Fundamental Types of Internal

Forces
Dr. Lonny L. Thompson

December 2, 2024

Five Fundamental Types of Structural Deformation

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Fundamental Types of Internal Forces
1. Tension
2. Compression
3. Shear
4. Bending
5. Torsion

Deformation Behavior in Structural Members

Structural members can experience a variety of forces,
each leading to different deformation behaviors.

Here’s an overview of the deformation behavior caused

by each of the five main types of forces: tension, com-
pression, shear, bending, and torsion.

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1. Tension (Axial Tensile Force)
Tension forces pull or stretch a structural member along
its longitudinal axis, causing it to elongate.
Example: In a steel rod subjected to a pulling force, the
rod lengthens, and its cross-sectional area may slightly
reduce due to Poisson’s effect.

Stretching due to Tension. Contraction due to Compression.

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2. Compression (Axial Compressive Force)
Compression forces push or shorten a structural member
along its longitudinal axis. If the force exceeds a certain
threshold (critical load), it can lead to buckling, especially
when the member is long and slender, where the mem-
ber suddenly bends laterally. Buckling is highly depen-
dent on the member’s length, cross-sectional shape, and
boundary conditions.
Example: In a column under a vertical load, the column
shortens, and it may bend sideways if the compressive
load reaches the critical buckling point.

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Stretching due to Tension. Contraction due to Compression.

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3. Shear Force
Shear forces act parallel to a member’s cross-section, at-
tempting to slide one part of the member relative to an-
other. In shear deformation, the material distorts such
that angles within a material element change.
Example: In a bolt subjected to a transverse load, the
bolt experiences shear deformation, where one part of
the bolt’s cross-section moves relative to another.

Change in angle due to shear.

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4. Bending (Flexural Force)

Metal saw blade subjected to bending, elastic deformation.

Bending moments cause a member to bend or curve,

typically due to loads applied perpendicular to the lon-
gitudinal axis. The internal bending moment causes a
change in curvature, and the top fibers are in compres-
sion, while the bottom fibers are in tension (or vice versa).
The point where the transition from compression to ten-
sion occurs is called the neutral axis.
Example: In a simply-supported beam subjected to a
downward load, the beam bends, forming a concave shape
with tension at the bottom and compression at the top.

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5. Torsion (Twisting Force)
Torsion (a moment along the axis) involves oppositely
directed forces separated by a perpendicular distance
that causes a member to twist about its longitudinal axis.
The member experiences a twisting deformation, where
cross-sections rotate relative to one another along the
length of the member. In torsion, the deformation in-
volves shear stresses distributed across the cross-section.
Circular cross-sections, like shafts, resist torsion more ef-
fectively than non-circular ones. Thin-walled non-circular
shafts and open shafts can also experience significant
warping in addition to twisting
Example: In a drive shaft transmitting torque from an en-
gine, the shaft twists along its length, with the amount of
twist proportional to the applied torque and the shaft’s
torsional rigidity.

Twisting due to Torsion Moment along Axis.

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Summary of Deformation Behaviors

Deformation Description

Tension Elongation along the axial force

direction.
Compression Shortening along the force direction,
potential buckling.
Shear Sliding deformation with distortion.
Bending Curvature with tensile and compressive
stresses across the member’s depth.
Torsion Twisting deformation with rotation of
cross-sections along the member’s
length.

Table 1: Summary of Deformation Types.

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 Normal Force

Shear Force

Bending Moment

Positive Sign Conventions

• These five internal forces are fundamental in analyzing

and designing structural members, as they describe the
primary ways in which loads are transmitted through
structures.
• Understanding these deformation behaviors helps en-
gineers design members that can effectively resist spe-
cific forces and maintain structural integrity under vari-
ous loading conditions.

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Stress Resultants:
Definitions of Internal Forces
The internal forces in a structural member can be de-
fined as stress resultants, which are derived by integrat-
ing normal and shear stresses over the area of a cross-
section. The following are definitions for each of the in-
ternal forces, tension, compression, shear, bending, and
torsion, expressed in terms of stress resultants.

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1. Tension and Compression (Axial Force)
• Tension and compression are axial forces represented
as the resultant of the normal stress σ acting over the
cross-sectional area A.
• These forces are calculated by integrating the normal
stress over the entire area of the cross-section:
Z
N= A σ dA

• When the stress is assumed uniform across the area, the

integration simplifies so the axial force is the product of
the normal stress and cross-section area:

N = σA

• For tension, σ is positive, and the axial force N pulls

the material apart.
• For compression, σ is negative, and the axial force N
pushes the material together.

