11 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Practical Research 1
Quarter 2 – Module 6:
Data Collection
in Qualitative Research
 What I Need to Know

After identifying the sample and the amount of time and size you would
consider in your study which is explained in Module 5, your next step is to
get some ideas on how you are going to collect data.

In this module, you will discover methods on how to collect data. As an

output, you will be tasked to write and present a written research
methodology based on your chosen topic in your previous modules.

Learning Competencies:

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

a. plan data collection, data gathering instrument, and analysis

procedures;
b. present a written research methodology;
c. collect data through observation and interview; and
d. appreciate the process of data collection.

What I Know

Activity 1. Let’s check your prior knowledge…

Directions: Write a positive sign (+) in each column if you think the word
describes/relates to the given words in each number and write a negative
sign (-) if it does not. Number 1 is done for you.
Words concrete trait abstract direction action
1. interviewing + + - + +
2. documents
3. observation
4. data
5. diary
6. Probing
Total Score

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 What’s In

Activity 2

Directions: Read each item carefully. Write TRUE if the statement is true and
FALSE if it is not true. Write your answers on your activity notebook.

1. In qualitative research, observation methods are mostly unstructured.

2. Structured interviews in qualitative research are not commonly
conducted.
3. Whatever can be observed or linked in the process of getting the direct
data is considered to be potential or actual data.
4. Most interviews conducted in qualitative research are audio-recorded
or, less commonly, video-recorded.
5. Spoken ‘narrative’ is the destructor of most qualitative data.
6. The issues of confidentiality and anonymity should be discussed with
the participant before the interview is conducted, and questions are
encouraged and answered.
7. Qualitative interviews should allow the interviewee to speak freely and
offer detailed and lengthy responses through techniques used
singularly or in combination.
8. Focus group interviews are usually more economical to conduct than
individual interviews.
9. In structured observation, the researcher enters the ‘field’ with no
predetermined schedule as to what they may or may not see or hear.
10. One of the benefits of observation is it ‘captures’ the data in more
natural circumstances.

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 What’s New

Activity 3. Let’s try this…

Directions: Do the following activity on your activity notebook.

1. Describe each picture below.

2. How are you going to relate each picture to this module’s topic which is
data collection? Justify your answer.

1. TELESCOPE 2. CAMERA
https://images.app.goo.gl/a8cFbChznEg1 https://images.app.goo.gl/KbZVJ8MKrRMZuy43A
cWTh6

3. MAGNIFYING GLASS
https://images.app.goo.gl/oiidCXzFofMBhfFfA
4. MICROSCOPE
https://images.app.goo.gl/HkxpHc9aGfZTdSc19

5. WINDOW GLASS
https://images.app.goo.gl/5v43K2JZUuhQjGom8

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 What is It

Data Collection in Qualitative Research

After you have identified the sample of your study, the next step you
are going to take is the process of collecting data. As discussed in the paper
of Whitehead (2016), data collection can take the form of ‘direct data’ or
‘indirect data’.

Direct data include recordable spoken or written words and also

observable body language, actions, and interactions. Here, the interactions
may be human-to-human or human responses to inanimate objects—such as
a haemodialysis machine. Whatever can be observed or linked is considered
to be potential or actual data (Issacs, 2014). This will occur when considering
the thoughts, feelings, experiences, meaning of experience, responses,
actions, interactions, language, and processes of individuals and groups
within their social and/or cultural setting (Babbie, 2014).

Indirect data are generated, firsthand, by someone or something else,

such as with documents or photographs reporting an event or an artistic
rendition of an event or experience (e.g., novels, songs, paintings, poems,
photographs). Direct data, though, are by far the most common form in
qualitative research.

