ; 127)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-3763-1 (alk. paper)
Electric discharges through gases – Textbooks. 2. Ionization of gases – Textbooks. 3. Gas dynamics –
Textbooks. I. Title. II. Series.

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 Dedicated to

Gorur (India), a place I left long years ago as an aspiring youth

and
Windsor (Ontario, Canada) where I have been fortunate enough to
live longer than anywhere else.
Preface
Studies of the interaction of electrons with gas neutrals, excited states, and other charge
carriers are generally defined as gaseous electronics. While the ordinary fluorescent bulb
and neon sign are examples of industrial applications, one of the most striking develop-
ments in modern society has been the explosion of applications of lasers. From delicate
eye surgery to metal cutting, from the physics laboratory to research on fusion studies, gas
lasers function according to the theoretical concepts and experimental techniques developed
in this area. Areas that involve this branch of knowledge include medicine, electrical and
mechanical engineering, environmental studies, defense applications, just to name a few.
In nature, lightning and aurora lights are spectacular examples of electron interaction
with gas molecules, while the everyday occurrence of red evening sky is a reminder of
such interaction even when tranquil conditions prevail. The relatively innocuous electron–
molecule interactions culminate in the awesome power of plasma, both in nature and the
laboratory, in the destructive power of lightning, and the magnificent northern lights.
The study of gaseous electronics is over one hundred years old, beginning with the
discovery of cathode rays in 1876, though one could arguably refer to the sparks observed
with the Leyden jar circa 1750. In 1860, Maxwell’s classical treatment of molecules as a
group of particles and the velocity distribution within the group defined many concepts that
would later be carried into the study of electron motion in gases. Rapid development
of ingenious experimental techniques by Townsend in England and Ramsauer in Germany
laid the solid foundation for studies of electrons in swarms and beams respectively. The
advent of quantum mechanics gave a powerful tool for theoretical development of electron–
molecule scattering, and the laser technology added impetus for renewed interest in this area.
For some time a need has been felt for a volume on gaseous electronics, considering
the explosion of scientific literature published on all aspects of electron interaction with and
without the application of an external electric field. At times this vast wealth of knowledge
has appeared to be scattered in a seemingly hopeless disarray, discouraging even a modest
attempt to classify and categorize the available information. The availability of online
journals and modern software on personal computers for drawing graphs, digitizing for
numerical integration and interpolation, and so on, combined with the long, cold Canadian,
winters, has prodded the author to make such an attempt.
The present volume is intended to serve the following objectives:

1. To serve as a graduate and senior-level undergraduate textbook.

2. To provide experimental data with adequate but not overwhelming theoretical
discussion. Excellent treatment of theoretical aspects have been presented in books
by Massey and Burhop,1 McDaniel,2 Loeb,3 MacDonald,4 and Hasted.5 Books by
Meek and Craggs6 and Roth7 present different aspects of the discharge and plasma
phenomena respectively. The present volume is meant to serve as complementary
to this list.
3. To classify the data on cross sections, drift and diffusion, and ionization phenom-
ena. The book concentrates largely on the critical evaluation of the available data
in many gases, although the sheer volume of such data has precluded consideration
of all gases.
 Preface

4. To supply a resource material for established researchers and scholars.

5. To offer a source book for industrial and nonacademic users who seek data
without needing to plough through the niceties of theoretical analyses and
experimental sophistication.

Chapter 1 begins with an introduction to electron–neutral collision physics and, in view

of the literature previously referred to, the treatment has been kept at a level that is
easy to follow. The meaning of velocity space is explained as this is the central concept
in the understanding of the energy distribution. The various cross sections are defined
and the relation that exists between them is described. The quantum mechanical approach
to scattering is introduced as this is the basis on which the Ramsauer–Townsend effect is
understood. Though ion mobilities are not included as a separate chapter of presentation,
the basic theory is included in view of its role in space charge build-up and secondary
effects at the cathode. Since each subsequent chapter begins with a limited exposition of
the theory necessary to understand the topic, the first chapter is made desirably concise.
Chapter 2 attempts to provide an overview of experimental techniques that are
employed to measure collision cross sections. The methods for measuring other quantities
such as swarm coefficients, drift velocities etc. are treated in later chapters. A large number
of ingenious techniques, employing crossed beams, have been developed since the early
beam experiments of Ramsauer and Brode (Figure 2.1). The principles involved in these
measurements have been explained with selected reference to the measures adopted to
improve accuracy and repeatability.
The techniques chosen for description are by no means exhaustive but have rele-
vance to scattering cross sections discussed in Chapters 3 to 5. The bias in choosing which
method to include has been the parameters that are relevant to discharge phenomena, and
therefore the methods for measuring electronic excitation and ro-vibrational excitation
have not been dealt with at great length. Recent advances in the measurement of angular
differential cross sections, adopted by Cubric et al. (Figure 2.12), dispense with the need
to rotate the relative position of the detector with respect to the collision region. Adoption of
this technique to several gases should yield data that do not require interpolation at very
low and very large angles, improving the accuracy. The ionization cross sections measured
by Rapp and Englander-Golden in about fifteen gases have set a standard for accuracy
and reliability. Their method is explained (Figure 2.13) and the more recent measurement
method of Straub and colleagues (reference 71 of Chapter 2) has been described in a later
chapter. Due to limitations of space it has not been possible to include methods for
measuring attachment cross sections, though a brief explanation of the swarm technique
(reference 116 of Chapter 2) is given.
Chapter 3 deals with scattering cross sections in rare gases with all aspects of measure-
ments taken into account. Data available in the literature have been compiled and systemati-
cally categorized. A critical analysis is carried out and it is believed that this is the first
time that such a comprehensive review has been made available. The gases considered
are arranged in alphabetical order to avoid repetition—which becomes inevitable in the
traditional method of dealing with gases with increasing atomic weight; helium first, neon
next and so on. The cross sections compiled are mainly those measured during the
past twenty-five years, though earlier publications are referred to as required. Results of
new computations are included, as found necessary, for obtaining the momentum transfer
and elastic scattering cross sections from differential cross sections measured as a function
of angle of scattering.
All cross sections of each gas have been added to obtain the total cross sections in the
energy range 0 to 1000 eV and compared with the measured total cross section. This kind
of information, it is believed, has been provided for the first time over the entire energy
Preface

range though excellent reviews (reference 10 of Chapter 3) are available that cover fewer
energy values. To facilitate comparison, most of the curves of cross sections as a function
of energy have been redrawn and grid lines have been retained for finding the approximate
value in rapid mode. This method of providing cross section data, in addition to the tabular
form, has been adopted throughout the volume.
Analytical representation of cross sections as a function of energy is required for the
purposes of modeling, energy distribution computations, and simulation studies. Many
such equations have been provided, though more work needs to be done to represent
momentum transfer cross sections as a function of energy. As far as the author is aware there
has been only a single equation available for argon (reference 107 of Chapter 3) and the
rapid variation of cross section as a function of energy due to the Ramsauer–Townsend
effect and the rather broader variation at higher energies due to shape resonance render
the problem difficult.
Cross sections in the very low energy range are also represented analytically by the
modified effective range theory (MERT). Each gas is discussed in the light of this theory
and appropriate information is given. Again, it is thought, this is the first time that such
a compilation has been made available in a single volume and the author expresses the
opinion that this powerful technique has not been used adequately for molecular gases.
Significant experimental investigations of low-energy inelastic collision cross sections in
several gases have now become available (reference 41 of Chapter 4).
Chapter 4 continues with the presentation of cross sections of diatomic gases. The
gases considered are carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), and
nitric oxide (NO). CO and NO are polar and electron attaching. O2 is electron attaching
without possessing a permanent dipole moment. The remaining gases (H2 and N2) are
both nonpolar and nonelectron attaching. The long-range dipole interaction between the
electron and molecule in polar gases presents difficulties for complete theoretical under-
standing and experimental measurements are the main source, unlike the case with rare
gases (Chapter 3) where theory can supplement experiment. The influence played by
dipolar moment and electron attachment is highlighted and a broad interpretation of shape
resonance as applicable to the gases considered is provided. The interaction potential is an
integral part of the theory and a brief description of the potentials is included in Chapter 1.
The similarities and differences in the cross section–energy behavior of isoelectronic
molecules are dealt with.
The presentation of scattering cross section data is continued in Chapter 5, with attention
focusing upon a variety of complex molecules. Polyatomic molecules such as SF6 and CO2
are nonpolar but electron attaching. On the other hand, there are a number of gases which
are both attaching and polar. Extensive discussion is not presented for a few gases that
have been analyzed thoroughly in recent years (reference 174 in Chapter 5). These gases
include SF6, CCl2F2, CF4, and selected fluorocarbons. Gases of environmental concern such
as NO2, N2O, SO2, and O3 are also considered, though in some cases the data appear in
a later chapter. Chapter 5 concludes with a discussion of how the ionization cross section
can be understood by using the most common parameters of a gas neutral: the ratio of the
maximum of the ionization cross section to the ionization cross section at a given energy.
Another attractive formulation is due to Hudson (reference 302 of Chapter 5) and involves
the polarization of the molecule and its ionization potential. Considerable scope exists
for original research in exploring this idea with necessary modifications to accommodate the
specifics of a molecule under investigation.
While scattering cross sections are measured by using beam techniques, the focus
now shifts to electron swarms. At the turn of the twentieth century the discovery of the
electron and the advent of quantum mechanics gave birth to two schools of investigators.
One school, led by Ramsauer and colleagues, adopted beam techniques; the other school,
 Preface

led by Townsend, adopted the swarm technique in which the electrons move through
the gaseous medium under the influence of an applied external field. From the results of these
investigations the details of electron–neutral interactions were deciphered. The method of
measuring the drift velocity by employing grids (reference 6 of Chapter 6) and the availabil-
ity of the oscilloscope facilitated the measurement of drift velocity of electrons. Development
of the theory of diffusion by Huxley (reference 9 of Chapter 6) and the measurement of
the diffusion coefficient by the use of the concentric and insulated collector led the method
of approach. The experimental discovery of the lateral diffusion coefficient (reference 92
of Chapter 6) was followed by advancement of the theory to explain the observed results
(references 93 and 94 of Chapter 6).
Chapter 6 summarizes the data on drift and diffusion of electrons in several gases
as a function of reduced electric field E/N (E ¼ electric field, N ¼ gas number density). Early
measurements of these parameters at low values of E/N (reference 118 of Chapter 6) have
been extended to larger E/N values in various laboratories and a compilation of these is
presented. Analytical expressions for a wide range of E/N are given, with an analysis of
the range of applicability and the limits of accuracy. It is appropriate to comment that the
best fitting equation given for the purpose of simulation etc. does not imply that there
is theoretical background for that form of equation.
Swarm parameters have been measured as an end in themselves, and also to obtain
low-energy momentum transfer cross sections where experimental difficulties render the
measurements less accurate. The method of unfolding the swarm parameters to obtain the
low-energy momentum transfer cross sections was pioneered in the early 1960s (reference 156
of Chapter 6) and extended to many gases. The results of these investigations have been
blended into the data presented in Chapter 6.
Chapter 7 continues the presentation of these data to more complex molecules. Hydro-
carbon gases, nitrogen compounds, and plasma industrial gases have been considered over
a wide range of E/N.
Chapter 8 deals with the ionization process and presents the first ionization coefficient
in nonattaching gases. Both the steady state method and time-resolved current methods
have been employed and the data cover a wide range of E/N. At higher values of E/N the
drift velocity and diffusion coefficients are subject to ionization effects and results obtained
by simulation or theoretical computation are not excluded, though attention has been drawn
to situations where experimental confirmation is desirable.
Chapter 9 extends the presentation of ionization coefficients to electron-attaching
gases. Electron attachment is a process that depletes electrons from the ionization region.
It may be a two-body process (electron and molecule) or a three-body process (electron
and two molecules). Dissociative attachment involves the dissociation of the molecule and
the attachment of the electron to one of the fragments. Dissociative attachment cross section
is dominant at relatively low energies while at higher energies ion pair formation is
more frequently encountered. The change of the familiar Townsend’s semiempirical relation
due to attachment is explained by several examples. The chapter provides attachment
cross sections for several gases in addition to ionization and attachment coefficients. A point
to note is that collision cross sections have been provided for some gases for which these
data were not given earlier.
Chapter 10 shifts the focus to high-voltage phenomena in gaseous electronics, though in
a compact form necessitated by limitation of space. For our present purpose high voltage
is defined as that above 200 kV with no restriction on electrode geometry, gap length,
or polarity of the voltage. This definition is, of course, purely arbitrary to serve the purpose
of limiting the topics for inclusion. Only large air gaps of relevance to high-voltage power
transmission and sulfurhexafluoride at elevated gas pressures have been considered. As
an introduction to the chapter, methods of generating high voltages in the laboratory are
Preface

described, though measurement aspects have had to be deleted. Standard volumes (reference
2 of Chapter 10) deal exhaustively with these methods. Switching impulse breakdown of
large air gaps and volt–time characteristics of compressed gases have been briefly considered.
Chapter 11 concerns ionization and breakdown in crossed electric and magnetic fields.
This area of research is still only moderately explored, relatively to the volume of literature
available on other areas of gaseous electronics. The potential industrial uses of this type
of discharge are at least as promising as those of other areas of research and the author
is aware of just a single review paper (reference 2 of Chapter 11), published in 1980. The
chapter begins by describing the motion of charge carriers in crossed fields in vacuum and
extends the discussion to phenomena in the presence of gaseous neutrals. The effective
reduced electric field concept is described, as is the influence of a crossed magnetic field on
the ionization coefficients. Quantitative data on Townsend’s first ionization coefficient
in gases as a function of reduced electric and magnetic fields have been compiled for the
first time, to the extent available. The effects of a crossed magnetic field on breakdown,
time lags, and corona formation in nonuniform fields are described. Results obtained
by computational methods are commented upon, with brief comments on the research to be
completed.
The final chapter deals with high-frequency breakdown, included for completeness
in view of the needs of beginners and students. RF discharges have assumed an important
role in view of the explosive electronic industry, and discharge phenomena are described.
A software package available (reference 11 of Chapter 12) has, in the author’s opinion, served
well to elucidate the complexities of this type of discharge and to provide visual images of
the influence of various parameters on the discharge phenomena. Both microwave break-
down and laser breakdown are dealt with, largely for the sake of completeness.
The present volume is the culmination of forty-seven years of the author’s interac-
tion with the study of gaseous electronics, beginning with his first entry to the Department
of High Voltage Engineering at the Indian Institute of Science in 1958 as a graduate student.
The topics chosen to be included have a personal bias, of course, though he has personally
studied and researched in all the topics chosen, some with greater intensity than others. It
is realized that topics such as ion mobilities, photo-ionization cross sections, and recent
advances in lightning research have not been included due to limitations of space.