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Normal stress Resultant N = σ A.
[Image: @jstolfi / Wikimedia Commons / c https://creativecom-
mons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/CC-BY-SA-3.0 ]

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2. Shear Force
Shear force is the resultant of the shear stress τ distributed
across a cross-sectional area A calculated by integrating
the shear stress over the cross-sectional area:
Z
V = Aτ dA

Shear forces act parallel to the cross-section, causing a

sliding deformation.

Average Shear Stress Resultant V = τ A.

[Image: @Sanpas / Wikimedia Commons / c https://creativecom-
mons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/CC-BY-SA-3.0 ]

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3. Bending Moment

Bending moments about perpendicular axes and resulting nor-

mal stress. [Clipped from Image: @Cdang / Wikimedia Commons /
c https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/CC-BY-SA-3.0 ]

• Two-axis bending is a combination of bending load about

two perpendicular axes, resulting in a fundamental bend-
ing load about an oriented axis.

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• The bending moment M is the resultant of the normal
stress σ caused by bending forces. The bending mo-
ment is calculated by integrating the normal stress mul-
tiplied by the perpendicular distance y or z from the
neutral axis over the area of the cross-section:
Z Z
Mz = − A σ y dA, My = − Aσz dA

• The minus sign is needed to retain the right-hand rule.

• In bending, the normal stress varies linearly across the
depth of the cross-section, with one side experiencing
tension and the other compression.

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4. Torsional Moment (Torque)
• The torsional moment T is the resultant of the shear
stress τ distributed around the cross-section and is cal-
culated by integrating the shear stress multiplied by the
perpendicular distance r (radial distance from the cen-
ter) over the area of the cross-section:
Z
T = A τ r dA

• Torsion creates a rotational effect, where cross-sections

rotate relative to each other along the length of the
member.

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Summary of Stress Resultants:

Description Expression

Axial Force N= A σ dA
R

Shear Force V = Aτ dA
R

Bending Moment Mz = − A σ y dA,

R

My = − Aσz dA
R

Torsional Moment T = Aτ r dA
R

Table 2: Summary of Stress Resultants.

These integrals represent how the distributed stresses

across a cross-sectional area result in internal forces (stress
resultants) that characterize the behavior of the structural
member under various loading conditions.

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Important Formulas for Stress and Deforma-
tion in Structural Members
Below are important formulas for stress and deformation
associated with the five primary internal forces on struc-
tural members.

1. Tension and Compression (Axial Forces)

• Axial Stress:
P
σ=
A
σ : normal stress.
P : axial force (tensile or compressive).
A : cross-sectional area.
• Axial Deformation:
Z σ Z PZ PL
δ = L ε dx = L dx = L dx =
E AE AE
P : Internal axial force .
δ : elongation or shortening of the member.
L : original length of the member.
E : modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) of the ma-
terial.

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2. Shear
• Shear Stress:
V
τavg =
A
τavg : average shear stress.
V : internal shear force.
A : cross-sectional area
where the shear force is acting.
• Shear Deformation (Angle of Deformation):
τ
γ=
G
γ : shear strain (angle of deformation in radians).
G : shear modulus (modulus of rigidity).

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Relationships for Isotropic Materials
• The relationship between
shear modulus (modulus of rigidity), G
Young’s modulus, G and
laterial strain
Poisson’s ratio, ν = − longitudinal strain

is
1 E 
 

G=  
2 1+ν
• Typically, for metals:

ν ≈ 1/3
8
E = G ≈ 2.667 G
3

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3. Bending (Flexure)
• Normal Stress due to Bending:
My
σ=−
I
σ : normal stress at a distance y
from the neutral axis.
M : internal bending moment.
y : distance from the neutral axis to the point where
the stress is being calculated.
I : moment of inertia of the cross-section about the
neutral axis.
The minus sign is needed to account for the right-
hand rule.
• The term ”bending stress” is often used (inaccurately).
We should say normal stresses (a combination of ten-
sion and compression over the surface area) due to
bending, not ”bending stress.”
• There are only two types of stress in classic theory: nor-
mal and shear. Stress is modeled as a tensor, which is
a generalization of a vector (although most undergrad-
uate books do not mention this (they really should).

