Client/Server Systems

 Architecture Overview:
o Servers: Dedicated systems that manage functions like databases, printing, and
application execution. They are equipped with specialized operating systems to
handle requests from clients.
o Clients: Personal computers or workstations that request services from servers.
Clients can interact with multiple servers at the same time.
 Server Functions:
o Servers host applications and data, responding to client requests by providing only
the necessary information. For example, a database server retrieves and sends
relevant data upon request.
 Data Interaction Example:
o A client requests data from a database. A data request server identifies the correct
database server, formats the request, and sends it. The database server processes
the request and returns the relevant data to the client for analysis.

Channel Bandwidth

 Definition: Refers to the capacity of a network's communication channel, measured in

bits per second (bps). Higher bandwidth allows for more data to be exchanged
simultaneously.
 Broadband Communication: Refers to high-speed, always-on internet access that is
faster than traditional dial-up. Organizations require high bandwidth for efficient
transaction handling and network operations.

Communication Media

 Types:
o Guided (Wired) Media: Transmission occurs through physical mediums like
cables (e.g., twisted pair, fiber optic).
o Wireless Media: Signals are transmitted through the air using electromagnetic
waves (e.g., Wi-Fi, cellular networks).
 Selection Factors:
o Data volume and speed requirements.
o Data privacy concerns.
o User mobility (stationary vs. mobile).
o Specific business needs and infrastructure capabilities.

Guided Transmission Media Types

 10-Gigabit Ethernet: A standard that supports data transmission at 10 billion bps over
short distances using high-quality twisted-pair cables. It is commonly used in local
networks to connect computers and storage devices, providing fast data transfer.
Wireless Technologies
Wireless communications, combined with internet connectivity, are transforming how we share
information, collaborate, and stay connected while on the move. With wireless capabilities,
spaces like coffee shops and ballparks can serve as effective work environments, prompting
many organizations to consider transitioning to fully wireless setups.

Overview of Wireless Communication

Wireless communication refers to the transfer of information between two or more points
without the use of electrical conductors. Signals are transmitted using various frequencies within
the electromagnetic spectrum, which encompasses all types of light from long waves to gamma
rays.

Fundamental Properties of Wireless Signals

Wireless signals share two key properties:

 Frequency: Measured in hertz (Hz), it counts how many waves pass a stationary point in one
second.
 Wavelength: The distance between the peaks of two consecutive waves. Frequency and
wavelength are inversely related; as frequency increases, wavelength decreases.

Signal Transmission

Wireless communication devices operate similarly:

1. A transmitter generates a signal, encoding voice, video, or data at a specific frequency.

2. This signal is broadcast into the environment via an antenna.
3. The signal spreads out, and only a small portion is decoded by the receiving device. Due to
factors like distance and frequency, the received signal may be significantly weaker than the
original.

Frequency Ranges

Wireless networks typically operate in three frequency ranges:

 Microwave
 Radio
 Infrared

Given the limited spectrum and competing uses for wireless communication, strict regulations
are necessary to prevent interference. In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) manages frequency allocations. For instance, the 700 MHz to 2.6 GHz range is
designated for mobile phones, with many frequencies already in use. This can complicate efforts
for wireless companies to acquire additional spectrum.
Key Wireless Technologies

Near Field Communication (NFC)

NFC is a short-range wireless technology that allows two devices to exchange data when placed
within a few inches of each other. It is commonly used in mobile payment systems like Apple
Pay, enabling users to make transactions by swiping their devices near payment terminals.

Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a wireless technology that enables devices like phones, computers, and printers to
connect over distances of 10 to 30 feet at speeds around 2 Mbps. This technology allows for data
synchronization, faxing, and printing. For example, a G-Shock watch can control a smartphone's
music and timekeeping functions through Bluetooth.

Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi is a wireless networking standard established by the Wi-Fi Alliance, a consortium of

around 300 technology companies. It enhances the interoperability of wireless local area network
(WLAN) products based on the IEEE 802.11 standards.

 In a Wi-Fi network, devices use a wireless adapter to translate data into radio signals.
 A wireless access point receives these signals, decodes them, and sends the information to the
internet via a wired connection.
 When receiving data, the access point converts internet data into a radio signal for the device.