REFERENCES
1. Massey, H. S. W. and E. H. S. Burhop, Electronic and Ionic Impact Phenomena, Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 1952.
2. McDaniel, E. W., Collision Phenomena in Ionized Gases, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1964.
3. Loeb, L. B., Basic Processes of Gaseous Electronics, University of California Press, Berkeley,
1965.
4. MacDonald, A. D., Microwave Breakdown in Gases, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1966.
5. Hasted, J. B., Physics of Atomic Collisions, Elsevier, New York, 1972.
6. Meek, J. M. and J. D. Craggs, Electrical Breakdown of Gases, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1978.
7. Roth, J., Industrial Plasma Engineering, vol 1., Principles, Institute of Physics Publishing,
Bristol, 1995.
About the Author
Gorur Govinda Raju was born in 1937. He obtained the B.Eng. degree in electrical engineer-
ing from the University of Bangalore, India, and the Ph.D. degree from the University of
Liverpool, United Kingdom. He then worked in research laboratories of Associated
Electrical Industries, United Kingdom. He joined the Department of High Voltage
Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, and became its head from 1975 to
1980. He has held the Leverhulme Fellowship and Commonwealth Fellowship at the
University of Sheffield, United Kingdom. He joined the University of Windsor, Ontario,
Canada, in 1980 and became the Head of the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering during 1989–1997 and 2000–2002. He is currently an Emeritus Professor at the
University of Windsor. He has published over 130 research papers and two previous books.
He is a Registered Professional Engineer and Fellow of the Institute of Engineers, India.
Acknowledgments
I am extremely grateful to many colleagues who were kind enough to provide me with
reprints and reports: Dr. M. Fréchette, IREQ, Montreal; Dr. L. C. Pitchford, CPAT,
Toulouse; Dr. J. W. McConkey, University of Windsor; Dr. A. E. D. Heylen, University of
Leeds; Dr. Vishnu Lakdawala, Old Dominion University; Dr. L. G. Christophorou, NIST;
Dr. J. K. Olthoff, NIST; Dr. de Urquiho, Universidad National Autónoma de Mexico; Dr.
Hernández Ávila, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Azcapotzalco, Mexico; and Dr.
Kobayashi, Osaka City University. I also thank Dr. L. C. Pitchford, Dr. L. G.
Christophorou, Dr. J. K. Olthoff, NIST, and Mr. A. Raju for permission to reproduce
figures and data as indicated in the text. Dr. A. E. D. Heylen has been kind enough to read
parts of the book and to make valuable suggestions. Dr. V. Agarwal has also made valuable
suggestions at the planning stage of the volume, which is gratefully acknowledged. Dr.
SriHari Gopalakrishna, Northwestern University, and Professor K. J. Rao of the Indian
Institute of Science, have kindly read through Appendix 2. Professor P. H. Alexander of the
University of Windsor has advised on parts of Chapter 12.
I am grateful to a number of graduate students who have studied with me several aspects
of gaseous electronics, often asking probing questions which have helped me immensely.
Drs. C. Raja Rao, S. Rajapandiyan, G. R. Gurumurthy, K. Dwarakanath, A. D. Mokashi,
M. S. Dincer, Jane Liu, Nandini Gupta, and Mr. N. Weeratunga have all contributed to
this book in their own way. It is a pleasure to acknowledge my association of many years
with many colleagues: Drs. Vijendra Agarwal, Soli Bamji, Steve Boggs, Ed Cherney, Ravi
Gorur, Reuben Hackam, Shesha Jayaram, Vishnu Lakdawala, and Tangli Sudarshan. The
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, and the University of Windsor, Ontario, have provi-
ded all available facilities without reservation. The personal encouragement of Professor
Neil Gold, University of Windsor, has contributed immensely to completion of the book.
Thanks are due in no small measure to NSERC (Natural Science and Engineering Research
Council) Canada, for supporting my research continuously for more than twenty-five years.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge Dr. Nagu Srinivas, DTE Energy, who provided facil-
ities to complete parts of the book. Professor C. N. R. Rao, President of the Jawaharlal
Nehru Center for Advanced Scientific Research, provided facilities for working on parts
of the manuscript. Mrs. and Mr. N. Nagaraja Rao have been extraordinarily generous
towards me as personal friends; I could depend upon their assistance under any circum-
stance. I have received generous hospitality and kindness from Mrs. and Dr. N. Rudraiah,
Bangalore University, both academically and personally. Mrs. and Lt. Gen. Ragunath (retd.)
have generously forgiven my intrusion into their home, often without notice.
I have made sincere efforts to obtain permission from various publishers to reproduce
as indicated in the text. I thank all the publishers for giving such permissions. Any omis-
sion is entirely inadvertent and I fully apologize for it. Dr. S. Chowdhry has advised me
whenever I had problems with software refusing to cooperate. Mr. F. Cicchello and
D. Tersigni have spared time to keep my computers up to date. I thank S. Marchand for
unhesitating secretarial assistance throughout. Many thanks are due to Helena Redshaw
and Jill Jurgensen, who have patiently helped me in editing and improving the presentation of
 Acknowledgments

the volume. Mr. Andy Baxter of Keyword Group has kindly tolerated delays due to my
international travels. A very special mention is due to Mr. Ian Guy for superb expertise in
editing my draft, making proofreading an educational and less-arduous task.
While I am the beneficiary of receiving so much help I wish to state that any errors
and omissions are entirely my own responsibility.
Finally, I would like to thank my wife Padmini and our son Anand who have generously
forgiven my inevitable nonparticipation in social and family responsibilities, which results
from an undertaking such as this. Their inexhaustible patience and the blessings of my
parents have been a source of continuous strength all these years.

Windsor, Ontario
Contents

Chapter 1
Collision Fundamentals ................................................................................. 1
1.1 Coordinate Systems ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Laboratory Coordinates.................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 Center of Mass Coordinates ............................................................................. 3
1.2 Meaning of Velocity Space .......................................................................................... 5
1.3 Maxwell’s Distribution Function................................................................................. 8
1.4 Mean Free Path .......................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Particle Collisions ....................................................................................................... 11
1.5.1 Elastic Collisions ........................................................................................... 12
1.5.2 Energy Transfer in Elastic Collisions............................................................ 15
1.5.3 Differential Scattering Cross Section ............................................................ 17
1.5.4 Momentum Transfer Cross Section .............................................................. 20
1.5.5 Diffusion Coefficient ..................................................................................... 21
1.5.6 Einstein Relationship .................................................................................... 23
1.5.7 Inelastic Collisions ........................................................................................ 23
1.5.8 Collision Frequency ...................................................................................... 25
1.5.9 Rate Coefficients and Constants................................................................... 30
1.5.10 Ion Mobility .................................................................................................. 34
1.6 Potential Functions for Particle Interactions.............................................................. 39
1.7 Quantum Mechanical Approach to Scattering........................................................... 43
References ........................................................................................................................... 52

Chapter 2
Experimental Methods .................................................................................. 55
2.1 Total Collision Cross Sections.................................................................................... 55
2.1.1 Ramsauer Technique....................................................................................... 56
2.1.2 Modified Ramsauer’s Technique .................................................................... 58
2.1.3 Linear Transmission Method.......................................................................... 60
2.1.4 Time-of-Flight Method ................................................................................... 61
2.1.5 Photoelectron Spectroscopy ............................................................................ 65
2.2 Differential Cross Sections ......................................................................................... 66
2.2.1 Beam Scattering Technique............................................................................. 67
2.2.2 Crossed Beams Technique .............................................................................. 67
2.3 Ionization Cross Section............................................................................................. 70
2.3.1 Ionization Tube Method................................................................................. 70
2.3.2 Ionization Tube with e/m Discrimination....................................................... 72
2.3.3 Crossed Beams Methods................................................................................. 72
 Contents

2.3.4 Pulsed Crossed Beam Technique .................................................................... 75

2.3.5 Time-of-Flight Method ................................................................................... 76
2.4 Total Excitation Cross Section ................................................................................... 76
2.4.1 Resonance near Excitation Onset ................................................................... 79
2.4.2 Laser Fluoroscence Method............................................................................ 81
2.4.3 Swarm Method for Ro-Vibrational Excitation............................................... 81
2.4.4 Semiempirical Approach ................................................................................. 84
2.5 Attachment Cross Section .......................................................................................... 84
2.6 Concluding Remarks .................................................................................................. 88
References ........................................................................................................................... 89

Chapter 3
Data on Cross Sections—I. Rare Gases ....................................................... 93
3.1 Argon .......................................................................................................................... 93
3.1.1 Total and Momentum Transfer Cross Sections in Ar (20 · e · 1000 eV)........ 96
3.1.2 Total Cross Sections in Ar (0 5 "  20 eV)..................................................... 99
3.1.3 Elastic and Differential Cross Sections in Ar ............................................... 100
3.1.4 Total Excitation Cross Sections in Ar .......................................................... 103
3.1.5 Ionization Cross Sections in Ar.................................................................... 108
3.1.6 Verification of the Sigma Rule for Ar.......................................................... 114
3.2 Helium ...................................................................................................................... 116
3.2.1 Total and Momentum Transfer Cross Sections in He ................................. 117
3.2.2 Elastic and Differential Cross Sections in He .............................................. 120
3.2.3 Total Excitation Cross Sections in He.......................................................... 123
3.2.4 Ionization Cross Sections in He ................................................................... 127
3.2.5 Verification of the Sigma Rule for He ......................................................... 130
3.3 Krypton .................................................................................................................... 131
3.3.1 Total Cross Sections in Kr ........................................................................... 132
3.3.2 Modified Effective Range Theory (MERT) ................................................. 133
3.3.3 Momentum Transfer Cross Sections in Kr................................................... 140
3.3.4 Elastic and Differential Cross Sections in Kr............................................... 142
3.3.5 Total Excitation Cross Sections in Kr.......................................................... 145
3.3.6 Ionization Cross Sections in Kr.................................................................... 148
3.3.7 Verification of the Sigma Rule for Kr.......................................................... 151
3.4 Neon ......................................................................................................................... 151
3.4.1 Total Cross Sections in Ne ........................................................................... 152
3.4.2 Momentum Transfer Cross Sections in Ne .................................................. 155
3.4.3 Elastic and Differential Cross Sections in Ne .............................................. 157
3.4.4 Total Excitation Cross Sections in Ne.......................................................... 161
3.4.5 Ionization Cross Sections in Ne ................................................................... 165
3.4.6 Verification of the Sigma Rule for Ne ......................................................... 169
3.5 Xenon........................................................................................................................ 170
3.5.1 Total Cross Sections in Xe ........................................................................... 171
3.5.2 Momentum Transfer Cross Sections in Xe................................................... 172
3.5.3 Elastic and Differential Cross Sections in Xe............................................... 176
3.5.4 Total Excitation Cross Sections in Xe.......................................................... 176
3.5.5 Ionization Cross Sections in Xe.................................................................... 181
3.5.6 Verification of the Sigma Rule for Xe.......................................................... 183
3.6 Concluding Remarks ................................................................................................ 185
References ......................................................................................................................... 186
Contents

Chapter 4
Data on Cross Sections—II. Diatomic Gases............................................. 193
4.1 Carbon Monoxide (CO) ........................................................................................... 193
4.1.1 Total Cross Sections in CO .......................................................................... 195
4.1.2 Momentum Transfer Cross Sections in CO ................................................. 198
4.1.3 Elastic Scattering Cross Sections in CO ....................................................... 199
4.1.4 Rotational and Vibrational Cross Sections in CO ....................................... 199
4.1.5 Electronic Excitation Cross Sections in CO ................................................. 203
4.1.6 Ionization Cross Sections in CO................................................................... 208
4.1.7 Verification of the Sigma Rule for CO......................................................... 211
4.2 Molecular Hydrogen (H2)......................................................................................... 211
4.2.1 Total Cross Sections in H2 ........................................................................... 212
4.2.2 Elastic Scattering Cross Sections in H2 ........................................................ 216
4.2.3 Momentum Transfer Cross Sections in H2................................................... 216
4.2.4 Ro-Vibrational Cross Sections in H2 ............................................................ 218
4.2.5 Electronic Excitation Cross Sections in H2 .................................................. 221
4.2.6 Ionization Cross Sections in H2 .................................................................... 222
4.2.7 Sigma Rule for H2 ........................................................................................ 224
4.3 Molecular Nitrogen .................................................................................................. 225
4.3.1 Total Cross Sections in N2 ........................................................................... 226
4.3.2 Momentum Transfer Cross Sections in N2................................................... 229
4.3.3 Elestic Scattering Cross Sections in N2 ........................................................ 230
4.3.4 Ro-Vibrational Excitation in N2................................................................... 230
4.3.5 Electronic Excitation Cross Sections in N2 .................................................. 232
4.3.6 Ionization Cross Sections in N2 .................................................................... 236
4.3.7 Sigma Rule for N2 ........................................................................................ 237
4.4 Molecular Oxygen (O2)............................................................................................. 238
4.4.1 Total Scattering Cross Sections in O2 .......................................................... 238
4.4.2 Momentum Transfer Cross Sections in O2 ................................................... 240
4.4.3 Elastic Scattering Cross Sections in O2 ........................................................ 241
4.4.4 Ro-Vibrational Excitation Cross Sections in O2 .......................................... 243
4.4.5 Electronic Excitation Cross Sections in O2................................................... 245
4.4.6 Dissociation Cross Sections in O2 ................................................................ 246
4.4.7 Ionization Cross Sections in O2 .................................................................... 249
4.4.8 Sigma Rule in O2 .......................................................................................... 250
4.5 Nitric Oxide (NO)..................................................................................................... 250
4.5.1 Total Scattering Cross Sections (NO)........................................................... 251
4.5.2 Momentum Transfer and Elastic Scattering in NO ..................................... 253
4.5.3 Electronic Excitation Cross Sections in NO ................................................. 253
4.5.4 Ionization Cross Sections in NO .................................................................. 254
4.5.5 Sigma Rule Verification for NO................................................................... 256
4.6 Closing Remarks....................................................................................................... 256
References ......................................................................................................................... 259