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Assumptions based on elementary Bernoulli-
Euler Beam Theory
The standard bending stress and deflection formulas are
based on the assumptions of the classical Bernoulli-Euler
beam theory.

1. Homogeneous and Isotropic Material: The beam ma-

terial is uniform in composition (homogeneous) and
has the same mechanical properties in all directions
(isotropic).
2. Linear Elasticity: The material obeys Hooke’s law, mean-
ing the relationship between stress and strain is linear
within the elastic limit.
3. Small Deformations: The beam deformations are small
compared to its dimensions, allowing the use of linear
approximations for geometry and kinematics.

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4. Plane Sections Remain Plane: Cross-sections of the
beam that are plane before bending remain plane af-
ter bending. This implies no warping or distortion of
the cross-section occurs.

• Elementary (Euler-Bernoulli) linear-elastic beam the-

ory behavior is based on plane cross-sections per-
pendicular to the longitudinal centroidal axis of the
beam before bending occurs. It remains plane af-
ter rotation due to bending and perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis after bending occurs.
• This assumption means that the cross-section rota-
tion under bending is equated to the tangent slope
of the deflection curve, the first derivative of v(x).
This occurs in practice only when a pure couple or
constant moment exists in the beam. However, it is
a reasonable assumption that yields equations that
quite accurately predict beam behavior for most prac-
tical beams.

5. No Shear Deformation: The theory neglects trans-

verse shear deformation, which is generally a good
approximation for slender beams where the span-to-
depth ratio is high (L/h  1).

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6. Neutral Axis Does Not Stretch: The neutral axis of
the beam, defined as the line within the cross-section
where there is no normal strain, does not undergo any
elongation or contraction.
7. Moment-Curvature Relationship: The bending mo-
ment M is directly proportional to the curvature κ:

M = EIκ,

where E is the modulus of elasticity and I is the mo-

ment of inertia.
• The curvature of the beam κ for small slopes of the
deflection (elastic) curve under the bending moment
is approximated by the second derivative of the de-
flection curve v(x). Bending moments depend on
curvature proportional through the bending rigidity
EI.

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 8. Static Loading: Quasi-static load conditions, mean-
ing mass inertial and dynamic effects, are not included.
9. Constant Cross-Section: The beam’s cross-section re-
mains constant along its length.
10. No Residual Stresses: The material is free of residual
stresses from manufacturing or prior loading.
11. Boundary Conditions are Idealized: Supports and
constraints are modeled as idealized (e.g., perfect pin,
roller, or fixed support).

Implications of These Assumptions

• These assumptions simplify the mathematical model-
ing of beams, making the theory applicable to many
structural engineering problems.
• For thick or deep beams (low L/h), transverse shear de-
formation can be significant, requiring the use of Tim-
oshenko beam theory.
• Large deformations or nonlinear material behavior re-
quire advanced theories beyond classical Bernoulli-Euler.

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• Bending Deformation:
Example 1:
Deflection of a Simple Supported Beam with Uniform
Distributed Load q:

5 qL4 L3
vmax = ≈ 0.013 (q · L)
384 EI EI
vmax : maximum deflection at the midpoint L/2 of
the beam.
q : uniform load per unit length.
L : span length.
E : modulus of elasticity.
I : moment of inertia.

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 Example 2:
Deflection of a Fixed Cantilever with End Load P :

Using the principle of Virtual Work

External Virtual Work = Internal Virtual Work:
M · δM Z
vmax · δP = L dx
EI
for all δP , and δM due to δP , satisfying equilibrium.
vmax : maximum deflection at the end of the beam.
P : end load.
M : internal bending moment.
δP : virtual force.
δM : virtual moment due to virtual force
L : span length.
E : modulus of elasticity.
I : moment of inertia.

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 From the Free-Body-Diagram (FBD) of a cut-section,
the internal Bending Moment at position x:

M =Px

Choose δP = 1, then δM = δP · x = x,
2
(P x) · x
Z Z Px P L3
vmax = L dx = L dx = ·
EI EI 3 EI

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Maximum Deflection of Beams Under Com-
mon Loads and Support Conditions
The deflections are derived assuming linear elastic be-
havior and small deformations.

L: Span length of the beam.

E: Modulus of elasticity.
I: Moment of inertia of the cross-section.
q: Uniformly distributed load (load per unit length).
P : Point load.
vmax: Maximum transverse deflection of the beam.