Intranets and Extranets

Intranets and extranets play crucial roles in modern corporate environments, leveraging internet
technologies to enhance communication and collaboration within and outside organizations.

Intranets

An intranet is a private internal network that utilizes internet and World Wide Web standards. It
allows employees of an organization to access corporate information efficiently.

Key Features of Intranets

 Familiarity: Since intranets are built on widely understood internet technologies,

employees typically require minimal training to navigate and utilize these systems
effectively.
 Cost-Effectiveness: Intranets are a low-cost alternative to traditional internal
communication methods, reducing expenses associated with paper and physical
documentation.
  Document Management: Organizations can convert paper documents (like internal
directories, manuals, and forms) into electronic formats, making them easily accessible
and updatable.
 Mobile Accessibility: Intranets are particularly beneficial for mobile employees, such as
sales teams, who need quick access to frequently changing information.

Benefits of Intranets

 Streamlined Communication: Intranets facilitate quicker and more efficient communication

within the organization.
 Centralized Information: Employees can access a single source of truth for corporate
information, reducing confusion and increasing productivity.

Extranets

An extranet extends the capabilities of an intranet by allowing limited access to selected

external parties, such as customers, suppliers, and business partners. It connects external users
with specific resources of the company's intranet.

Key Features of Extranets

 Collaborative Access: Extranets enable organizations to collaborate more effectively

with external stakeholders by providing them with access to relevant data and resources.
 Real-Time Communication: For example, a global fast food chain implemented an
extranet to facilitate better communication between corporate executives and franchisees,
allowing for quick adjustments to location-specific advertising.

Security Considerations

Extranets require heightened security measures compared to standard websites or intranets,

including:

 User Authentication: Ensuring that only authorized users can access sensitive information is
critical.
 Data Privacy: Protecting confidential information shared with external partners is essential.
 Performance Reliability: The network must provide consistent and rapid responses to users.

Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

To secure access to intranets and extranets, organizations often utilize Virtual Private
Networks (VPNs). A VPN creates a secure connection over the internet, allowing for safe data
transmission between two points.

How VPNs Work

 Tunneling: VPNs encapsulate data in IP packets and transmit them securely over the internet.
  Access Control: Users are assigned logon IDs and security tokens that generate changing
passwords every 30 seconds. This ensures that only authorized users can access the network.

Advantages of Using VPNs

 Cost Savings: By outsourcing network management to Internet Service Providers (ISPs),

companies can reduce expenses related to wide area network (WAN) equipment and staff.
 Enhanced Security: VPNs encrypt data, making it more secure against unauthorized access.

The Internet of Things (IoT)

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a vast network of physical objects embedded with
sensors, processors, and connectivity capabilities, enabling them to exchange data with
manufacturers, operators, and other connected devices. This interconnected ecosystem is
transforming how we interact with the world around us.

Key Components of IoT

Sensors

Sensors are integral to IoT devices, capable of detecting various environmental conditions such
as:

 Pressure
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Motion
 Vibration
 Light levels

These sensors produce output signals (usually electrical or optical) in response to detected
changes, allowing devices to monitor their surroundings and report data back to central systems.

Connectivity

To be part of the IoT, devices require:

 IP Addresses: Each device needs a unique identifier.

 Internet Connection: Data must be transmitted over the public internet to be accessed and
analyzed.

The collected data may be stored in local databases, enterprise data centers, or cloud storage,
making it accessible for analysis through various devices, including smartphones and computers.
Applications of IoT

Organizations are leveraging IoT technology across various industries to enhance operational
efficiency and decision-making. Here are some notable examples:

1. Asset Monitoring

Food and drug manufacturers use IoT sensors to monitor shipping containers for temperature
changes that could compromise product quality and safety. These sensors often operate on
battery power and utilize 4G LTE connectivity.

2. Construction

SK Solutions employs IoT to prevent crane collisions at a busy construction site in Dubai.
Sensors on cranes communicate data to halt operations if they swing too close to one another,
ensuring safety.

3. Agriculture

Farmers harness IoT technology to monitor soil moisture and nitrogen levels, optimizing water
usage and improving crop yields in water-scarce regions.

4. Manufacturing

IoT sensors on factory equipment, such as conveyor belts, provide real-time alerts about
operational issues. Analyzing this data helps identify patterns, predict equipment failures, and
optimize resource allocation.