Depending on the types of data required for a qualitative study, various

methods of collecting data can be used singularly or in combination to obtain
direct data. For direct data, these methods may include interview,
observation, open-ended questionnaire, journaling (diary accounts) or ‘think
aloud’ sessions. Direct data can be collected by the participant involved in a
study at the request of the researcher (e.g., through writing a personal journal
or diary) and then provided to the researcher. Most commonly, however,
qualitative approaches acquire data primarily through interpersonal contact
with participants (usually an interview) or, secondly, through the presence of
the researcher in proximity to pertinent events (usually observation) (Babbie,
2014). This is unlike quantitative research where, frequently, interpersonal
contact is deliberately limited with participants or events. In quite a few
instances, researchers will use more than one technique to collect data.

Interviews
Interviews are viewed as the prime method for qualitative data
collection, which also represent the most common method for gathering

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qualitative data in nursing-related research (Issacs 2014). Spoken ‘narrative’
is the foundation of most qualitative data, wherein narrative is most often
gained through a direct encounter between the researcher and the participant
(or several participants) using in-depth interviews or focus group interviews.
Interviews can be conducted by telephone, email and, more recently, through
social media conversations and micro-blogging (e.g., Twitter, Facebook,
Tumblr).
Interviews in qualitative research may be unstructured, semi-structured,
or occasionally structured. With unstructured interviews, neither the specific
questions to be asked nor the range or type of possible answers are pre-
determined. The interviews are designed to be informal and conversational
with the aim of encouraging participants to express themselves in a naturally
unfolding manner. Unstructured interviews tend to start with single broad
questions, such as ‘what is your experience of…’ The researcher, however,
has an idea in mind of the general issues to be covered and may use a topic
list as a reminder.
Semi-structured interviews use an interview guide to provide a set of
questions for discussion. The questions are set to ensure that the research
aims/questions are covered. However, there is freedom to pose any questions
in any order, following tangents or seeking clarification of previous answers
or elaboration of responses. Semi-structured interviews steer the interview yet
are flexible enough to allow the interviewer to follow leads and areas of
interest.
Structured interviews in qualitative research are not commonly
conducted. Structured interviews follow a list of set questions, usually asked
in a certain order—but these questions are still open-ended; that is, usually
commencing with words like ‘how’, ‘why’, ‘where’, or ‘when’. This distinguishes
them from structured quantitative interviews, which usually only ask closed-
ended questions—such as ‘how many’ to illicit numerical data.

Conducting interviews
The structure and conduct of interviews are important; both factors will
impact on the quality of the data generated. Conducting interviews can be
complex and demanding and requires attention to process (Peters & Halcomb
2015). Many researchers perform ‘dry or dummy runs’ with peers and/or
colleagues as a form of piloting the interview schedule and interview
techniques. There are a number of considerations for all researchers
conducting any type of interview to enhance the experience and the quality of
data collected. At the start of the interview, it is important that the ‘rules of
engagement’ are established early on—such as generating and maintaining a
warm and non-judgmental manner toward the participant/s, asking
questions in a balanced, unbiased, non-threatening, sensitive, and clear way,

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and choosing a setting for the interview that is most appropriate to exploring
the area of study (e.g., private setting if personal questions will be asked). The
majority of interviews conducted in qualitative research are audio-recorded
or, less commonly, video-recorded.
Privacy and comfort are important, and the researcher should minimize
the likelihood of disruption as much as possible by, for example, ensuring
that all items required are available (recording equipment, tapes, consent
forms, participant information sheets, drinks, and tissues). Researchers
should take active steps, such as posting ‘do not disturb’ signs and disabling
telephone or pager devices. The issues of confidentiality and anonymity
should be discussed with the participant before the interview is conducted,
and questions are encouraged and answered. It is important to explore with
the participant how you will minimize their identification by others, and how
you will securely store the data, how long this will be kept, and when and how
it will be destroyed.
Qualitative interviews should allow the interviewee to speak freely and
offer in-depth and lengthy responses through techniques used singularly or
in combination. Possible techniques include the following:
• Funnelling—beginning the interview with general and broad (non-
threatening) opening questions and then narrowing down to topic specifics as
the interview progresses.
• Probing—eliciting further details or seeking clarification. Price (2002)
explained an innovative probing technique called ‘laddered questions.
Appropriate questions are asked in a series leading from the least intrusive
questions to the most intrusive. This technique identifies classifications of
questions; questions about ‘actions’ are deemed to be the least invasive,
through to questions about ‘philosophy’ (feelings/values/beliefs) as the most
invasive. Storytelling, as another technique, involves asking questions in a
manner which encourages storytelling and more elaborate answers; for
example, ‘Tell me about when you last experienced…’
• Paraphrasing—repeating what the participant has said, without
changing the meaning of what has been said; assisting understanding and
clarity; and acting as a further prompt.