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Support Load Condition Maximum Deflection
Condition vmax
5qL4
Simply Uniformly distributed vmax = 384EI at x = L/2
Supported load q
P L3
Simply Point load P at midspan vmax = 48EI at x = L/2
Supported
qL4
Cantilever Uniformly distributed vmax = 8EI at x = L
load q
P L3
Cantilever Point load P at free end vmax = 3EI at x = L
qL4
Fixed-Fixed Uniformly distributed vmax = 384EI at x = L/2
load q
P L3
Fixed-Fixed Point load P at midspan vmax = 192EI at x = L/2
9qL4
Propped Uniformly distributed vmax = 768EI near
Cantilever load q midspan
3
PL
Propped Point load P at midspan vmax = 16EI near
Cantilever midspan

Table 3: Maximum Deflection Formulas for Beams Under

Common Loading and Support Conditions

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Assumptions
1. The beam behaves linearly elastically, and deforma-
tions are small.
2. The beam is prismatic, with constant E and I through-
out its length.
3. Loading and supports are idealized.

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4. Torsion
• Shear Stress due to Torsion:
Tc
τmax = J

Shear stress distribution

Tr
τ= J

J = π2 r4 = π 4
32
d
c

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 Tr
τ=
J
τ : shear stress at a distance r from the center of the
shaft.
T : applied torque.
r : radial distance from the center of the shaft.
J : polar moment of inertia of the cross-section.
For a solid circular shaft:
π 4 π 4
J= c = d, diameter d = 2c.
2 32

• Torsional Deformation (Angle of Twist):

T Z TL
φ= L dx =
GJ GJ
Integration simplifies for constant T , J, and G.
φ : angle of twist (in radians) over the length L.
T : internal torque.
L : length of the member.
G : shear modulus (modulus of rigidity).
J : polar moment of inertia of the cross-section.

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Summary of Some Key Formulas:

Description Expression
P
Axial Stress (Tension/Compression) σ= A
PL
Axial Deformation (Tension/Compression) δ= AE
V
Average Shear Stress τavg = A
τ
Shear Deformation (Angle of Deformation) γ= G

Bending Stress σ = MI y
5qL4
Bending Deflection (Simply Supported Beam) vmax = 384EI
Tr
Shear Stress due to Torsion τ= J
TL
Angle of Twist (Torsion) φ= GJ

Table 4: Summary of key formulas for internal forces in

structural members.

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Important Formulas for Shear Stress in Trans-
versely Loaded Beams
• In transversely loaded beams (e.g., beams subjected
to forces perpendicular to their length), the shear stress
distribution is crucial for analyzing how the cross-section
resists the internal shear forces.

Vertical shear stress

Both have the same magnitude

Horizontal shear stress

Shear stress on a differential element in the beam. Vertical
shear stress is accompanied by horizontal shear stress for mo-
ment equilibrium.

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1. General Shear Stress Formula for Beams: The gen-
eral formula for calculating shear stress τ at any point
in the cross-section of a beam is:
VQ
τ=
Ib
τ : shear stress at a point in the cross-section.
V : internal shear force at the location of interest.
Q : first moment of the area above (or below) the
point where the shear stress is being calculated, with
respect to the neutral axis:
Z
Q= A y dA

y : distance from the neutral axis to the centroid of

the area A above (or below) the point.
I : moment of inertia of the entire cross-section about
the neutral axis.
b : width of the cross-section at the point where τ is
being calculated.

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2. Shear Stress Distribution for Rectangular Beams:
For a rectangular cross-section (width b and height h),
the shear stress distribution is parabolic, with the max-
imum shear stress occurring at the neutral axis:
3V
τmax =
2bh

τmax

Parabolic shear stress distribution in rectangular beam. τmax

occurs at the Neutral axis.

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3. Shear Stress in I-Beams (Wide-Flanged):
For I-beams (or wide-flange beams), the shear stress
distribution is more complex. The web typically car-
ries most of the shear force because of its small width
b compared to the flanges.
The approximate shear stress in the web can be cal-
culated using:
V Qweb
τweb ≈
Ibweb
Qweb is the first moment of the area of the web
about the neutral axis.
bweb is the thickness of the web.
I is the total moment of inertia for both the web
and flanges.
V
τmax web =
bwebhweb
τmax for the I-beam (wide-flange beam) is about 15%
higher than the approximation using just the web.