Chapter 5
Data on Cross Sections—III. Industrial Gases........................................... 267
5.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2).............................................................................................. 267
5.1.1 Total Scattering Cross Sections in CO2 ........................................................ 267
5.1.2 Elastic and Momentum Transfer Cross Sections in CO2 ............................. 270
5.1.3 Ro-Vibrational Excitation Cross Sections in CO2 ........................................ 272
 Contents

5.1.4 Electronic Excitation Cross Sections in CO2 .............................................. 275

5.1.5 Ionization Cross Sections in CO2 ............................................................... 278
5.1.6 Sigma Check for CO2 ................................................................................. 279
5.2 Hydrocarbon Gases CxHy ...................................................................................... 279
5.2.1 Total Scattering Cross Sections in CxHy .................................................... 280
5.2.1.1 Methane (CH4).............................................................................. 281
5.2.1.2 Other Hydrocarbons ..................................................................... 281
5.2.2 Inelastic Scattering Cross Sections in CxHy ................................................ 282
5.2.2.1 Vibrational Excitation Cross Sections........................................... 282
5.2.2.2 Excitation Cross Sections.............................................................. 282
5.3 Mercury Vapor ....................................................................................................... 283
5.4 Nitrous Oxide (N2O)............................................................................................... 286
5.5 Ozone (O3) .............................................................................................................. 290
5.6 Silane (SiH4)............................................................................................................ 293
5.7 Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) ....................................................................................... 293
5.7.1 Total Scattering Cross Section in SF6 ........................................................ 296
5.7.2 Momentum Transfer Cross Sections in SF6 ............................................... 298
5.7.3 Elastic and Differential Cross Sections in SF6 ........................................... 300
5.7.4 Vibrational Excitation Cross Sections in SF6 ............................................. 300
5.7.5 Electronic Excitation Cross Sections in SF6 ............................................... 303
5.7.6 Ionization Cross Sections in SF6 ................................................................ 304
5.8 Water Vapor (H2O) ................................................................................................ 305
5.9 Plasma Processing Gases ........................................................................................ 308
5.9.1 Tetrafluoromethane (CF4) .......................................................................... 308
5.9.2 Perfluoroethane (C2F6) ............................................................................... 310
5.9.3 Perfluoropropane (C3F8)............................................................................. 312
5.9.4 Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2)............................................................. 313
5.10 Other Gases............................................................................................................. 315
5.10.1 Ammonia (NH3)........................................................................................ 315
5.10.2 Disilane (Si2H6) ......................................................................................... 315
5.10.3 Germane (GeH4) ....................................................................................... 315
5.10.4 Hexafluoropropene (C3F6) ........................................................................ 315
5.10.5 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S).......................................................................... 315
5.10.6 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)............................................................................ 315
5.10.7 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) .............................................................................. 315
5.10.8 Tetrachlorogermane (GeCl4) ..................................................................... 315
5.10.9 Uranium Fluoride (UF6)........................................................................... 315
5.11 Concluding Remarks............................................................................................... 316
References ......................................................................................................................... 318

Chapter 6
Drift and Diffusion of Electrons—I ........................................................... 329
6.1 Definitions............................................................................................................... 329
6.2 Drift and Diffusion Measurement .......................................................................... 330
6.3 Electron Energy Distribution.................................................................................. 334
6.4 Approximate Methods ............................................................................................ 337
6.5 Data on Drift and Diffusion .................................................................................. 339
6.5.1 Air (Dry and Humid).................................................................................. 339
6.5.2 Argon .......................................................................................................... 341
6.5.3 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) ................................................................................ 350
6.5.4 Carbon Monoxide (CO).............................................................................. 354
Contents

6.5.5 Helium (He) ................................................................................................ 357

6.5.6 Hydrogen (H2) and Deuterium (D2) ........................................................... 362
6.5.7 Krypton (Kr)............................................................................................... 371
6.5.8 Metallic Vapors........................................................................................... 373
6.5.8.1 Cesium (Cs) ................................................................................... 373
6.5.8.2 Mercury (Hg) ................................................................................ 376
6.5.8.3 Sodium (Na) and Thallium (Tl) .................................................... 380
6.5.9 Neon (Ne) ................................................................................................... 381
6.5.10 Nitrogen (N2) .............................................................................................. 384
6.5.11 Oxygen (O2) ................................................................................................ 393
6.5.12 Xenon (Xe).................................................................................................. 397
References ......................................................................................................................... 399

Chapter 7
Drift and Diffusion of Electrons—II. Complex Molecules ........................ 407
7.1 Current Pulse Due to Avalanche.............................................................................. 407
7.1.1 Electron Current (Integrating Mode) ........................................................... 410
7.1.2 Electron Current (Differential Mode)........................................................... 411
7.1.3 Ion Currents (Differential Mode) ................................................................. 414
7.2 Arrival Time Spectrum Method ............................................................................... 414
7.3 Hydrocarbon Gases .................................................................................................. 416
7.3.1 Methane (CH4) ............................................................................................. 418
7.3.2 Ethane (C2H6) ............................................................................................... 421
7.3.3 Selected Hydrocarbons ................................................................................. 423
7.4 Nitrogen Compounds ............................................................................................... 423
7.4.1 Ammonia ...................................................................................................... 424
7.4.2 NO, N2O, and NO2 ...................................................................................... 426
7.5 Plasma Industrial Gases ........................................................................................... 426
7.5.1 Trifluoromethane (CHF3) ............................................................................. 426
7.5.2 Tetrafluoromethane (CF4) ............................................................................ 430
7.5.3 Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2)............................................................... 432
7.5.4 Hexafluoroethane (C2F6) .............................................................................. 432
7.5.5 Perfluoropropane (C3F8)............................................................................... 432
7.5.6 Silane (SiH4).................................................................................................. 433
7.6 Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)......................................................................................... 434
7.7 Water Vapor (H2O and D2O)................................................................................... 438
7.8 Miscellaneous Gases ................................................................................................. 440
7.8.1 Halogens ....................................................................................................... 440
7.8.1.1 Fluorine (F2) ................................................................................... 440
7.8.1.2 Chlorine (Cl2) .................................................................................. 442
7.8.1.3 Bromine (Br2).................................................................................. 443
7.8.1.4 Iodine (I2)........................................................................................ 443
7.9 Concluding Remarks ................................................................................................ 443
References ......................................................................................................................... 447

Chapter 8
Ionization Coefficients—I. Nonelectron-Attaching Gases.......................... 453
8.1 Discharge Development ............................................................................................ 453
8.2 Current Growth in Uniform Fields .......................................................................... 453
8.2.1 Measurement of
and  .............................................................................. 456
8.2.1.1 Ionization Chamber ........................................................................ 456
 Contents

8.2.1.2 Vacuum System............................................................................... 457

8.2.1.3 Gas Handling System...................................................................... 458
8.2.1.4 Irradiation System........................................................................... 458
8.2.1.5 Voltage and Current Measurement................................................. 458
8.3 Functional Dependence of
/N on E/N ................................................................... 458
8.4 Space Charge Effects ................................................................................................ 461
8.5 Breakdown in Uniform Fields .................................................................................. 465
8.6 Multiplication in Nonuniform Fields ....................................................................... 470
8.6.1 Electric Field along the Axis of Confocal Paraboloids ................................ 472
8.6.2 Radial Electric Field in a Coaxial Cylindrical Geometry............................. 472
8.6.3 Concentric Sphere–Hemisphere .................................................................... 474
8.6.4 Sphere–Plane ................................................................................................. 474
8.6.5 Sphere–Sphere ............................................................................................... 474
8.7 Recombination.......................................................................................................... 474
8.8 Data on Ionization Coefficients ............................................................................... 475
8.8.1 Rare Gases .................................................................................................... 475
8.8.1.1 Argon (Ar) ...................................................................................... 475
8.8.1.2 Helium (He) .................................................................................... 477
8.8.1.3 Krypton (Kr)................................................................................... 478
8.8.1.4 Neon (Ne) ....................................................................................... 478
8.8.1.5 Xenon (Xe)...................................................................................... 478
8.9 Molecular Gases (Nonattaching) ............................................................................ 480
8.9.1 Hydrocarbon Gases .................................................................................... 480
8.9.1.1 Methane (CH4).............................................................................. 480
8.9.1.2 Other Hydrocarbons ..................................................................... 480
8.9.2 Hydrogen and Nitrogen .............................................................................. 482
8.9.2.1 Hydrogen (H2)............................................................................... 482
8.9.2.2 Deuterium (D2) ............................................................................. 484
8.9.2.3 Nitrogen (N2) ................................................................................ 484
8.10 Other Gases (Nonattaching) ................................................................................... 485
8.10.1 Mercury Vapor.......................................................................................... 485
8.10.2 Tetraethoxysilane ...................................................................................... 487
References ......................................................................................................................... 487

Chapter 9
Ionization and Attachment Coefficients—II. Electron-Attaching Gases.... 495
9.1 Attachment Processes.............................................................................................. 495
9.2 Current Growth in Attaching Gases ...................................................................... 496
9.3 Ionization and Attachment Coefficients ................................................................. 500
9.3.1 Dry and Humid Air .................................................................................... 500
9.3.2 Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide..................................................... 503
9.3.2.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) .................................................................. 503
9.3.2.2 Carbon Monoxide (CO) ................................................................ 504
9.3.3 Freon-12 (CCl2F2)....................................................................................... 506
9.3.4 Halogens...................................................................................................... 507
9.3.4.1 Fluorine (F2) ................................................................................. 508
9.3.4.2 Chlorine (Cl2) ................................................................................ 509
9.3.4.3 Bromine (Br2) ................................................................................ 510
9.3.4.4 Iodine (I2) ...................................................................................... 513
9.3.5 Nitrogen Compounds.................................................................................. 513
9.3.5.1 Ammonia (NH3)............................................................................ 514
Contents

9.3.5.2 Nitric Oxide (NO) ......................................................................... 515

9.3.5.3 Nitrous Oxide (N2O)..................................................................... 518
9.3.5.4 Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxide (NO2 and SO2) ................. 520
9.3.6 Oxygen (O2) ................................................................................................ 524
9.3.7 Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) ........................................................................... 526
9.3.8 Selected Industrial Gases ............................................................................ 534
9.4 Concluding Remarks............................................................................................... 536
References ......................................................................................................................... 536

Chapter 10
High Voltage Phenomena ........................................................................... 543
10.1 Types of Voltage ..................................................................................................... 543
10.2 High Direct Voltage Generation............................................................................. 544
10.3 High Alternating Voltage Generation .................................................................... 547
10.4 High Impulse Voltage Generation .......................................................................... 548
10.5 Ionization in Alternating Fields.............................................................................. 552
10.6 Sparking Voltages ................................................................................................... 554
10.6.1 Atmospheric Air........................................................................................ 555
10.6.1.1 Direct Voltages .......................................................................... 555
10.6.1.2 Alternating Voltages .................................................................. 557
10.6.1.3 Lightning Impulse Voltages....................................................... 558
10.6.1.4 Switching Impulse Voltages....................................................... 560
10.6.2 Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) ...................................................................... 563
10.6.2.1 Breakdown Voltage ................................................................... 563
10.6.2.2 Particle-Initiated Breakdown ..................................................... 566
10.6.3 Volt–Time Characteristics ......................................................................... 569
References ......................................................................................................................... 573

Chapter 11
Ionization in E  B Fields ........................................................................... 577
11.1 List of Symbols ....................................................................................................... 577
11.2 Brief Historical Note............................................................................................... 579
11.3 Electron Motion in Vacuum in E  B Fields.......................................................... 580
11.4 Effective Reduced Electric Field (EREF) ............................................................... 582
11.5 Experimental Setup ................................................................................................. 585
11.6 Ionization Coefficients ............................................................................................ 585
11.7 Experimental Data .................................................................................................. 588
11.7.1 Air ............................................................................................................. 588
11.7.2 Argon ........................................................................................................ 590
11.7.3 Hydrogen................................................................................................... 591
11.7.4 Nitrogen .................................................................................................... 592
11.7.5 Oxygen....................................................................................................... 595
11.8 Secondary Ionization Coefficient .......................................................................... 596
11.9 Sparking Potentials ............................................................................................... 598
11.9.1 Uniform Electric Fields ........................................................................... 598
11.9.2 Nonuniform Electric Fields ..................................................................... 601
11.10 Time Lags in E  B Crossed Fields ...................................................................... 602
11.11 Computational Methods ....................................................................................... 607
11.12 Effective Collision Frequency ............................................................................... 610
11.13 Concluding Remarks............................................................................................. 612
References ......................................................................................................................... 612
 Contents

Chapter 12
High Frequency Discharges ........................................................................ 615
12.1 Basic Plasma Phenomena...................................................................................... 615
12.2 Debye Length........................................................................................................ 618
12.3 Bohm Sheath Model ............................................................................................. 619
12.4 Plasma Frequency ................................................................................................. 620
12.5 Plasma Conductivity ............................................................................................. 622
12.6 Ambipolar Diffusion ............................................................................................. 622
12.7 RF Plasma............................................................................................................. 622
12.7.1 Experimental Studies ............................................................................... 624
12.8 Power Absorbed.................................................................................................... 627
12.8.1 Glow Region ........................................................................................... 628
12.8.2 Sheath–Glow Boundary .......................................................................... 628
12.8.3 Sheath ...................................................................................................... 629
12.8.4 Discussion................................................................................................ 630
12.9 Microwave Breakdown ......................................................................................... 632
12.10 Laser Breakdown .................................................................................................. 636
12.11 Concluding Remarks............................................................................................. 638
References ......................................................................................................................... 638

Appendix 1 ........................................................................................................................ 641

Appendix 2 ........................................................................................................................ 643
Appendix 3 ........................................................................................................................ 655
Appendix 4 ........................................................................................................................ 657
Appendix 5 ........................................................................................................................ 661
Appendix 6 ........................................................................................................................ 663
Appendix 7 ........................................................................................................................ 665

Index.................................................................................................................................. 667
 Collision Fundamentals
1
Analysis of the motion of charge carriers in a gaseous medium is fundamental to a proper
understanding of the various manifestations of the discharge phenomena, ranging from low
electron density electrical coronas to very high density fusion plasmas. It is nearly 150 years
ago (1860) that James Clerk Maxwell showed that the velocities of all particles in a gas
are not the same. He derived a distribution of velocities and, from the distribution, derived
a number of properties of the collection of the molecules as a single entity. The Maxwell
distribution served as a cornerstone for developing the theory of energy distribution of
electrons in a gas, the number density of electrons being much smaller than that of molecules.
We simply state the Maxwell distribution for molecular velocity, noting that a reference
to a book on the kinetic theory of gases supplies the proof.