Focus group interviews

Focus groups are interviews conducted in a group setting and can be
used in a number of ways to generate data. Focus groups can be conducted
to explore, develop, and refine initial research questions and interview
schedules; as a form of data collection in their own right or as a way of
exploring the resonance of findings generated through interviews (or another
form of data collection). Focus groups use interview schedules, but these differ

17166
in scope, nature, and intention from other research interviews. This is
because of the unique nature of group dynamics and insights gained from
interaction between participants. Focus groups offer a collective set of values,
experiences, and observations of participants that are later interpreted in
context. Sometimes, group ‘synergy’ or consensus (agreement) on issues
occurs, but this is not always the case. If a series of focus groups are
scheduled, initial interviews usually identify broad issues and perspectives
related to the focus of the study, while subsequent interviews seek to prioritize
and narrow down generated issues.

Benefits of focus group interviews

The main benefits of this method of data collection are the generation
of data from multiple participants and often a larger sample size compared to
individual interview studies. Another advantage is that, for those who may
find one-to-one interviews intimidating, the group setting may be more
appealing, and provide access to participants who may not participate
otherwise (Liamputtong, 2010). Focus groups offer supportive group
interactions as each member is encouraged to identify, describe, analyze, and
resolve issues (Issacs, 2014) and are particularly valuable in obtaining
different perspectives on the same topic. Focus group interviews are usually
more economical to conduct than individual interviews.
Observation
Observational methods are commonly used in qualitative research
designs and vary between methods. Observation is the process of observing
the daily life and behaviors of participants in their natural setting to record
aspects such as social position and function, or actions and interactions.
Qualitative observation is traditionally adopted by ethnographers (De
Chesnay, 2014), but can be used in other qualitative approaches. In
qualitative research, observation methods are mostly unstructured. However,
some studies will use more structured observation. In unstructured
observation, the researcher enters the ‘field’ with no predetermined schedule
as to what they may or may not see or hear. Using this approach requires an
‘observation protocol’ to record the same information collected during
observations by the data collectors.
Process of observation
Methods of observation range across a continuum from participation to
observation where four distinct roles of participation and observation can be
identified:
Complete Participant
• Researcher is immersed in group/community (complete
intervention).

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 • Research is usually concealed (covert).

Participant as Observer
• Researcher steps into and out of groups/community
(intervention).
• Research is known (open).

Observer as Participant
• Researcher mainly observes but occasionally enters field (brief
intervention).
• Research is known (open).

Complete Observer
• Researcher does not participate.
• Research is either known (open) or concealed (covert).

Benefits of observation
De Chesnay (2014) suggested that observation has several advantages
in qualitative research:
‘capturing data in more natural circumstances’,
‘capturing the whole social setting and context of the environment in
which people function’, and
‘informing about influences of the immediate physical environment’.
Depending on the observation method used, there is opportunity to
interact with participants while gaining rich data and perspectives related to
participants’ values and experiences.

What’s More

Activity 4. Let’s do it…

Directions: Answer the following questions comprehensively.

1. Discuss briefly why interview is considered the prime method for

qualitative data collection?
2. Which among the data gathering methods is/are more applicable in
your study? Why?

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 What I Have Learned

Activity 5. Let’s reflect…

Directions: Write a short reflection on your activity notebook.

I thought ________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

I learned that ____________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

What I Can Do

Activity 6. Let’s prove it…

Directions: Read the following instructions carefully and do what is asked.