5. Parking Management

San Francisco utilizes connected sensors and meters to monitor parking demand, adjusting
hourly rates dynamically. This system encourages efficient parking availability and is supported
by a low-power wide area network designed for IoT devices.

6. Predictive Maintenance

In the utilities sector, sensors capture operational data to ensure continuous uptime. Analyzing
this data allows companies to predict equipment failures, enabling proactive maintenance before
issues arise.

7. Retailing

Retailers deploy in-store sensors to analyze customer behavior and enhance the shopping
experience. Data from sensors, combined with inventory and online profiles, allows for
personalized offers during the purchasing process.
8. Traffic Monitoring

The Aegean motorway in Greece employs over 5,000 devices along a 200-km stretch to
enhance road safety and efficiency. These devices monitor traffic, detect incidents, and provide
real-time updates to drivers via electronic billboards, all connected through Cisco’s Internet of
Everything system.

Cloud Computing
Cloud computing refers to a computing environment where software and storage are provided
as internet services, accessible to users via web browsers. This model allows individuals and
organizations to store and manage data remotely, utilizing services from various providers.

Key Features of Cloud Computing

 Remote Access: Users can access applications, documents, and media from any internet-
connected device.
 Service Models: Cloud computing is typically offered through subscription-based models.
 Variety of Services: Examples include email services (like Google and Yahoo), document
storage (like iCloud), and productivity applications (like Microsoft Office 365 and Google Apps).

Advantages of Cloud Computing

1. Cost Savings: Organizations can avoid significant upfront investments in hardware. Instead, they
pay for resources as needed, reducing the total cost of ownership.
2. Scalability: Businesses can easily adjust their resource usage based on demand, allowing for
flexibility during peak times.
3. Access to Advanced Technology: Cloud providers offer cutting-edge technology without the
long procurement delays associated with traditional IT setups.

Deployment Models

Cloud computing can be deployed in several ways:

Public Cloud

 Definition: Services are offered to the general public by third-party providers. Users access
shared resources over the internet.
 Benefits: Cost-effective for organizations with variable computing needs.
 Example Providers: Amazon Web Services, Microsoft Azure, IBM Cloud.

Private Cloud

 Definition: A cloud environment dedicated to a single organization, providing greater control and
security.
 Types:
 o On-Premise Private Cloud: Built and managed internally by the organization.
o Virtual Private Cloud: Managed by a third-party service provider.
 Use Case: Suitable for organizations with stringent security and compliance requirements.

Hybrid Cloud

 Definition: A combination of public and private clouds, allowing data and applications to be
shared between them.
 Use Case: Organizations can run less sensitive applications on the public cloud while keeping
critical data on a private cloud for enhanced security.

Types of Cloud Services

Cloud computing is divided into three main service models:

1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

 Description: Organizations outsource hardware resources like servers and storage. Providers
manage the infrastructure.
 Payment Model: Users pay based on usage or on a subscription basis.

2. Software as a Service (SaaS)

 Description: Software is delivered remotely as a web service, eliminating the need for local
installation.
 Benefits: Lower costs and automatic updates handled by the provider.

3. Platform as a Service (PaaS)

 Description: Provides a platform for developers to create, test, and deploy applications without
managing the underlying infrastructure.
 Benefits: Simplifies application development and reduces costs associated with hardware
management.

Challenges in Cloud Computing

Organizations considering cloud migration should be aware of potential challenges:

 Vendor Lock-In: Moving data to a cloud provider can make it difficult to switch providers later.
 Complex Pricing: Hidden costs and complicated pricing structures can affect expected savings.
 Data Security: Relying on third-party providers raises concerns about data protection and
compliance, especially for regulated industries.

Autonomic Computing

An emerging technology in cloud computing is autonomic computing, which aims to enable IT

systems to manage themselves. This includes:
  Self-Configuring: Automatically configuring resources based on current needs.
 Self-Healing: Detecting and resolving issues without human intervention.
 Self-Optimizing: Adjusting resources to maintain optimal performance.
 Self-Protecting: Implementing security measures autonomously.

Autonomic computing helps reduce the complexity and management costs of cloud
environments, making them more efficient.