1.1 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Collisions between two particles may be analyzed using two alternative systems of
coordinates.

1.1.1 LABORATORY COORDINATES

A particle with mass Ma is moving with velocity Va and approaches a particle of mass Mb
at rest in gravity-free space (Figure 1.1). If there is no collision, the moving particle conti-
nues its journey without being affected. If there is a collision, its velocity is changed to V 0a ,
making an angle
a with its initial direction. The second particle acquires a velocity V 0b after
collision. Conservation of momentum before and after collision dictates that the velocity
vectors Va, V0 a , and V 0b lie in the same plane. Further conservation of momentum yields

Ma Va ¼ Ma V 0a þ Mb V 0b ð1:1Þ

In component form this transforms to

Ma Va ¼ Ma V 0a cos
a þ Mb V 0b cos
b ð1:2Þ

Ma V 0a sin
a
Mb V 0b sin
b ¼ 0 ð1:3Þ

Conservation of energy leads to

2 2
Ma Va 2 ¼ Ma V 0a þ Mb V 0b ð1:4Þ

If we suppose that the initial given quantities are Ma, Mb, and Va, we are required to find
four quantities, namely V 0a , V 0b ,
a, and
b. We need a fourth equation, usually involving
force, but some simple relations may be derived.1

1
2 Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice

FIGURE 1.1 Elastic collision between a particle moving with a velocity Va and a particle at rest in the
laboratory coordinates system. The velocities after collision are V0 a and V0 b and s is the impact
parameter.
a and
b are scattering angles.

TABLE 1.1
Range of Scattering Angle for Various Particle Types
Particle Type Mass Description Ym Range of ha

Electron–atom Mb  Ma 1 0  j
a j  
Atom–atom Mb ¼ Ma 1 0  j
a j  =2
Molecule–atom Mb  Ma 1 0  j
a j  Ym

From Johnson, R. E., Introduction to Atomic and Molecular Collisions, Plenum Press, New York, 1982.

Equations 1.2 to 1.4 may be combined to yield, after substituting Ym ¼ Mb/Ma,

Ym sin 2
b
tan
a ¼ ð1:5Þ
1
Ym cos 2
b

Equation 1.5 imposes restrictions on the scattering angle, depending upon the relative
masses of the particles as shown in Table 1.1. We note that Equation 1.5 may be used to
determine Mb by measuring
a. Defining reduced mass MRM as

Ma M b
MRM ¼ ð1:6Þ
Ma þ Mb

and applying the principles of conservation of both energy and momentum, the following
relationships are obtained for the velocities after collision:2

2Va MRM
V 0b ¼ cos
b ð1:7Þ
Ma

1=2
4M2RM
V 0a ¼ Va 1
cos2
b ð1:8Þ
Ma Mb
Collision Fundamentals 3

FIGURE 1.2 The center of mass is located at a distance of rc from a chosen axis.

As is demonstrated above, the laboratory coordinate system does not yield the lowest
number of unknowns for the analysis of the collision and the center of mass coordinate
system is often preferred since it simplifies the analysis.2

1.1.2 CENTER OF MASS COORDINATES

In the previous discussion the second particle (B) was considered to be initially at rest.
However, this is not a necessary condition and both particles may have an initial velocity.
To deal with such situations, which are more common, the center of mass system is
advantageous and results in a smaller number of unknowns. A brief recapitulation of the
concept of center of mass is given first.
Consider any two masses (m1 and m2), not necessarily atomic particles, situated at a
distance r apart, as shown in Figure 1.2. The distance of the center of mass from any fixed
point (O) situated along the axis joining the centers (this is not essential) is given as

m 1 r1 þ m 2 r2
rc ¼
m1 þ m2

If the point lies between the masses, the center of mass divides the line joining the masses
in the inverse ratio of masses. It is closer to the heavier mass.
Let Va and Vb be the velocities of particles having masses Ma and Mb respectively
before collision in the laboratory frame. The velocities of the same particles after collision
are V 0a and V 0b . The velocity of the center of mass is Wc, which remains constant before
and after collision. As seen from the center of mass, the relative velocities are in exactly
opposite directions, both before and after collision, and their velocities are inversely
proportional to their masses.
The velocities of the particles with respect to the center of mass are Wa and Wb before
collision. After collision the velocities change to W0a and W0b . The following relationships
then hold true:
9
Wa ¼ V a
Wc >
>
>
>
>
Wb ¼ V b
Wc =
ð1:9Þ
W0a ¼ V 0a
Wc >
>
>
>
>
0 0 ;
Wb ¼ V b
Wc

The momenta (p) of the particles in the laboratory frame are

p1 ¼ Ma Va þ Mb Vb ¼ Ma V 0a þ Mb V 0b ð1:10Þ
4 Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice

Substituting Equation 1.9 into 1.10, one gets

p1 ¼ ðMa þ Mb ÞWc þ Ma Wa þ Mb Wb ð1:11Þ

The sum of the momenta (psum) with respect to the center of mass of the particles is zero
and therefore
psum ¼ Ma Wa þ Mb Wb ¼ 0 ð1:12Þ

Substituting Equation 1.12 into 1.11,

p1 ¼ ðMa þ Mb ÞWc ¼ Ma Va þ Mb Vb ð1:13Þ

The total momentum is that of a particle having a mass (Ma þ Mb) situated at the center
of mass.
The center of mass has the following properties in the analysis of the collision:

1. The velocity of the center of mass (Wc) with respect to the laboratory frame
remains the same before and after the collision (Figure 1.3).

FIGURE 1.3 Particle collision and velocity relationships in the laboratory frame and center of mass
frame. The velocity of the center of mass remains the same before and after collision. The relative
velocities of the particles with reference to the center of mass are opposite in direction before collision
and also after collision.
Collision Fundamentals 5

2. The velocities of the particles, before collision, relative to the center of mass
(Wa, Wb) are exactly opposite in direction. Their magnitudes are inversely
proportional to the masses (Equation 1.12). This is also true for their relative
velocities ðW0a , W0b Þ after collision.
3. The sum of the momenta of the particles with reference to the center of mass,
before and after collision, is zero (Equation 1.12).
4. The total momentum of the particles is the same as though the total mass were
centered at the center of mass (Equation 1.13).
5. In the center of mass system, reduced mass is defined by Equation 1.6. By using
this fictitious mass we need to deal with only the relative velocities of the parti-
cles with respect to the center of mass and ignore the masses of the individual
particles.

Figure 1.3 has been drawn to show both particles moving with velocities Va and Vb
respectively for the purpose of demonstrating the motion of the center of mass. Consider-
able simplification can be made by substituting Vb ¼ 0, that is, particle B is initially at rest.
This leads immediately to the result, from Equation 1.13,

Ma V a MRM Va
Wc ¼ ¼ ð1:14Þ
Ma þ M b Mb

The angle of scattering after collision is the same for both particles. The total linear
momentum of the system is zero at all times. The magnitude of the initial and final
velocity of each particle remains unaltered due to the collision as we are dealing with the
relative velocity of the particles with respect to the center of mass. The relationships between
selected quantities in both systems are shown in Table 1.2.
Conversion from the center of mass system to the laboratory system is
accomplished by adding the velocity of the center of mass (Wc) to the velocity of each
particle in the CM system. The initial momentum in the CM system is MRMWc and in the
laboratory system it is MaVa. One can show they are identical, assuming that Ma  Mb and
Vb ¼ 0. The situation corresponds to electron–neutral scattering.

1.2 MEANING OF VELOCITY SPACE

The number of molecules in a unit volume is so large that velocities of individual molecules
cannot be determined. However, a statistical description of the distribution of velocities is
possible and the function that describes this distribution is known as the velocity
distribution function.
Consider a differential volume dxdydz in the Cartesian coordinate system, situated
at the coordinates (x,y,z). The distance of the differential volume from the origin of the
coordinates is a vector r. In the differential volume there are particles that have a wide
range of velocities, from very low to very high, in relative terms. Of these particles a certain
number will have a velocity with components Wx, Wy and Wz. The velocity components
are subject to the restriction

Wy  W 0y  Wy þ dWy 
ð1:15Þ
Wz  W 0z  Wz þ dWz
6 Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice

TABLE 1.2
Relationships between Laboratory and Center of Mass Coordinates
Laboratory Quantities CM Quantities

M ¼ Ma þ Mb Ma Mb
M¼
Ma þ Mb

Ma Va ¼ ðMa þ Mb ÞWc psum ¼ ma Wa þ mb Wb ¼ 0

1 Total kinetic energy ¼

Total KE before collision ¼ Ma V2a
2 1 1
Ma W2a þ Mb W2b
2 2

Total KE after collision ¼

1 1
Ma V 0a 2 þ Mb V 0b 2
2 2

Velocities
Ma Va
Wc ¼
Ma þ Mb

ðMa þ Mb Þ
Va ¼ Wc
Ma

Wrel ¼ Wa
Wb

W0rel ¼ W0a
W0b

Johnson, R. E., Introduction to Atomic and Molecular Collisions, Plenum Press, New
York, 1982.

We can say that, in a coordinate system with axes Wx, Wy, and Wz, the velocity vector W
joins the origin to the differential volume dWx dWy dWz (Figure 1.4). This coordinate system
is referred to as velocity space.
Some ambiguity exists in the term ‘‘velocity space’’3 and it is useful to remember that
measurable space is real (also referred to as configuration space) in the sense that it has
physical dimensions. However, velocity space is a mathematical contrivance that identifies
a group of particles, all of which have their velocity components according to the relation-
ships in Equation 1.15 at a distance W from the origin. Though we have adopted Cartesian
coordinates for the velocity space for the sake of simplifying the explanation, it is customary
to use spherical coordinates. The relation between the velocity W and its components is

W 2 ¼ Wx2 þ Wy2 þ Wz2 ð1:16Þ

The relation between the radius vector r and its components is

r2 ¼ x2 þ y2 þ z2 ð1:17Þ

Even in the early years of the theoretical development of molecular velocity distribution it
was recognized that the number of molecules, dN, having velocities between W and Wþd W
Collision Fundamentals 7

FIGURE 1.4 Definition of velocity space. Vectors ending in the differential velocity space represent the
probability of distribution. It is conventional to write that dW ¼ dWxdWydWz.

is proportional to W. All points in the differential volume in the velocity space have the
same velocity, subject to the restriction in Equation 1.15. The number of particles in the
differential volume dxdydz will encompass all possible velocities and will be a fraction
of the total number of molecules N in the container. The differential volume in the velocity
space is therefore a subset of differential volume in the measurable space, which is a subset
of the set, the container.
The number of molecules having velocities satisfying the conditions of Equation 1.15
is given by
dn ¼ f ðWx , Wy , Wz Þd Wx d Wy d Wz ð1:18Þ

The function f is called the velocity distribution function. Within the container of the gas
it may have different values at different locations. It may also change with time. In the
general case where these variables influence the distribution function, Equation 1.18 may be
expressed as
dn ¼ f ðWx , Wy , Wz , x, y, z, tÞd Wx d Wy d Wz ð1:19Þ

This equation can be concisely expressed as

dn ¼ f ðW, r, tÞd W ð1:20Þ

In this format of the distribution function W is the velocity vector, r is the radius vector
within the container, and d W is the differential volume in the velocity space.
If the distribution function is independent of r and t, Equation 1.20 simplifies to
dn
¼ f ðWÞ ð1:21Þ
dW
If the distribution function is dependent on r, the distribution becomes inhomogeneous. The
physical conditions may be such that the non-homogeneity is removed or minimized due to
collisions over a period of time, leading to a homogeneous distribution. The dependence of
the distribution function on the velocity vector W may be of two kinds. If the distribution
depends on the magnitude of the velocity vector only, it is known as isotropic. If the
8 Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice

distribution depends on the magnitude and direction of the vector, then the distribution
becomes anisotropic.

1.3 MAXWELL’S DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

Although the assumptions made by Maxwell in the derivation of the velocity distribution
function are well known, we shall restate them for the purpose of establishing familiarity with
the fundamental concepts. The assumptions are:

1. A gas is composed of a large number of molecules, each of the same mass and size,
moving in all possible directions.
2. The distance between any two molecules is always greater than their diameter.
3. The interaction between molecules is only through collisions between them.
4. The collision between two molecules is elastic, similar to the collision of billiard
balls.

The distribution of velocities of molecules in a gas at a temperature T in equilibrium with

the temperature of the container is given by the Maxwellian distribution


4N  m 3=2 2 mW 2
fðWÞ ¼ pffiffiffi W exp
ð1:22Þ
 2kT 2kT

where m is the mass of the molecule, N the number of molecules, and k the Boltzmann
constant. The total number of molecules in the assembly may be obtained by integrating
Equation 1.22 over all possible velocities,
ð1
fðWÞdW ¼ N ð1:23Þ
0

which is the expected result.