τmax ' 1.15 τmax web

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4. Maximum Shear Stress for Circular Cross-Sections:
For a solid circular cross-section with diameter d:
4V 4V 8V
τmax = = =
3A 3πr2 3πd2

For hollow circular sections (e.g., pipes), the shear stress

distribution is more complex, and is approximately slightly
lower than,
V
τmax ' 2
A
In all of these cases, the maximum shearing stress oc-
curs at the neutral axis.
5. Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Sections: In thin-walled
members, such as box beams or thin-walled tubes,
shear flow q (force per length) is often used:

VQ
q=
I

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Warping in Thin-Walled Shafts due to Tor-
sion
• For circular cross-sections, which have infinite symme-
try, torsion is resisted purely by shear stresses, com-
monly referred to as St. Venant’s shear stresses.
• However, the situation becomes more complex for cross-
sections, such as I-beams, where different regions of
the cross-section experience varying amounts of rota-
tion.
• Thin-walled open sections like I-beams and channels
are more susceptible to warping, whereas closed sec-
tions (e.g., circular tubes) inherently resist warping.
• This phenomenon is called warping, and it leads to ad-
ditional normal stresses in the structure if warping is not
allowed to occur freely.
• Design codes for steel structures account for this by
using the torsional constant J to handle St. Venant’s
shear stresses τ = TJr , while a warping constant Cw is
introduced to address warping stress.
• Compressive normal stresses due to warping can lead
to instability (torsional buckling) in slender members
subjected to torsion, a key consideration in design.

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Combination of different force types
• When structural members are subjected to a combina-
tion of forces such as bending, torsion, and axial loads,
interactions between these forces must be considered
to ensure the member’s integrity.

The combination of forces affects structural design in sev-

eral key ways:

1. Stress Interaction and Superposition

• When multiple forces act simultaneously, the stresses
they induce must be superimposed.
• For example, in a shaft subjected to both bending and
torsion, the combined stresses involve normal bending
stresses and shear torsion stresses.
• The interaction between these stresses is analyzed us-
ing criteria like the von Mises stress yield criteria for
ductile materials or the maximum principal normal stress
for brittle materials.
• These criteria help determine whether the combined
stresses exceed the material’s yield strength or ultimate
strength.

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2. Combined Loading and Cross-Sectional Shape
The cross-sectional shape plays an important role in de-
termining how well a member can resist combined loads.

Examples:

• Bending combined with Torsion: For instance, hollow

circular sections are more efficient in resisting torsion,
while I-beams are better suited for bending.
When both bending and torsion are present, the cross-
section must be optimized to balance both require-
ments.
• Bending combined with axial loads: In cases where
axial loads are combined with bending, eccentricity (where
the line of action of the axial force is offset from the
neutral axis) introduces additional bending moments.
The design must account for this eccentricity to pre-
vent excessive deflection or failure.

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3. Design for Fatigue under Combined Loading
• In dynamic applications, such as rotating machinery,
components often experience cyclic loads involving both
bending and torsion.
• The combination of these loads can lead to stress cy-
cles that are analyzed for fatigue.
• Fatigue failure criteria, like the Goodman or Soderberg
approach, take into account the combined effect of al-
ternating and mean stresses arising from different load-
ing conditions.
• The design must ensure that the component’s fatigue
life is sufficient under these combined cyclic loads.

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4. Stability Considerations
• In slender members, combining compression with bend-
ing (as seen in columns) raises stability concerns.
• The additional bending moments induced by eccentric
loading can lead to premature buckling.
• The design must consider the combined effects of axial
load and bending by using interaction formulas, such
as those in the Euler buckling equation modified for
combined loads, to ensure that the member remains
stable under all loading conditions.

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 Column Buckling Formulas:
π 
2 

Critical Load: Pcr = EI  

KL 
2
Pcr π
Critial Stress: σcr = = E 
 

A Kη


P Mc
Eccentricity: σmax = +
A I  v 
P  ec  η u P 
u
u

σmax = 1 + 2 sec  u

 t


A r 2 EA 

Pcr: Critical load at which buckling occurs.

σcr: Critical stress at which buckling occurs.
E: Modulus of elasticity of the material.
I: Moment of inertia of the cross-section about the axis
of bending.
K: Effective length factor, accounting for the end con-
ditions of the column.
L: Unsupported length of the column.
A: Cross-sectional area of the column.
η: Slenderness ratio, defined as η = Lr .