1. State the Data Gathering Procedure and Research Instrument under

the Methodology section of your study. Clearly discuss the process
starting from the asking of permission from the participants to be
interviewed to analyzing the data gathered.

2. Design an interview guide. Be sure to write specific questions based on

the statement of your problem in the introduction section. You may
encode or write this in a short bond paper.

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 Assessment

Activity 7. Let’s check it out…

Directions: Read carefully the statements/questions below and write your

answers on your activity notebook.

1. It includes recordable spoken or written words and also observable

body language, actions and interactions________.
a. direct data c. indirect data
b. secondhand data d. secondary data

2. It is generated, firsthand, by someone or something else, such as with

documents or photographs reporting an event or an artistic rendition
of an event or experience.
a. direct data c. indirect data
b. bio-data d. firsthand data

3. Interview, observation, open-ended questionnaire, journaling, and

diary accounts are examples of__________.
a. direct data c. indirect data
b. secondhand data d. secondary data

4. The prime method for qualitative data collection is___________.

a. survey c. questionnaire
b. interviews d. inspection

5. A type of interview that uses an interview guide to provide a set of

questions for discussion is_________.
a. structured interview c. probing
b. funnelling d. semi-structure

6. What is the type of interview that follows a list of set of open-ended

questions, usually asked in a certain order such as ‘how’, ‘why’,
‘where’, or ‘when’?
a. channeling c. structured
b. unstructured d. mixed

7. What do you call when the researchers perform ‘dry or dummy runs’
with peers and/or colleagues as a form of piloting the interview
schedule and interview techniques?
a. experiment c. conducting interview
b. test d. investigate

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8. The ‘laddered questions’ technique in conducting interviews called
_________.
a. funnelling c. survey
b. probing d. paraphrasing

9. The interview that begins with general and broad (non-threatening)

opening questions and then narrowing down to topic specifics as the
interview progresses is called_________.
a. funnelling c. observation
b. direct observation d. observation

10. A qualitative researcher knows that it is not useful to collect any

further data when….
a. they sense that this is the case.
b. the participants say that they have nothing more to say.
c. data saturation/redundancy of data is reached.
d. data overload is reached.

11. Observation techniques are most commonly used in_________.

a. phenomenology c. grounded theory
b. historical research d. ethnography

12. When interviewing, starting off with simple and broad questions
to help ease the participant into the process is referred to as:
a. nurturing c. channeling
b. funnelling d. easing.

13. What is the most common method used in collecting qualitative

data?
a. questionnaire c. interview
b. observation d. survey

14. Why should the rule of engagement be observed in the conduct

of interview?
a. to follow the trend c. to gain respect
b. to avoid judgmental manner d. to maximize time

15. Why is observation method generally used in qualitative research

designs?
a. It is easy to conduct. c. It is light to deal with.
b. It is mandated. d. It obtains more reliable information.

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 Additional Activities

Activity 8. Let’s go beyond…

Directions: Conduct interviews and observation to your research

participants. Contact your research teacher if you have any changes or other
options in accomplishing this task. Be sure to keep your transcripts and
ensure ethical considerations in keeping the data.

Glossary

Data - facts or figures, or information that's stored in or

used by a computer. An example of data is
information collected for a research paper.
Data collection - the process of gathering and measuring information
on variables of interest, in an established systematic
fashion that enables one to answer stated research
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
Focus groups - asking questions and generating discussion among
a group of people.
Interviews - personally asking people questions in one-on-one
conversations.
Observations - recording what you have seen, heard, or
encountered in detailed field notes.

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SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Practical Research 1
Quarter 2 – Module 7:
Analyzing the Meaning
of the Data Gathered
 What I Need to Know

Collection of data which you have done in Module 5 is only the

beginning of your research process. Once you have collected all the
information you needed, you have to organize them. Since your research is
qualitative, this module focuses on “analysis” which is more concerned with
the meaning of information gathered from different sources, such as
notes/observation, recorded interview/transcripts, and/or focus group
transcripts which will be explained in this module.