By differentiating Equation 1.22 and equating it to zero the velocity at which the
distribution function attains a maximum value may be determined. This velocity, known
as the most probable velocity, is given by the expression


2kT 1=2
Wmax ¼ ð1:24Þ
m

The left-hand side of Equation 1.23, equal to the area under f (W), is known as the zeroth
moment of the distribution. The ratio f (W)/N, which lies between zero and one, is the
fraction that is usually calculated.
The first moment divided by N is defined by the expression
ð1
1=2
1 8kT
W fðWÞ dW ¼ ð1:25Þ
N 0 m

and gives the arithmetic mean speed, also known as the mean thermal velocity, hW i.
From the second moment the root mean square velocity, Wrms, may be calculated
according to

ð 1 
1=2
1 2 3kT
Wrms ¼ W f ðWÞdW ¼ ð1:26Þ
 0 m
Collision Fundamentals 9

Using simple algebra, we can rewrite this expression as

1 3
mW 2rms ¼ kT ð1:27Þ
2 2

The right-hand side of Equation 1.27 is known as the mean energy of the molecule.
Figure 1.5 shows the calculated Maxwellian velocity distribution at different tempe-
ratures. The distribution is narrower at lower temperatures, the peak of the distribution
gets smaller, and the distribution extends to higher energies as the temperature increases.
If the mean energy is non-Maxwellian, the zeroth moment, Equation 1.23, remains the same
but the velocities Wmax, hWi, and Wrms assume different values.4
It is important to bear in mind that the molecules in neutral gases and liquids have
velocities in random directions and the notation used for speed is commonly v. We have
preferred to retain W as the symbol for random velocity. Under the action of an electric
field E, positive ions move parallel and electrons anti-parallel to the direction of E, acquiring
a drift velocity. Mobility () is defined as

W ¼ E ð1:28Þ

It has the unit of V
1 m2s
1 and is related to the collision frequency  (s
1), considered
in greater detail in Section 1.5.8, by the expression

e
¼ ð1:29Þ
m

FIGURE 1.5 Velocity distribution of molecules in a gas at three different temperatures. As the
temperature increases, the most probable velocity decreases and the distribution spreads to larger
energies. The average velocity is the arithmetic mean and is also known as mean thermal speed.
10 Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice

In the literature on collision phenomena in gases the energy is the most frequently used
parameter. The kinetic energy of a moving particle is related to its velocity according to

1
" ¼ mW2 ð1:30Þ
2

If we make this substitution in Equation 1.22, the energy distribution in terms of " is
given by

2N "1=2  "
f ð"Þ ¼ pffiffiffi exp
ð1:31Þ
 ðkT Þ3=2 kT

A slightly different form of energy distribution is given in Equation 1.122. The most
probable energy is found by differentiating Equation 1.31 and equating the differential to
zero. The most probable energy is

1
h"i ¼ kT ð1:32Þ
2

The mean energy of the molecules is given by the first moment of Equation 1.31,
ð1
1
h"i ¼ "fð"Þd" ð1:33Þ
N 0

A direct substitution of Equation 1.31 into 1.33 gives

3
h"i ¼ kT ð1:34Þ
2

in agreement with Equation 1.27. Equations 1.27 and 1.34 are examples of the equipartition
energy principle which defines the way the energy is divided for each degree of freedom
when a large number of particles are enclosed in a container and, due to collisions, attain
a steady-state energy distribution. The average energy is proportional to the absolute
temperature and equal to kT/2 for each degree of freedom. In the situation under study
the molecule has three degrees of freedom, along the x, y, z directions, and the mean energy
is (3/2)kT.
The colliding particles may be in thermodynamic equilibrium or kinetic equilibrium.4
Thermodynamic equilibrium is described as the condition in which the colliding particles
are at the same temperature as the container and energy flow within the gas is negligible.
The gas acts as a black body, with energy inflow being equal to outflow. Thermodynamic
equilibrium is a necessary and sufficient condition for the application of the mathematical
techniques of classical thermodynamics to a gas. A gas in kinetic equilibrium can have
different species of particles at different temperatures. Each species has attained a steady
temperature and energy inflow to the gas is possible. The Maxwell distribution is applicable
to both classes of equilibria.

1.4 MEAN FREE PATH

The average distance traveled between collisions is known as the mean free path. From
elementary kinetic theory we know that the mean free path is 1/NQ, where N is the number
Collision Fundamentals 11

of molecules per m3 and Q is the effective collision cross section (m2). The free paths of
particles between individual collisions are not equal, some being shorter than others. Using
a simple probability calculation it is possible to derive the number of free paths which
deviate from the mean value, in other words, to derive a distribution of free paths.
Let us assume that N molecules are to be considered and let n be the number that travel
a distance x without collision. The number of molecules dn that undergo collision between
a short interval of distance dx is
dn ¼
pn dx ð1:35Þ

where p is a constant. The negative sign indicates that the number undergoing collision is
effectively removed from the ensemble. Integration of Equation 1.35 gives

n ¼ A expð
pxÞ ð1:36Þ

where A is the integration constant. At x ¼ 0, n ¼ N and hence A ¼ N. Equation 1.36 then

transforms to

n ¼ N expð
pxÞ ð1:37Þ

The constant p may be expressed in terms of the mean free path. Let dN be the number
of molecules having a free path between x and x þ dx. The mean free path  is then given by
ðN
x
¼ dN ð1:38Þ
0 N

Now

dN ¼ dn ¼ pn dx ¼ pN expð
pxÞ dx ð1:39Þ

Substituting Equation 1.39 into 1.38, one gets

ð1
pNx expð
pxÞ 1
¼ dx ¼ ð1:40Þ
0 N p

The distribution of free paths is given by substituting Equation 1.40 into 1.37,

x
n ¼ N exp ð1:41Þ


The number of particles having a free path greater than  decreases exponentially. The mean
free path is a useful parameter to calculate the energy gained by the electron in an electric
field, which is eE ( joules).

1.5 PARTICLE COLLISIONS

Collisions between particles are a means of exchanging energy till the volume of gas in the
container attains a steady mean energy. If the particles are atoms or molecules the collision is
visualized as that between hard billiard balls; the kinetic energy is conserved and the
trajectory of each particle will usually be different before and after collision. The internal
energy of each particle remains the same before and after collision. Such collisions are called
elastic collisions. However, a collision between a charge carrier and a neutral atom may also
12 Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice

result in a change of the internal energy of one or both particles and such collisions are called
inelastic collisions. The change of the internal energy occurs in the form of dissociation of
a molecule, excitation to various levels of the atom, ionization, recombination, etc. Two such
processes may occur sequentially with negligible time interval. An example is the dissociative
attachment during which an electron collides with a molecule, dissociation occurs, and the
electron attaches to one of the dissociation products.
Inelastic collisions are associated with loss of energy, the energy inflow being main-
tained from an external agency such as a power source or laser beam. Another type
of collision that occurs between excited atoms or molecules and electrons is known as
a superelastic collision. Successful theoretical analyses of discharges and plasmas depend
upon detailed knowledge of the internal energy exchange mechanisms and the onset energies
for each inelastic collision. In order to have a general framework into which such a wide
range of collision phenomena can be built, retaining the uniqueness of each process,
some fundamental parameters have been defined. We shall consider these in the following
sections.
Collisions between two charged species belong to the category known as Coulomb
interaction. Physical contact is not visualized as in the hard sphere model. The interaction
is mainly by the Coulomb force between two electrical charges, which varies as the inverse
square of the distance between the two charges. A charged particle can have Coulomb
interaction with a number of charged species simultaneously, in contrast with binary
collisions between atoms or between an electron and an atom. A collision between two
electrons or two ions also occurs through Coulombic interaction and is usually called
‘‘scattering.’’ Rutherford derived a simple formula for the scattering cross section between
two electrons.
Dissociative excitation and predissociative excitation also belong to the inelastic collision
category. In the former the electron dissociates the molecule and the excess energy goes
towards exciting the fragment atom. In predissociative excitation the electron excites the
molecule and the molecule returns to the ground state, dissociating into fragments.

1.5.1 ELASTIC COLLISIONS

Atoms have a strong electrostatic repulsion, due to valence electrons, that decreases
very sharply with increasing separation as a result of the inverse square law. However, this
short-range force gives place to weak long-range attraction that extends to larger (in
atomic dimensions) distances. This fact permits collision between atoms to be treated as
a collision between hard spheres. The elastic collision cross section in the hard sphere model
is defined in a simple way by reference to Figure 1.6. Two particles, each having a radius r,
collide with each other if their centers come within a distance of 2r. The cross section for
elastic collision, Qel, is defined as 4r2 (m2). Since the radius of a molecule is 10
10 m,
Qel is approximately equal to 10
19 m2.
In the older literature the collision cross sections are usually given in terms of a20
(sometimes a20 ), where a0 is the Bohr radius (a0 ¼ 5.292  10
11 m), or in terms of NQel, where
N is the number of molecules per m3 of the gas. The number N (m
3) at pressure p (Pa) and
temperature T(K) is given by the formula

7:244  1022 p
N¼ ð1:42Þ
T

At standard temperature and pressure (273 K, 101.325  103 Pa ) the number of molecules in
a gas is approximately 2.65  1025 m
3. The quantity NQ has the physical meaning of the
number of collisions and units of m
1.
Collision Fundamentals 13

FIGURE 1.6 Schematic diagram of collision between two particles each of radius r. The collision cross
section is 4r2. The particles are assumed to be hard spheres.

The collision cross section is an alternative way of quantifying the average number of
collisions per meter length of travel distance or, what amounts to the same thing, the mean
distance traveled between collisions. The latter quantity is known as the mean free path ()
and its relation to collision cross section may be established by considering a container
having two species of particles. The smaller particles have radius ra, and move with velocity
Wa and the larger particles, molecules having radius rb, are assumed to be stationary. The
collision cross section for each encounter is Q (Figure 1.6) and the volume swept by the
smaller particle in a time interval t along its zig-zag path is QWat. The number of collisions
in this interval is NQWat. All velocities are possible for the smaller particle, and as the
collision cross section is a function
  of velocity we have to substitute the mean velocity ðhWiÞ
and average cross section Q in place of Wa and Q respectively, to include all velocities.
The averaging is carried out according to
ð1
  1
QW ¼ QðW Þ W f ðW Þ dW ð1:43Þ
N
1

The mean free path is obtained by dividing the average distance traveled by the number of
collisions in the same time interval. Therefore

distance traveled in time t hWit 1

hi ¼ ¼   ¼ ð1:44Þ
number of collisions in time t N QW t NQ

 
The number of collisions per second () is obviously N QW and it follows that
 
 ¼ N QW ð1:45Þ

The mean free path is the reciprocal of the number of collisions per meter (P), which allows
the use of the relationship P ¼ NQ.
The distribution of free paths is calculated in a relatively simple way. Consider a thin slab
of electrons that has not suffered scattering, at a distance x from the origin. The slab moves
14 Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice

through a distance dx and, due to scattering, the number of particles in the layer decreases.
The decrease is given by

dn ¼
nðxÞNQ dx ð1:46Þ

The negative sign denotes the decrease in the number. Integrating Equation 1.46, the number
of particles at x is obtained as

nðxÞ ¼ n0 expð
NQxÞ ð1:47Þ

where n0 is the initial number of particles at x ¼ 0. Substituting Equation 1.44 into 1.47,
the distribution of free paths is given as


x
nðxÞ ¼ n0 exp
ð1:48Þ
hi

The exponential distribution shows that 36.8% of the initial number of particles arrive at
the distance of hi. The same result was obtained for atom–atom collisions in Equation 1.41.
Equation 1.44 assumes that the second particle is initially at rest, Wb ¼ 0. This is not
true in an electron–gas or in a gas 1–gas 2 ensemble because the particles possess thermal
velocity. Here the cross section for collision as defined in Figure 1.6 should be multiplied
by a factor
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Ma þ M b

¼ ð1:49Þ
Mb

The mean free path defined by Equation 1.44 now becomes

1
hi ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð1:50Þ
Ma
Nðra þ rb Þ2 1 þ
Mb

The reasoning may be extended to an assembly composed of several species such as electrons
(M1, r1, N1, 1), ions (M2, r2, N2, 2), atoms of gas 1 (M3, r3, N3, 3), etc. The mean free path
for particle 1 is

1
h1 i ¼ sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð1:51Þ
Pj¼n M1 þ Mj
2
 j¼1 Nj ðr1 þ rj Þ
Mj

For an atom in a monospecies gas, ra ¼ rb, Ma ¼ Mb, and Equation 1.50 gives

1
ha i ¼ pffiffiffi ð1:52Þ
4 2 r2a N

For an electron in a gas, Ma  Mb, ra  rb, Equation 1.50 gives

1
he i ¼ ð1:53Þ
r2b N
Collision Fundamentals 15

TABLE 1.3
Mean Free Paths of Common Gases at 15 C and 101 kPa
Gas H2 O2 N2 CO2 H2O

 (nm) 117.7 67.9 62.8 41.9 41.8

Mol. Wt. 2.016 32.00 28.02 44.00 18.00

From Roth, J. R., Industrial Plasma Engineering, Institute of Physics,

Bristol, 1995. With permission.

TABLE 1.4
Energy Gain during Successive Collisions in SF6 at Various Gas Number Densities
Pressure (bar) Voltage (kV) E (MV/m)  (10
6 m) " (eV)

1 265 6.36 3.953 25.14

2 340 8.16 1.976 16.12
3 405 9.72 1.317 12.81
4 470 11.28 0.988 11.15
5 530 12.72 0.790 10.05
6 580 13.92 0.659 9.17
7 625 15.00 0.565 8.47
8 650 15.60 0.494 7.71

The relation between voltage and electric field depends on the electrode geometry.
From Espel, P., et al., J. Appl. Phys.: Appl. Phys., 34, 593, 2001. With permission.