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 r
r: Radius of gyration, defined as r = I/A.
σmax : Maximum stress in the column, considering axial
load and bending.
P : Applied axial load.
M : Bending moment due to eccentric loading.
c: Distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber
of the cross-section.
e: Eccentricity of the applied load, representing the dis-
tance between the line of action of the load and the
centroid of the cross-section.
sec: The secant function is used in the formula for max-
imum stress under eccentric loading.
π 
2 

Critical Load: Pcr = EI  

KL 
2
Pcr  π 
Critial Stress: σcr = = E  
A Kη


P Mc
Eccentricity: σmax = +
A I  v 
P  ec  η u P 
u
u

σmax = 1 + 2 sec  u

 t


A r 2 EA 

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5. Deflection and Serviceability Limits
• Combined loads can lead to undesirable deflections
compared to when loads act individually.
• For example, a beam under both bending and torsion
might experience both vertical deflection and twisting,
which can affect serviceability.
• The design must ensure that the combined deflections
remain within acceptable limits, often by adjusting the
cross-sectional properties or introducing additional sup-
ports to reduce deformation.

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Summary
• Designing structural members under combined loads
involves carefully analyzing the interaction of different
stress types, optimizing the cross-section for multiple
resistance requirements, considering fatigue life under
cyclic loads, ensuring stability against buckling, and con-
trolling deflection within serviceability limits.
• This comprehensive approach ensures that the mem-
ber performs adequately under all loading scenarios
while maintaining safety and functionality.

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Reference

Hibbeler, R. C. Mechanics of Materials. Any edition.

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Quiz: Understanding Internal Forces and De-
formation Behaviors in Structural Members
Here is a quiz with thirty problems to test our understand-
ing:

1. Which of the following internal forces is responsible

for causing a structural member to elongate along its
axis?
a) Compression
b) Shear
c) Tension
d) Torsion
2. Which type of deformation is typically associated with
compression forces?
a) Elongation
b) Twisting
c) Shortening along the force direction
d) Shearing across the cross-section

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3. What phenomenon is likely to occur in a long, slender
member subjected to compressive forces that exceed
a critical load?
a) Torsion
b) Bending
c) Buckling
d) Elongation
4. In a beam subjected to a transverse load, which type
of internal force primarily causes sliding deformation?
a) Shear
b) Compression
c) Torsion
d) Bending

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5. What is the primary difference between the deforma-
tion caused by bending and the deformation caused
by torsion?
a) Bending involves compression only, while torsion
involves tension only.
b) Bending causes curvature, while torsion causes twist-
ing.
c) Bending causes shear stress, while torsion causes
compressive stress.
d) Bending occurs along the length, while torsion oc-
curs perpendicular to the axis.
6. In a simply supported beam subjected to a downward
load in the middle, where does the neutral axis typi-
cally lie?
a) Along the top surface of the beam
b) Along the bottom surface of the beam
c) At the centroid of the beam cross-section along the
longitudinal axis
d) Along the transverse axis

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7. Which cross-sectional shape is most effective in resist-
ing torsional forces?
a) Rectangular
b) I-Beam
c) Circular
d) Triangular
8. When a structural member is subjected to a combi-
nation of bending and torsion, which of the following
statements is true?
a) Only shear stresses are induced.
b) The member experiences both normal and shear
stresses.
c) The stresses cancel out due to interaction.
d) The cross-sectional shape does not affect the stress
distribution.

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9. How is the shear force in a beam related to the shear
stress distribution across the cross-section?
a) Shear force is inversely proportional to the shear
stress.
b) Shear stress is uniform across the cross-section.
c) Shear stress varies parabolically across the cross-
section.
d) Shear stress is constant along the depth of the beam.
10. Which of the following correctly describes the rela-
tionship between the bending moment and the stress
it induces in a beam?
a) The bending moment only induces shear stress.
b) The bending moment induces normal stress pro-
portional to the distance from the neutral axis.
c) The bending moment induces twisting deforma-
tion.
d) The bending moment does not affect stress distri-
bution.