Learning Competencies

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. infer and explain patterns and themes from the data collected;
2. analyze and relate the findings with the pertinent literature; and
3. appreciate the process of analyzing the meaning of data gathered.

What I Know

Activity 1. Let’s check your prior knowledge…

Directions: Read each item carefully. Write TRUE if the statement is true
and FALSE if it is not true. Write your answers on your Activity Notebook.

1. Listening to your audios or reading your records is part of a formal

system in analyzing data.
2. Analysis is a prerequisite before concluding something.
3. Grouping similar kinds of information together in categories is
possible in evaluating data.
4. In analyzing the data, relating different ideas and themes to one
another is needed.
5. The best way to organize data is to go back to your interview guide.
6. It is not necessary to arrange the data since it is understandable and
easy to analyze.
7. Recognizing noticeable themes, repeated ideas, or verbal expression
and patterns of belief that link people and settings together is the
most intellectually challenging phase of the analysis.
8. Results are more reliable when they are complete from numerous
independent bases.

vi1
 9. Validity is enriched when they are confirmed by more than one
“instrument” measuring the same thing.
10. The primary aim in analyzing the gathered facts is to find out if the
recorded data exist to give answers to research questions.

What’s In

Activity 2. Let’s amplify your imagination…

Directions: Answer the following in your notebook.

1. What would you like to become someday? ________________________.

You may choose one profession from among the pictures below:

LAWYER JUDGE
https://images.app.goo.gl/Q9EJs1mdBuD3FEU https://images.app.goo.gl/f5Bf5H9HRpG8ci
c6 r88

TEACHER SURGEON
https://images.app.goo.gl/Kd8WjCzfCW2j https://images.app.goo.gl/AU6wn4Ssk7yo
JVb2A WgQD6

PRIEST BEAUTICIAN
https://images.app.goo.gl/rVQygtsDm9aJRmx https://images.app.goo.gl/rVQygtsDm9aJR
T7 mxT7

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 2. List down as many as you can the qualities that you have and you
don’t have as a person that you think are needed for your chosen
profession.

I have these… I don’t have these…

Example: Example:
diligent organized

3. What did you find out? Analyze your answers and write a simple
inference if you could possibly able to reach your goal in life
considering your qualities.

What is It

The starting point of data analysis in qualitative research is by

“getting to know” your data. This can be done by listening to your audios or
reading your transcripts (O’Connor & Gibson, 2003). After doing this, it will
give you a general idea of what people are saying and what results you are
looking for.

Formal Systems

There are formal systems for analysis of qualitative data that have
been developed in order to help researchers get at the meaning of their data
more easily (Rubin & Rubin, 1995). These systems involve:

➢ coding techniques for finding and marking the underlying ideas

in the data;
➢ grouping similar kinds of information together in categories; and
➢ relating different ideas and themes to one another.

Manual Guide

O’Connor & Gibson (2003) provided the researchers a manual to guide

them in the process through a step-by-step guide to analyze qualitative

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interviews (O’Connor & Gibson, 2003). The components to this type of
analysis include:

➢ organizing the data

➢ finding and organizing ideas and concepts
➢ building over-arching themes in the data
➢ ensuring reliability and validity in the data analysis and in
findings
➢ finding possible and plausible explanation for findings
➢ an overview of the final step

Step 1: Organizing the Data

According to Huberman & Miles (1994, p.432) as cited by O’Connor &

Gibson (2003), valid analysis is hugely aided by data displays that are
focused enough to permit viewing of all full data set in one location and are
systematically arranged to answer the research question at hand.

The best way to organize data is to go back to your interview guide.

Identify and differentiate between the questions/topics you are trying to
answer, and those that were simply included in the interview guide as
important, but for the moment, not essential.

Once you have answered your original questions, look at other ideas
and themes that have emerged from your data (surprises). Look at them in
terms of how they relate to your questions and in terms of future research
considerations.

Data should be organized in a way that it is easy to look at, and that
allows the researcher to go through each topic to pick out concepts and
themes.