Expressing this equation in terms of the mean free path of the atom,
pffiffiffi
he i ¼ 4 2ha i ¼ 5:66ha i ð1:54Þ

The electron has a longer free path than that of the atom. Typical values of the mean free
path in several gases are shown in Table 1.3.
We shall now consider the energy gained by an electron as it moves through the gas under
the influence of an electric field. If we denote the mean free path of the electron by , the
energy gained between successive collisions, that is during the mean free path, is

1
" ¼ mW2 ¼ eE ðJÞ ð1:55Þ
2
Knowing the collision cross section (QM) and using Equation 1.44, one can calculate
the energy gained during a mean path. As the gas number density increases, the energy
gained will, of course, be smaller since the mean free path will be shorter. Espel et al.5
have calculated the energy gain as shown in Table 1.4 for SF6, assuming a constant collision
cross section of 10
20 m2.

1.5.2 ENERGY TRANSFER IN ELASTIC COLLISIONS

We consider an elastic collision between an electron having a mass m and a molecule having
a mass M that is considered to be initially at rest. The velocities of the electron before and
after impact are Wa and W0a . The velocity of the molecule after collision is W0b (Figure 1.7).
16 Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice

FIGURE 1.7 Elastic collision between an electron and a molecule. The electron is deflected by an angle

a. Wa is the initial velocity of the electron and the atom is initially at rest. The velocities of the two
particles after collision are W 0a and W 0b , respectively.

The electron is scattered through an angle
a and the molecule is deflected along the line
joining the centers.
The fractional energy loss during a collision is

WKE W2a
W 0a 2
E ¼ ¼ ð1:56Þ
WKE W2a

Conservation of energy and momentum yield the following equations:

2 2
Ma W2a ¼ Ma W 0a þ Mb W 0b ð1:57Þ

Ma Wa ¼ Ma W 0a cos
a þ Mb W 0b cos
b ð1:58Þ

Ma Wa sin
a ¼ Mb W 0b sin
b ð1:59Þ

Solving for W 0b , one obtains

2Ma Wa cos
b
W0b ¼ ð1:60Þ
Ma þ Mb

Substituting Equation 1.60 into 1.56, the fractional loss of energy is obtained as

WKE 4Ma Mb cos2
b

¼ ð1:61Þ
WKE ðMa þ Mb Þ2

To find the mean fractional energy loss per collision we should consider collisions at
all angles 0 
 /2. The probability of collision (P) taking place between
and
þ d
is
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 CHANT II
HISTOIRE DE RIRE

… Et des Noëls, on en chanta de toute sorte.

Tous partaient au refrain de leur voix la plus forte,
Et maître Antoine, gris, ne dormait pourtant pas,
Tant vive était la joie, après ce beau repas.

Puis, un voisin joua des scènes de la crèche,

Imitant tour à tour Marie à la voix fraîche,
Saint Joseph, son époux, à la ronflante voix,
Et les gestes de ces personnages de bois :

D’abord l’Ange descend, au bout d’une ficelle,

Sa trompette à la main, annonçant la Nouvelle :
« Bergers de ces coteaux ! » et les bergers surpris :
« Il parle francihot comme ceux de Paris !…
Parla-nous prouvençaoù ! » La scène continue ;
Puis, lorsque la Nouvelle est en tous lieux connue,
Chacun porte à Jésus ses plus riches présents,
Les pâtres, des agneaux ; les Mages reluisants,
(Dont un nègre !) offriront le coffret magnifique,
Et le pauvre flûteur, son âme et sa musique.
— « … A ce matin, — j’ai rencontré le train
De trois grands rois qui partaient en voyage ;
A ce matin, j’ai rencontré le train
De trois grands rois qui passaient par chemin ! »

« A vous, voisin Joseph ! » — « C’est qu’il pleut quand je chante !

Et puis… je ne sais rien ! » — « Le rieur ! il plaisante ! »
— « Je ne chante jamais. » — « Tu contes, c’est bien mieux. »
— « Je commencerai donc, mais… soyez sérieux ! »
On rebourra la pipe, on rapprocha la chaise,
Et pour mieux écouter chacun étant à l’aise,
Le farceur, gravement, sans sourire une fois,
Conta ce conte-ci, — qu’il inventait, je crois :

SAINT MICHEL

« Il s’agit des gens de Six-Fours…

(A Marseille on dit de Martigues ;)
… Jamais bernant, bernés toujours,
Gens sans malice et sans intrigues,
Et qui peuvent prendre en un jour,
Si l’on veut leur jouer le tour,
Les raisins muscats pour des figues,
Et la flûte pour le tambour !

Or un an que la sécheresse
Faisait des siennes alentour,
Et rôtissait tout comme au four,
Le curé dit après la messe :
« Faut prier, pour qu’il plaise à Dieu
De pleuvoir, — ne fût-ce qu’un peu.
C’est sûr que s’il veut, — il le peut ! »
Les Six-Fournains dressent l’oreille…
Sans comparaison d’animaux,
Ils dressent l’oreille à ces mots,
Car de sécheresse pareille
On n’avait pas vu de longtemps
Et Dieu veuille d’ici cent ans
N’en pas mander à nos enfants !
Les blés jaunes dès le printemps,
Les pampres rouges sur la treille,
Pas de suc aux fleurs pour l’abeille,
Pas aux grappes pour la bouteille,
Et la terre qui s’ensoleille
S’ennuyait de soif, nom d’un nom !
Et te bâillait de long en long
D’Antibes jusqu’en Avignon,
En passant par Digne et Marseille !

Les Six-Fournains, jugez un peu,

Sous le ciel toujours d’un gros bleu
Pechère ! n’avaient pas beau jeu,
Perchés sur leur colline en pointe
Qui craquait par le sec disjointe,
Et qui n’eût pas donné de l’eau
De quoi faire boire un oiseau
Ou mouiller le bec d’une cruche,
Quand ils l’eussent, les braves gens,
Avec des puits dans tous les sens
Percée à jour comme une ruche !…
Tant pis pour qui si haut se juche !

Au bout de trois jours révolus

De miséréré, d’orémus,
Et de tous les amens connus,
Quand ils eurent prié Jésus
Et tous les saints du saint royaume :
— « Que récolterions-nous ? du chaume !
Dit un vieux, s’il ne pleuvait plus ?
Eh donc, puisque saint Michel chôme,
Et nous accueille de refus,
Voici ce que moi je conclus :
Un brancard et le saint dessus
Et partons pour la Sainte-Baume ! »

Le curé leur prêta le saint,

Un magot assis, de bois peint,
Sculpté sans doute à coups de hache,
Jaune de barbe et de moustache,
Bleu de cheveux et d’habit vert,
Qui portait sur un fil de fer
Son auréole trop en l’air,
Et de côté… comme un panache !…
On prend le saint ; on vous l’attache
Sur deux pins abattus exprès ;
On fait quelques petits apprêts :
Les carniers ne restent point flasques,
Et l’on n’oublia pas les fiasques.
Quatre hommes prennent le brancard,
Sur l’épaule un bon bout de branche,
Campent une main sur la hanche,
Et — les voilà prêts au départ.

Ils étaient suivis de deux autres

Pour remplacer les fatigués,
Et voilà mes six bons apôtres
Qui moitié tristes, moitié gais,
Bénis par le curé qui chante,
Par leurs femmes pleurés d’un œil,
Emportent sur la route en pente
Saint Michel dans son bon fauteuil !

Là-haut, tout Six-Fours, l’âme en peine,

Suivit bien longtemps du regard
Les six Six-Fournains dans la plaine
Qui marchaient d’un pas de départ.
Ai-je dit : six ? Qu’on me reprenne !
Derrière les six — en retard,
Un gros bon mulet oreillard
Qui porte à ses flancs, le gaillard,
Manne double et d’avoine pleine,
Me gâte ma demi-douzaine !
Ce mulet suivait pour le cas
Où, grâce à sainte Magdeleine,
Il pleuvrait gros comme le bras :
En ce cas, pourquoi perdre haleine
A porter sur échine humaine
Un saint massif en bois de chêne !
C’est bon pour un saint qu’on emmène
De marcher à dos de chrétien ;
Mais quand il a, par faveur grande,
Accordé ce qu’on lui demande,
Au saint dont on n’attend plus rien,
Le dos d’un mulet suffit bien !

Ils allaient d’abord d’un pied leste ;

Mais au bout de quelques cent pas
Il leur fallut quitter la veste
Qu’ils se passèrent sur le bras.
Car le mulet… par saint Sidoine !
Nos Six-Fournains ne songeaient pas
Que ce gaillard, gras comme un moine,
N’était chargé rien que d’avoine,
Et c’est pourquoi, déjà bien las
Ils portaient, en geignant tout bas,
Chacun sa veste et son repas.
Et l’avoine, foi d’honnête homme,
Était pour la bête de somme,
Croyez-moi, oui, pour le mulet…
Pourquoi riez-vous, s’il vous plaît ?

En entrant aux gorges d’Ollioules,

Des enfants qui jouaient aux boules
Dirent : « Té, vé ! des Six-Fournains ! »
— « Et comment le savez-vous, drôles ? »
Le plus petit de ces gamins,
Faisant porte-voix de ses mains :
— « Quand on promène ainsi les saints,
Il faut être pareils d’épaules !
Les deux géants, les quatre nains
Et le mulet, — sont Six-Fournains ! »
Les six hommes se regardèrent,
D’un commun accord s’arrêtèrent
Et le saint, — ils le déposèrent
Sur le parapet du torrent,
Qu’un jardin d’orangers embaume !…
Le plus grand dit : — « La farce empaume !
Je suis de retour de la Baume !
C’est vrai, mon compère est trop grand. »
Mais le compère : — « Il voit ma paille,
Et sa poutre, il ne la voit point !
C’est toi le trop grand ! » — « Pas besoin
Dit un autre, qu’on se chamaille.
Mettez-vous près ; — bon ; — un peu loin.
Bon ! vous êtes égaux de taille ! »
Et tous les six, de désespoir,
Dirent des « sacrés !… » fallait voir !
Ce qui n’était pas leur devoir,
Surtout dans un pèlerinage
Qu’ils faisaient pour faire pleuvoir !
— « Il faut reprendre le voyage,
Dirent-ils enfin tous les six ;
Que les deux grands, par essayage,
Remplacent deux des trop petits…
(Heureux saint Michel, d’être assis !) »

Ils essayent… Le saint bascule !

Donc, à se faire remplacer
Les quatre durent renoncer.
Retourner était ridicule :
Six-Fours même eût ri de Six-Fours !
Que faire donc ? marcher toujours !
Et par un chaud de canicule
C’est pourquoi le soir le Bausset
Vit cette bande qui passait,
Huit Six-Fournains dont un mulet
Et le saint de bois… qui pesait !
Ils cheminèrent de la sorte
La nuit, sous le ciel chaud d’été,
Et pour voir le saint et l’escorte,
Dans les villages en gaîté
Chacun paraissait sur sa porte.
De bonne heure, le lendemain,
Ils passaient à Saint-Maximin.
A Nans, les vieilles paysannes
Leur firent offre de leurs ânes
Qui sont bâtés pour les Anglais,
En leur criant : « Regardez-les !
Ils sont du pays d’où vous êtes,
Et ce sont de très bonnes bêtes ! »
Le sentier qui monte fut dur.
S’ils suaient, je le crois ! de sûr !
Les deux premiers pliaient l’échine,
Les deux autres se faisaient grands,
Et tels (suivis des deux géants) !
Et du bon vieux mulet qui dîne,
Mâchant les chardons et l’épine,
Cahin-caha le saint chemine,
Et nos piétons dans la ravine
Font rouler les cailloux sonnants.

Ils montent ainsi la colline…

Té ! les voilà sur le plateau…
La Sainte-Baume, que c’est beau !
Le bois est vert, bien nourri d’eau,
Au Nord, sous la grotte et la source ;
Allez-y voir ; ça vaut la course.
Quel beau bois, mes amis de Dieu !
Des arbres viennent en ce lieu,
Qu’on voit en Russie, en Norwège,
Sous les ciels de pluie et de neige,
A Paris, aux pays du froid !
Enfin, c’est un sublime endroit.
Si fraîche en terre provençale,
Cette forêt n’a pas d’égale
Dans le pays de la cigale…
Juste au-dessus de la forêt,
Dans le roc, la grotte apparaît,
Noire comme une gueule ouverte
Qui veut manger la forêt verte !
Un cabanon est à côté
Par des capucins habité,
Comme un nid dans le roc planté.
Enfin le Saint-Pilon domine ;
C’est le mont au-dessus duquel
La Sainte, par grâce divine,
Aux bras des anges, en plein ciel,
Volait et planait comme en rêve,
Toute nue et blonde comme Ève.
Quand jusqu’à la cime on s’élève,…
On voit la mer ! — et sur la grève
La Ciotat, — Marseille, — Toulon,
Plaine, montagnes et vallon,
… La Provence… de long en long !

Les Six-Fournains, comme on peut croire,

Ne montèrent pas jusqu’en haut,
Mais, las et suant comme il faut,
Ne songeaient qu’à manger et boire.
Ils s’arrêtèrent dans le bois
Et s’assirent tous à la fois.
Les carniers s’ouvrent. On débouche
Les fiasques, — qu’on porte à la bouche ;
Le mulet broute, — et le saint… louche.

Ils commençaient ce bon repas

Quand tout à coup : — « Tu n’entends pas ?
Je crois qu’il pleut ! » — « Rien qu’une goutte !
Eh non, il ne pleut pas. » — « Écoute !
L’eau qui tombe à travers le pin !… »
— « Oï ! j’en ai reçu sur la main ! »
— « Moi sur le pied ! j’en suis certain ! »
— « Moi sur le nez ! sans aucun doute ! »
— « Miracle ! il pleut ! » Et les chemins
Déjà se changeaient en rivières,
Que nos six braves Six-Fournains
Disaient : « Je crois qu’il pleut, compères ! »
L’eau trempa leur vin et leurs pains…
Et nos gens, — exaucés trop vite ! —
Et que déjà le diable excite,
Mal contents d’être là sans gîte,
Regardent de travers le saint
Déjà sous l’eau presque déteint !
En quelques minutes, la troupe
Fut saucée… un poulpe… une soupe.

Ils ne songeaient pas au couvent

Où l’on ouvre à tout arrivant !
Ils n’avaient qu’une seule idée :
Six-Fournains partout et toujours,
C’était, pour fuir la grosse ondée,
D’aller s’abriter à Six-Fours !