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11. Which type of force is most likely to cause buckling
in a slender column?
a) Shear
b) Tension
c) Compression
d) Torsion
12. What is the primary deformation behavior caused by
torsion in a circular shaft?
a) Axial elongation
b) Rotational twist along its length
c) Lateral displacement
d) Buckling

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13. Which cross-sectional property is critical in determin-
ing bending stress?
a) Polar moment of inertia
b) Moment of inertia
c) Radius of gyration
d) Shear modulus
14. The neutral axis in a bending beam is defined as:
a) The axis with the maximum bending moment
b) The axis with no normal stress
c) The centroidal axis of the cross-section
d) The axis with maximum shear stress

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15. Shear stress in a rectangular cross-section is maxi-
mum at:
a) The centroid of the section
b) The neutral axis
c) The outermost fibers
d) The middle of the web
16. What does the term ”radius of gyration” (r) represent
in structural analysis?
a) The distance from the neutral axis to the centroid
of the area
b) A measure of a cross-section’s resistance to axial
load
c) The square root of the moment of inertia divided
by the area
d) The polar radius from the centroid

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17. For a beam under pure bending, the distribution of
normal stress is:
a) Uniform across the cross-section
b) Parabolic across the cross-section
c) Linear across the depth
d) Maximum at the neutral axis
18. What is the most likely failure mode for a ductile ma-
terial under combined bending and torsion?
a) Brittle fracture
b) Buckling
c) Yielding
d) Delamination

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19. Which property of a material is most critical in resist-
ing torsional deformation?
a) Modulus of elasticity
b) Poisson’s ratio
c) Shear modulus
d) Moment of inertia
20. The interaction between bending and axial compres-
sion in a structural member is analyzed using:
a) Euler’s critical load formula
b) The von Mises stress criterion
c) Interaction diagrams
d) Torsional rigidity equations

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21. What type of force causes elongation along the lon-
gitudinal axis?
a) Compression
b) Shear
c) Tension
d) Torsion
22. What is the primary deformation caused by shear forces?
a) Bending
b) Sliding deformation with distortion
c) Elongation
d) Shortening

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23. In bending, where does the transition from compres-
sion to tension occur?
a) At the outermost fiber
b) At the neutral axis
c) At the centroid of the section
d) Along the axis of bending
24. What stress component is dominant in torsion?
a) Normal stress
b) Shear stress
c) Axial stress
d) Tensile stress

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25. The critical buckling load for a column depends on:
a) The slenderness ratio, η
b) The material’s density
c) The applied axial force
d) The cross-sectional shape only
26. For a simply supported beam under a uniformly dis-
tributed load q, where does the maximum deflection
occur?
a) At the supports
b) At the centroid
c) At the midpoint
d) At a quarter span

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27. Which material property is involved in calculating shear
deformation?
a) Modulus of elasticity
b) Shear modulus
c) Poisson’s ratio
d) Moment of inertia
28. Which cross-sectional shape is most effective for re-
sisting torsion?
a) I-beam
b) Circular shaft
c) Rectangular beam
d) Hollow square

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29. The slenderness ratio of a column is defined as:
P
a) η = A
L
b) η = r
πr
c) η = L
I
d) η = L2

30. What is the significance of the interaction between

bending and torsion in structural design?
a) It only affects the material selection process.
b) It requires optimizing the cross-section to balance
the two effects.
c) It can be ignored for short members.
d) It only affects ductile materials.

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Answers
1. c) Tension
2. c) Shortening along the force direction
3. c) Buckling
4. a) Shear
5. b) Bending causes curvature, while torsion causes twist-
ing.
6. c) At the centroid of the beam cross-section along the
longitudinal axis
7. c) Circular
8. b) The member experiences both normal and shear
stresses
9. c) Shear stress varies parabolically across the cross-
section
10. b) The bending moment induces normal stress pro-
portional to the distance from the neutral axis
11. c) Compression
12. b) Rotational twist along its length
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13. b) Moment of inertia
14. b) The axis with no normal stress
15. b) The neutral axis
16. c) The square root of the moment of inertia divided
by the area
17. c) Linear across the depth
18. c) Yielding
19. c) Shear modulus
20. c) Interaction diagrams
21. c) Tension
22. b) Sliding deformation with distortion
23. b) At the neutral axis
24. b) Shear stress
25. a) The slenderness ratio, η
26. c) At the midpoint
27. b) Shear modulus

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28. b) Circular shaft
L
29. b) η = r

30. b) It requires optimizing the cross-section to balance

the two effects

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