Step 2: Finding and Organizing Ideas and Concepts

As postulated by Marshall & Ross (1995), identifying salient themes,

recurring ideas or language, and patterns of belief that link people and
settings together is the most intellectually challenging phase of the analysis
and one that can integrate the entire endeavor (Marshall & Ross, 1995,
p.114).

What to look for:

• Words/Phrases Used Frequently. Look for the words that are
frequently used and keep a list of these words.

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 • Finding Meaning in Language. Sometimes, you will notice about the
person’s perceptions, attitudes, and feelings about something simply
by noticing the words they use to express themselves.

• Watch for the Unexpected. This is where you learn new things or
things you didn’t expect to hear. It is important to always follow up
when your participant seems to be going in a new or unexpected
direction. These situations are called “rich points” (Asar, 1998) and
are often valuable.

• Hearing Stories. Stories are a way for the interviewee to communicate

the point of ideas or symbols indirectly. Many events, themes, and
meanings can come out of a story. It is important to pay close
attention to them and to their meanings.

• Coding and Categorizing Ideas and Concepts. Once you have identified
the words/phrases used frequently, as well as the ideas coming from
how the interviewee has expressed him/herself and from the stories
that he/she has told you, you have to organize these ideas into codes
or categories.
Step 3: Building Over-Arching Themes in the Data

Each of the response categories has one or more associated themes

that give a deeper meaning to the data. Different categories can be collapsed
under one main over-arching theme.

Step 4: Ensuring Reliability and Validity in the Data Analysis and in

Findings
Validity: The accuracy with which a method measures what it is
intended to measure (Schopper et al., 1993) and yields data that really
represents “reality” (Goodwin et al., 1987). Validation does not belong in
some separate stage of the investigation, but instead as an ongoing principle
throughout the entire research process.

Reliability: The consistency of the research findings (Kvale, 1996).

Ensuring reliability requires diligent efforts and commitment to consistency
throughout interviewing, transcribing, and analyzing the findings.

As themes and patterns emerge from the data, it is important to go

through the data, carefully searching for negative instances of the patterns.
These are sometimes called “outliers” (Miles & Huberman, 1994). It is often
too easy to discard these since they don’t fit into the patterns and themes of
the data; however, it is just as important that these are carefully examined

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and that possible explanations for these outliers are thought out (Miles &
Huberman, 1994).

The dynamics of the interaction between the interviewer and the

interviewee will be influenced by the personal characteristics of both parties.
Differences in age, gender, education, background, and language will all
have an effect on the outcome of the interview (Miles & Huberman, 1994).

Triangulation: Findings are more dependable when they can be

confirmed from several independent sources. Their validity is enhanced
when they are confirmed by more than one “instrument” measuring the
same thing.

Different types of triangulation

➢ Triangulation from different sources: for example, interviewing

different members of the community who can give different
perspectives on a specific question or topic. Personal journals
are also an example of this.
➢ Triangulation from different methods: looking at the same
questions/topics but trying to answer them using different
research methods, such as surveys, focus groups, and
individual interviews (often blending qualitative and quantitative
methods).
➢ Triangulation from different researchers: having two different
researchers conduct the same interview, for example, or analyze
the same data is a good way to test validity.
What can you expect from triangulation?

Corroboration of the findings: they are both valid and reliable.

OR

Inconsistent or conflicting findings: these can elaborate the

findings and often lead to more complex and context-respective
explanations. Through triangulation, it is not uncommon to find
things that were missed in the original data collection process.
Sometimes, it means that our assumptions were off base, and that we
need to change our questions or do more research.

Obtaining Feedback from Participants

The best way to examine the validity of the research findings
and of the researcher’s interpretation of them is for the researcher to

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 go back and ask those individuals who participated in the study or
who can speak on behalf of them.

“Local informants can act as judges, evaluating the major

findings of a study” (Denzin, 1978).

Focus Groups: After all the interviews have been completed, a

series of focus groups will be conducted in order to obtain feedback
from community members on the accuracy, the validity, and the
appropriateness of the research findings. The implications of the
research findings and how the dissemination of information should be
done will also be discussed.