Au moment de se mettre en route,

Voyant comme le saint dégoutte
Les quatre porteurs dirent : — « Non.
Le porte qui veut, nom d’un nom !
Nous voulions qu’il pleuve, sans doute,
Mais, grand saint, un peu de raison !
Après si longue sécheresse,
Tu pouvais nous laisser sans presse
Rentrer d’abord à la maison !…
Portez-le, vous deux, camarades ! »
Dirent-ils aux deux grands gaillards.
Ceux-ci font de mauvais regards :
— « Portez-le, vous ! » — Et des deux parts
On s’attaque d’abord d’œillades,
Puis de gros mots, puis de bourrades,
Et le mulet s’épouvantant
De l’eau, du tonnerre grondant,
De tout le fracas qu’il entend,
Comme un cabri fait des gambades,
S’affole et, donnant de la voix,
Tout en broûments et pétarades,
Vous flanque deux ou trois ruades
Dans le poitrail du saint de bois
Qui dans le ravin débouline
Et plus vite qu’il n’est monté
Descend du haut de la colline…
Cette fois, sans être porté !

Toute la bande alors s’approche

Au bord du ravin, sur la roche,
Et d’une voix pousse ce cri :
« Tu y es,… nigaud !… restes-y ! »
Et sous l’eau qui vous les transperce,
Le mulet les suivant toujours,
Ils s’en vont ! maudissant l’averse
Qu’ils venaient chercher de Six-Fours !

La pluie étant près de se taire :

… « C’est qu’il fallait ça pour la terre !
L’oiseau chante ; l’arbre est plus vert ;
Et puis le vin sera moins cher !
Nous avons fait pleuvoir, c’est clair,
A faire déborder la mer.
C’est la fin de la sécheresse ! »
Et nos gens, emplis d’allégresse,
Vous lançaient les chapeaux en l’air !

Six-Fours reparut dans la plaine

En pain de sucre à l’horizon.
Ça ne leur fit pas de la peine
De revoir chacun sa maison.
Mais l’un d’eux fit : — « Oï ! vois ces souches !
La poussière est encor dessus ! »
Et tous les six, — ouvrant des bouches ! —
Regardent, confus et déçus,
Autour d’eux, devant et derrière
Les pampres blancs, blancs de poussière !
Ils ouvrent les yeux et le bec :
Oh ! coquin de sort ! tout est sec !
Le lézard dort, la terre bâille,
La cigale partout criaille,
Et sur les clapiers, la pierraille
Et l’olivier, — midi dardaille !
Saint Michel vous fait de ces tours…
Il n’avait pas plu sur Six-Fours !

Et les bonnes gens sur leur porte

Criaient à nos six pèlerins
Quand ils rentrèrent : « Oh ! coquins !
Si la sécheresse est plus forte,
La faute est à vous, malandrins,
Forçats, gueux, marrias, gourrins,
Voleurs, démolisseurs de saints ! »

Enfin… (il faut que je le dise !)

Le saint fut par un charretier
… Dans une charrette à fumier !…
Rapporté devant son église.

Devinez ce qui se passa ?

Le curé dit : — « C’est pas tout ça !
Ayant pour le pèlerinage
Fourni mon saint en bon état,
Je le veux tel qu’on l’emporta,
Verni, peint-neuf, et cætera.
Ou bien on verra qui rira ! »

Et le saint resta là pour compte !

Il avait le nez fracassé,

Un de ses yeux d’émail cassé,
Et déteint, noir, dévernissé,
Il faisait peur et faisait honte !…
C’est ça qui pouvait fâcher Dieu,
De voir un saint sans feu ni lieu !

A la fin, le Conseil s’assemble.

Et, — discours du maire : « Il me semble
Que de le laisser là, — c’est mal ! »
Tout le conseil municipal
Eut même avis… en général !
Le maire reprit : « Où le mettre ?
Personne ne veut plus le voir !
Et s’il reste en plein air, peut-être
Que Dieu ne fera plus pleuvoir !
J’ai donc une idée, à savoir :
Comme il ne passe ici personne
De ces coquins qu’on emprisonne,
Six-Fours étant perché trop haut,
Voici mon idée… En un mot,
Notre prison est inutile,
(Ce n’est pas comme dans la ville !…)
Zou ! dites-moi si j’ai raison :
Fourrons le saint dans la prison !

Tout le conseil fut unanime.

Et, sans avoir commis un crime

Le saint fut en prison conduit
Sans procès, scandale ni bruit,
 Le jour même, — mais dans la nuit.

Il est en prison. Son œil brille

Derrière les barreaux de fer,
Et les enfants, garçon ou fille,
Ont peur de le voir, sous la grille,
Sans nez, — un singe ! une guenille !
Plus noir qu’un diable dans l’enfer ! »

Pendant tout ce récit, le conteur, l’air sévère,

Avait fumé sa pipe et regardé son verre
Car on est sérieux quand on a de l’esprit.
Mais quand il eut cessé, — le rire qui le prit,
Comme un coup de canon domina tous les autres.
— « Ah ! compère Joseph, quels contes sont les vôtres ! »
Et le rire nourri pétillait et grondait.
De nouveau sérieux, le conteur regardait
Autour de lui, ravi, fier de voir les figures,
Rouges, fermer les yeux et montrer les dentures ;
Et c’était un concert de rire, — air et refrains, —
Mistral et vents coulis, — flûtes et tambourins ; —
Et dans ce train-coquin qui semble une dispute,
Le rire de Miette est plus doux que la flûte.
« J’en mourrai ! » — « Je suis mort ! » — « Quel rire, braves
gens ! »
Déjà propos pareils, des plus encourageants,
Avaient aux bons endroits coupé le joyeux conte,
Et sans parler du rire en germe qu’on surmonte,
Les éclats qu’on faisait toujours plus longs, plus fous,
(En frappant les genoux des voisins à grands coups
Pour se communiquer le malin de la chose),
Présageaient au conteur, forcé de faire pause,
Le succès qui s’accrut, jusqu’à la fin montant !
— « De grâce, arrêtez-moi de rire pour l’instant ! »
Criait l’un. — « Ah ! mon Dieu ! Mion, j’ai mal aux côtes ! »
Et dans ce branle-bas François dit à ses hôtes :
— « C’est l’instant de lever le coude, mes amis !
Voyez-vous, — en tout temps le bon boire est permis,
Mais après la fatigue il devient nécessaire ! »
Et, le rire cessant, chacun leva son verre.

— « … C’est bon de rire un peu sur la fin d’un repas,

Reprit François, j’ai ri. — Mais ça n’empêche pas
Que, malgré votre histoire et vos plaisanteries,
J’irai, vienne l’été, voir les Saintes-Maries-
De-la-Mer, en Camargue ; oui, j’en ai fait le vœu.
Étant dans un péril j’ai promis devant Dieu,
Et si tu veux, Mion, petite Mariette,
Tu viendras avec moi, cet été, voir la fête
Des Saintes-de-la-Mer, — dont tu portes le nom. »
— « Si ma mère y consent, moi je ne dis pas non, »
Fit Mion, qui songea : « De ce pèlerinage
— Si le bon Dieu le veut — viendra mon mariage ! »

Et lorsque les amis se furent retirés,

Et que Miette en haut dormait à poings serrés,
François dit aux parents : « Écoutez, mon beau-frère,
Ma sœur ; j’ai mes projets ; il faut me laisser faire.
Nous irons en Camargue, — à bord d’un bon bateau ;
… Et le fils du patron, mon ami, riche, beau
Et jeune, épousera, s’il vous plaît, votre fille.
Il me faut un marin, jeune, dans ma famille,
Et riche. J’ai promis ma nièce à mes amis… »

— « Notre fille tiendra ce que l’oncle a promis ! »

TROISIÈME PARTIE

CHANT III
LA COTE

PRÉLUDE
LES VILLES
 LES VILLES

PRÉLUDE

Des vieilles villes de Provence,

Laquelle a le prix de beauté ?
Et d’abord Avignon s’avance
Avec le vieux pont si chanté.

Le palais des papes surmonte

Son front couronné de créneaux ;
En grondant, le Rhône qui monte
La lèche de ses grosses eaux.

Du levant, Saint-Tropez la Calme,

Auprès d’elle vient se ranger
Élevant dans ses mains la palme
L’algue marine et l’oranger.

Du fond des collines vient Digne

Qui, par son pierrailleux sentier,
Nous porte, enguirlandés de vigne,
Le chêne vert et l’amandier.

C’est elle qui fit de lumière

L’esprit net de ce Gassendi
Qui toucha l’esprit de Molière
Lumineux comme le Midi.

Puis, ceinte de lierre et d’épines,

Jonchant de pierres son chemin,
Marche Fréjus tout en ruines,
Tout en pleurs, la croix dans sa main.

Et, sur le Rhône, Arles se lève,

Portant ses Arènes au front,
Vieux arceaux où le passé rêve,
Où tant d’hirondelles naîtront.

Ses pas foulent les pierres creuses

De ses Aliscamps où le soir
Les garçons et les amoureuses
Devant la Mort parlent d’espoir !

Dans sa main la Vénus se dresse,

Qui, — marbre beau comme la chair ! —
Lui ressemble et naquit en Grèce,
Cheveux ondés comme la mer !

Puis vient la ville du silence,

Aix, — Versailles du Roi René, —
Tenant les Lois et la Balance…
Mirabeau fut son dernier-né.

Puis Toulon paraît, toute ceinte

De rochers gris et d’arsenaux,
Poussant des cris de femme enceinte,
Toujours en travail de vaisseaux…

Et, joûtant pour le prix entre elles,

Toutes se font un regard fier…
Mais, ô Provence, tes plus belles
Sont celles que baise la mer !

Et parmi toutes, c’est Marseille,

Fille des Grecs et des Gaulois,
La cité si jeune et si vieille,
Reine dédaigneuse des rois.
Mille bateaux, fumée et voiles,
Tiennent dans le creux de sa main ;
Son front de phares et d’étoiles
Fait sur la mer luire un chemin.

Et toutes, — quand elle s’avance

Jetant ses flottes sur les eaux, —
Soufflent l’âme de la Provence
Dans les ailes de ses vaisseaux !
 CHANT III
LA COTE

Les jours suivant les jours, l’an tourne, le temps passe

D’un pied toujours pareil, et pour tous, quoi qu’on fasse,
Pour l’heureux et le triste il fuit également,
Si bien qu’enfin pour tous la vie est un moment.

Depuis Noël, il a coulé de l’eau sous l’arche !

L’hiver pâle a poussé devant lui dans sa marche
Son troupeau mugissant de nuages venteux,
Les neiges sur les monts lointains, les ciels douteux
Où la lumière semble en lutte avec la pluie,
Et ces jours où la plaine est déserte et s’ennuie,
Car la terre est trop molle et le bon travailleur,
Oisif, passe son temps à l’espérer meilleur.
Il regarde du seuil le blé court qui frissonne ;
Les sarments dépouillés de pampres par l’automne,
Puis coupés et liés en javelle, à présent
Pétillent de gaîté dans le foyer luisant,
Fils des vignes, — bavards comme le vin, leur frère,
Qui brille et parle aussi du soleil dans le verre,
Cependant qu’au dehors les ceps noirs et noueux,
Forcés de renfermer leur vieille force en eux,
Tout nus sous le couchant glacial qui rougeoie,
S’endorment tristement, eux, pères de la joie.
L’olivier par bonheur, le laurier toujours vert,
Le pin, les font rêver d’un pays sans hiver.

Le jour suivant le jour, les cerises sont proches.

Miette, qui se fait les plus poignants reproches,
A rongé son souci, dévoré ses regrets.
Noré ne lui dit rien, même en lui passant près,
Et de nouveau l’on dit qu’il est tout à Norine.
Mion renferme en soi la peur qui la chagrine,
Le souvenir du mal que lui prédit Finon.
« Une chose pareille ! est-ce possible ? oh, non !
Trop bon est Dieu pour qu’un si gros malheur m’arrive ! »
Et d’y songer, la pauvre est plus morte que vive !
Mais d’y croire ? jamais ! — c’est encore une enfant
Que rien, — pas même un peu de vice, — ne défend,
Et quand elle s’écoute en sa chair, la pauvre âme,
La fille à l’abandon, honteuse d’être femme,
Dit parfois : « Mon malheur me parle, en moi vivant ! »
Puis : « Non, — je rêve. On croit aux choses, en rêvant ! »
… Contre le mal lui-même il faut de la malice.

Pendant ce temps, le fier Noré suit son caprice.

Eh, pardi ! quand on a le beau mal des vingt ans,
Qu’on se donne plusieurs amours dans un printemps,
Et qu’on s’est fait voleur de filles sur les routes,
Comment faire, — voyons, — pour les épouser toutes !

Pourtant si le malheur… impossible !… était vrai,…

Mais il n’est pas vrai ! — non, — mais enfin, — que ferait
Miette ?… A cette idée, elle se sent en elle
Comme un coup de colère, une force nouvelle,
Une indignation dont tout le sang lui bout !…
Sans doute qu’elle irait alors, poussée à bout,
Lui parler comme il faut, à ce gueux, tête à tête !
… « Mais non, il a le droit d’oublier !… je suis bête ! »

… Mars fuit, avril s’en va ; le joli mois de mai

Avec les rossignols revient, tout parfumé.
Et voici juste un an qu’au bord de la rivière
L’aubépine au courant donnait sa fleur première
Et que Mion la vit, présage de malheur,
Noyée au fil de l’eau, la blanche et triste fleur !

— « … Tôt ! dit l’oncle un matin ; tôt, ma fille ! es-tu prête ?

Le vent souffle bon frais ; la Camargue est en fête ;
Le bateau du collègue attend. — On part demain ! »

Elle songe : « Dieu va sur moi tendre sa main ;

Dieu lui-même, de sûr, m’ordonne ce voyage.
Les saintes m’aideront, voudront mon mariage…
Oui, par vous, le malheur que m’a prédit Finon,
O saintes ! ne sera qu’un rêve du démon ! »
Ils sont sur le beau brick le Suffren, capitaine
Fournier, un vieux marin de vieillesse incertaine
Que depuis soixante ans la mer a ballotté
Du royaume du Phoque à l’empire du Thé,
Toujours content, qu’il ait ou non le vent en poupe.
Son fils Toussaint, — depuis qu’il mange seul la soupe,
L’a suivi sur son bord, beau petit de vingt ans
Que tourmente beaucoup son âge de printemps
Et qui, voyant Miette, a songé dans lui-même,
Sur-le-champ : « Je la veux pour ma femme, je l’aime !…
Mais nous aurions dû faire un voyage plus long ! »

Bon vent frais. Le Suffren est parti de Toulon.

Il vient d’y débarquer des blés, — une fortune, —
Devant le vieux balcon de la maison commune,
Que soutiennent les deux portefaix du Puget
Vers lesquels ce matin son beaupré s’allongeait.
Il eut bien quelque mal à sortir de la rade,
Mais maintenant il va comme à la promenade ;
L’oncle François, content, le fait voir à son air,
Et vif comme un marsouin, il respire la mer.
Mion n’a point de peur. — François dit : — « C’est ma nièce !
Bon sang ne peut mentir… c’est une fine pièce :
Ça ne craint pas la mer ! D’ailleurs pas de danger !
Que le bateau chavire, — on la verra nager ! »
Sous son voile argenté de brume soleilleuse,
Luit dans le clair matin la côte merveilleuse,
Depuis les îles d’Or, la presqu’île de Gien,
Faron gris sur Toulon, Six-Fours — qui se voit bien ! —
Et Bandol, — jusqu’au Bec de l’Aigle qui se penche
Vers la Ciotat, au bord du flot bleu toute blanche.
Ici la vague bat des falaises de roc
Qui droites, peu à peu se creusent par le choc ;
Elle brode plus loin la courbe de la plage,
Et, dans les golfes pleins de bateaux au mouillage
Elle s’en va lécher sur les roches du bord
Les pins dont la racine au plein soleil se tord ;
Et sur les penchants doux comme sur la falaise
La vigne s’étageant mûrit partout à l’aise,
Offrant au vent d’Afrique, exposant au Midi
Sous le pampre en festons son beau fruit attiédi.
Au flanc roux des coteaux taillés en étagères
La verdure suspend ses dentelles légères,
Figuiers et câpriers, palmiers de loin en loin,
Et l’oranger blotti dans le plus chaud recoin.

Là-bas, sur l’Océan, par l’assaut des marées

Croulent en blocs noircis les côtes déchirées,
Et le flot règne seul sur le rivage amer…
Ici c’est un jardin qui descend à la mer.

Elle est là, sur la mer, pas ailleurs, la Provence !

Le Flot bleu court vers elle, elle vers lui s’avance.
Rois tous deux, l’un vers l’autre ils viennent en chantant,
Lui sous le bleu manteau de lumière éclatant,
Les vaisseaux dans ses mains et couronné d’écume,
Elle avec son bouquet dont tout l’air se parfume.
Même dans la colère il la caresse encor,
Et n’ose rien ôter à sa parure d’or ;
Elle, venant à lui sans changer de visage,
Garde jusqu’en ses bras la fleur de son corsage !
Mais c’est sa fiancée. Ils s’aiment. Leurs amours
Font ce bruit de baisers que l’on entend toujours !

Au vent d’Est nuageux la mer se faisait grise.

Toutes voiles dehors le brick suivait la brise,
Et sur le pont nos gens, — assis, debout, fumant, —
Regardaient le rivage et causaient doucement.
Le patron admirait son brick filant grand largue,
Miette se voyait arrivée en Camargue,
Toussaint, la dévorant des yeux, brûlé d’amour,
Cherchait l’occasion de lui faire sa cour,
Et François, bénissant leur mariage en rêve,
Bâtissait leur maison — sur un point de la grève
Qu’il savait — à son goût, au fond d’un petit port,
Où chassant et pêchant il attendrait la mort.

— « … Est-ce que, dit Mion, la mer sera méchante ? »

— « Non… mais de se fier aux chansons qu’elle chante,
On aurait tort, — surtout s’il nous vient du mistral !
Quand il souffle dans son porte-voix, on est mal.
Tenez, j’ai traversé, par ce vent du tonnerre,
Le golfe du Lion fréquentes fois… Misère !
Là, si la mer montait égale avec le vent,
Nos vaisseaux les plus gros y resteraient souvent !…
Mais elle n’y vient pas de très loin ; de Port-Vendre,
Par là ; c’est ce qui fait que l’on peut se défendre ! »
— « Toi, dit François, tu n’as rien vu de si mauvais
Que les glaces là-bas au pôle, non jamais !
Sur la Zélée, avec d’Urville, étant novice,
J’ai commencé par là quarante ans de service…
Ce que c’est que la vie et par où nous passons !
Figurez-vous qu’on marche entre de hauts glaçons…
Tenez, imaginez les gorges d’Ollioules
En glace ! sans genêts pardi ! ni farigoules !
Mais avec des ours blancs pour lapins !… Un malheur !
J’en ai vu des pays… Té, voilà le meilleur !… »
Et François étendait la main vers le rivage.
Le brick passait devant Bandol, le beau village
Qui chante, — martelant, dès l’heure du réveil,
Ses tonneaux, et bêchant l’immortelle au soleil.

Fournier dit : « Ce Dumont d’Urville ? on le renomme ;

La mort l’a pris trop tôt ; c’était un bien bon homme…
Était-il de Marseille ou de Toulon ? » — « Du Nord,
Je crois,… mais, dit François, pour être brave et fort
Penses-tu qu’avant tout il faut être des nôtres ?
Tiens, — en mer, les Bretons passent avant nous autres ;
Suffren peut saluer Jean Bart ! » — Et sur ce mot,
François toucha son vieux bonnet de matelot.
— « Allons ! cria Fournier, voilà que le vent vire !
Et nous allons l’avoir sur le nez du navire ! »
Puis au bout d’un moment : « Pour sûr, c’est du mistral
Qui se prépare. On va danser. — Souffle, brutal ! »

« L’Océan, reprit-il, est un mâle : on l’appelle

Océan ; mais chez nous la mer est bien femelle,
La gueuse ! Et j’aime mieux l’autre avec son grand dos,
Sa longue-grosse lame et ses montagnes d’eaux,
Que celle-ci, la chatte, avec ses pattes douces,
Sa lame courte et vive et ses brusques secousses !…
Tenez, sentez-vous pas qu’il semble, coups sur coups, —
Flouc ! flouc ! plaf ! — que la mer manque toute sous nous ? »

Il fallut relâcher le soir même à Marseille,

Le vent l’ayant voulu… Toujours jeune et si vieille,
La ville apparaissait, dans le calme du soir,
Magnifique, et Miette, heureuse de la voir,
Battait des mains disant : « Que c’est beau ! qu’elle est riche ! »
Les rochers, les villas dentelaient sa corniche ;
Tous les vitraux lançaient des éclairs d’or vivant ;
Et les platanes verts, touffus, chantant au vent,
Venaient jusqu’à la mer en larges avenues ;
La jetée écumait, et dans l’éclat des nues,
Sur son haut mamelon, la Notre-Dame d’or
Reluisait, protégeant les mâts pressés du port.

— « … Si vous saviez comment Marseille fut bâtie ? »

Dit Toussaint, — et Mion, leste à la repartie :
« Elle n’a pas poussé, je parie, en un jour ! »
Il répondit : « Marseille est l’enfant de l’amour ! »
Et se tut : il était gêné près de la fille.
Mais étant attablés, le soir, comme en famille,
Il lui vint en l’esprit de faire son savant,
Et prenant un bouquin qu’il feuilletait souvent,
Le seul livre du bord, — dépareillé, — de lire
A haute voix, voulant que Miette l’admire.
— « Bien pensé, se disait François, c’est un mâtin !…
Mais au moins, cria-t-il, ça n’est pas en latin ? »
— « Non, en français. » — « Tant mieux ! » Mion prit la parole :
— « Moi, — le français, je l’aime ; on l’apprend à l’école.
Dans les Crèches et dans nos Chansons en patois
C’est le parler de Dieu, des Anges et des Rois… »
C’était après souper, sur le pont, sous les voiles
Qui séchaient dans le ciel sans brise et plein d’étoiles.
Devant eux mille mâts pressés semblaient un bois…
Toussaint, près du fanal, lisait, — soignant sa voix :
— « Environ six cents ans avant l’ère chrétienne,
Des Phocéens, quittant la mer Ionienne,
Arrivèrent d’abord près du Tibre romain,
Puis, poursuivant le long des côtes leur chemin,
Parvinrent jusqu’au Rhône, et là, pleins d’allégresse,
Trouvant ce beau pays aussi beau que la Grèce,
Demandèrent au roi Nannus, chef redouté,
Le droit d’établir là leur tente, et leur cité.

« Justement Nannus, roi des Ségobriges, père

De Gyptis, glorieux de son peuple prospère,
Par la guerre affermi, dans la paix triomphant,
Célébrait le repas de noces de l’enfant.
Et durant ce repas, — telle était la coutume, —
C’est Gyptis qui devait, blonde en son blanc costume,
Parmi les conviés choisir selon son cœur,
En offrant, toute pleine, une coupe au vainqueur.

« Le chef des Phocéens, Protis, prit place à table

Parmi les fiers guerriers du prince redoutable,
Tous Gaulois bien armés, farouches, presque nus,
De qui les arts n’étaient pas encore connus.

« Au milieu du repas, la jeune souveraine,

Gyptis, entra, — tenant en main la coupe pleine.
Ses yeux clairs rappelaient l’eau de la coupe d’or ;
La coupe reluisait, ses cheveux plus encor ;
Et Gyptis regarda lentement l’assemblée,
Vit l’inconnu Protis, — et, doucement troublée,
Blanche, marcha vers lui, qui ne savait pourquoi,
Et dit : « Je vous choisis pour époux. Buvez, roi ! »

« Elle c’était la Gaule, et lui c’était la Grèce.

Ils n’eurent qu’à se voir pour sentir leur tendresse
Et de ces noces d’or naquit, en souriant,
Massilia, la sœur des reines d’Orient. »

« … O Miette ! avez-vous bien compris mon histoire ? »

— « Il va te demander de lui servir à boire ! »

Dit François, — qui lui mit le fiasque dans la main !

Mais elle : — « Excusez-moi ; je suis lasse. A demain. »

Toussaint resta confus… — « Voyez-vous la petite !
Dit François ; mais aussi nous allons un peu vite. »

— « C’est juste, dit Toussaint ; plus tard je parlerai… »

Lorsque parlait Toussaint, Mion songeait : Noré !

TROISIÈME PARTIE

CHANT IV
LA CAMARGUE

PRÉLUDE
LE RHONE
 LE RHONE

PRÉLUDE

Là-haut, près la noble Genève,

Au pied des monts — il est d’azur,
Mais chez nous, où son cours s’achève,
C’est un fleuve de limon pur !

Le cheval à crinière jaune,

Nez écumeux, front de taureau,
C’est le Rhône indompté, le Rhône,
Couleur d’or et de bon terreau !

Il bondit, galope et dévale ;

Et de lui voir les reins si forts,
— Nez au vent, hennit la cavale
Qui venait boire sur ses bords !

Les ardents troupeaux qu’il abreuve,

Les taureaux noirs, les chevaux blancs,
— De humer l’air qui vient du fleuve,
Sentent l’amour gonfler leurs flancs.

Le Mistral fou qui le chevauche

Est son égal, non son vainqueur !
Et la Provence est sur sa gauche :
La gauche est le côté du cœur !

La Durance, — qui n’est pas morte ! —

Veut ce vieux mâle pour époux…
Elle l’atteint ; — et lui l’emporte !
Ils mêlent leurs lits de cailloux.

Ses fureurs avec l’amoureuse

Ont laissé ce désert brûlant,
Lit de noces, la Crau pierreuse,
Faite des cailloux du mont Blanc !

Ah ! qu’il est brave, le beau fleuve !

Vieux chemin qui court à la mer
En lutte avec la force neuve
Des locomotives de fer !

Plus d’une barque y court grand largue

Portant blés et vins qu’il a faits,
Et c’est lui qui fit la Camargue,
Et, du coup, les bœufs camarguais !

Il a fait Lyon et Valence,

Arles, voisine d’Avignon,
Et lorsqu’à la mer il se lance,
Il lui fait peur, le compagnon !

… Le cheval à crinière jaune,

Nez écumeux, front de taureau,
C’est le Rhône indompté, le Rhône,
Couleur d’or et de bon terreau !
 CHANT IV
LA CAMARGUE

Avant l’amour, le cœur du jeune homme est pareil

A la terre qui rêve espérant le soleil.
Le ciel d’aube est tout pâle ; à peine un buisson bouge,
Puis, au-dessus des monts, le ciel se raie en rouge…
Et la terre frissonne… Ainsi, dans les vingt ans,
Les hommes au sang jeune, aux cœurs chauds, bien battants,
Sentent déjà l’amour sans connaître l’amante.
Un frisson les agite ; un rêve les tourmente.
Puis tout à coup la fille apparaît ; il fait jour !
Et l’être tressaillant s’éveille en plein amour.

Toussaint se disait donc : « L’amour m’a saisi l’âme

Comme un coup de soleil ! Oh, — je l’aurai pour femme ! »

Mais la vie est un jeu du sort, où les baisers

Et les désirs du cœur volent entrecroisés,
Souvent perdus pour ceux à qui tu les envoies.
L’échange est difficile, et rares sont nos joies.

Miette, à son réveil sur le brick matinal,

Revit Marseille, ouvrant au port comme un canal
Sa riche Cannebière, où les tentes de toiles
S’enflaient aux brises, — sœurs sédentaires des voiles.
… On dirait que si près de la mer vaste, à voir
La toile sur les mâts vibrants s’enfler d’espoir,
Elles veulent, rêvant Stamboul et l’Amérique,
Tous les miroitements d’un sillage féerique,
La vie aventureuse et l’inconnu lointain,
Entraîner lentement, sur les flots, un matin,