External Validation of Coding Strategies

Not only is it important to ensure validity in the research

process and findings but also in the data analysis process. One way to
do this is to compare how you (the researcher) have categorized and
coded the results into themes with how a colleague would have done
it. Randomly select a few passages from questions/topics that you
have already coded and analyzed. Give the list of your
codes/categories to a colleague as well as all of the responses for that
question/topic. Have them code the responses and you can compare
the coding with your own as a measure of validity and reliability of
coding strategies. Remember, however, to always protect the identity
of your participant, even if you are working with a trusted colleague.

Step 5: Finding Possible and Plausible Explanations for Findings

So, What Did You Find?

➢ Start by making a summary of your findings and your themes.
Ask Yourself Some Questions
➢ Are these findings what you were expecting, based on the
literature?
➢ Were there any major surprises in the findings?
➢ How are they different/similar to what is stated in the literature
from other similar studies?
Important Sources to Answer Those Questions
Literature
Go back to the literature and compare your findings. This may also
help you find possible explanations for them.

187
 An Overview of the Final Steps

What are the Implications of the Findings?

Once you have developed your over-arching themes, you need to think
about the implications. Why is your work important, why should anyone pay
attention to it? What are the implications within each community? How are
the partners within the communities reacting to the findings?

This is where the ACTION comes in from Participatory Action

Research. The findings from the research should help us not only in
identifying strategies to bring about change, or to be more responsive to a
community’s needs, but also help us find realistic ways of implementing
those strategies.

Communicating the Information

Determine (before writing the final report) who will have access to the
information and how those people/communities will be affected by it.

Keeping in line with the foundational principles of the research

project, we aim to disseminate the results carefully, sensitively, and in
conjunction with those affected. It is important to remember that some
study results are sensitive to some people and communities. Hence, ask
yourself, “What is the most appropriate way to let people know of the results
of the study?”

There are many options:

➢ Newspaper
➢ Newsletter
➢ Mail
➢ radio or video
➢ council meeting
➢ focus groups
➢ community workshops/seminars
➢ formal report
These decisions may also have funding implications to be considered.

Organizing the Information into a Final Report

This includes not only the results but also how the entire research
process was carried out, what went right, what went wrong, highlighting the
strengths and limitation as well as what you would do differently and how it
could be improved. One of the most important things to take into

819
consideration when writing the final report is knowing who your target
audience is going to be (who is actually going to be reading the report?)
In the final report, you are summarizing why the research question(s)
you were looking at was an important one, how you went about answering it
(methods), what your findings were, the implications of those findings,
recommendations, and strategies, and areas of future research that you
were able to identify.

What’s More

Activity 3. Let’s do it…

Directions: Answer the following questions comprehensively.

1. Why should reliability and validity be established after analyzing the

data gathered?

2. How will you know that the data you gathered are reliable and valid?

What I Have Learned

Activity 4. Let’s reflect…

Directions: Write a short reflection on your Activity Notebook.

I thought _________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________.

I learned that ____________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________.

20
9
 What I Can Do

Activity 5. Let’s prove it…

Directions: By applying all your learnings, get the data you gathered from
your own interviews (If you have not yet done conducting your interview,
contact your research teacher and arrange a time so you can accomplish
this task). Do the following:

1. Analyze your data and look for an over-arching themes (see glossary
for meaning of themes).
2. Make sure that all your questions (refer to your Statement of the
Problem) were all answered.
3. Check if your findings confirm or negates with the findings to other
researchers in your RRL.
4. Make some inferences based from your findings.
5. Label your paper as DRAFT. This must be submitted to your research
teacher.

Assessment

Activity 6. Let’s check it out…

Directions: Read carefully the statements or questions below and write your
answers on your activity notebook.
1. Qualitative data analysis focuses on examining ________________________.
a. numbers b. visions c. words d. concepts

2. The value of data analysis results is determined by their connection with

your ________________________.
a. research method c. research design
b. research title d. research questions

3. The following are research activities to be done in organizing information

for final report, except:

a. summarizing b. coding c. proof reading d. overlooking

21
10
4. The features of participants’ accounts characterizing particular
perceptions and/or experiences that the researcher sees as relevant to
the research question are _________________________.

a. interviewees b. respondents c. themes d. subjects

5. The accuracy with which a method measures and what it is intended to
measure is _____________.

a. validity b. dependable c. reliability d. durability

6. What is the best way to organize data?

a. by familiarizing it c. by stocking them all

b. by calling other researchers d. by looking the interview guide

7. The consistency of the research findings is ______________________.

a. assurance b. insurance c. reliability d. measurable

8. This can elaborate the findings and often lead to more complex and
context-respective explanations__________.

a. finding b. conflicting finding c. initial finding d. false finding

9. Why are focus groups conducted?

a. to obtain knowledge c. to get feedback

b. to find colleagues d. to earn energy

10. Which of the following is not included in the group?

a. coding techniques for finding and marking the underlying ideas in the
data
b. grouping similar kinds of information together in categories
c. selecting the data needed for interpretation
d. relating different ideas and themes to one another

22
11
 Additional Activities

Activity 7. Let’s go beyond…

Directions: From your Draft in your Activity 5, present the results of your
study by writing a final draft with a heading RESULTS. Use the following
guide:

Paragraph 1. Restate your problem in a paragraph form.

Paragraph 2. Briefly describe the methodology used in your study,

Respondents, Instruments, etc.

Paragraph 3. Present the summary of your findings and analysis. These

include your inferences.

Use a clean short bond paper and be consistent with the format.

You are almost done with your paper.

Expected output from previous and current modules:

Title
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Significance of the Study
Review of Related Literature
Methodology
Research Design
Participants
Sampling
Data Gathering Procedure
Results

1223
11 3

Practical Research 1
Quarter 2 – Module 8:
Writing Conclusions,
Recommendation, and References
 WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

Hooray! You are already at the last part of your research. This module
will guide you on how to knit together all the findings in your study in order
to come up with a conclusion. From there, you can recommend any
achievable actions that can be taken in order to serve the purpose of your
study.

Additionally, considering research ethics, a researcher must identify

and acknowledge the sources of information used in the study. Thus,
further discussion on this topic is included in this module.

Learning Competencies:
Draws conclusions from patterns and themes CS_RS11- IVg-j-1

Formulates recommendations based on conclusions CS_RS11- IVg-j-2

Lists references CS_RS11- IVg-j-3

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. identify the ways of making conclusions;

2. formulate recommendations based on the conclusions;
3. list the references used in the research study; and
4. appreciate the formulation of logical conclusions and
recommendations as well as the techniques in listing references.

WHAT I KNOW

Activity 1. Let’s check your prior knowledge…

Directions: Read each item carefully. Write TRUE if the statement is true
and FALSE if the statement is not true. Write your answers on your activity
notebook.

1. A conclusion is not a summary of the points or a re-statement of

the research problem but a synthesis of key points.
2. Evidences are bases of conclusion.
3. Shortage of proof leads to the success of a researcher.

1
 4. The findings should then be related to other evidences or
hypotheses as described in the main body, including a
comparison with other similar studies.
5. The conclusions may challenge the reader to accept or not the
ideas.
6. Recommendations should be practical and achievable.
7. Action that should be taken to address the problem is the entire
content of conclusions.
8. The final step of research is making conclusions.
9. Referencing is an essential part of any scientific writing.
10. The reference list is found at the completion of the article.

WHAT’S IN

Activity 2. In research, inferring is very important. Try to do the activity

below to assess how far you are in this particular skill.

Directions: Read the statement for each number and choose the
appropriate inference.

1. Mila's younger sister is in bed upstairs. She heard a bang and crying.
A. The baby is playing. C. The baby is talking.
B. The baby is sucking D. The baby is hurt.
the finger.
2. If air is heated in the balloon…
A. The air collapses. C. The air stops.
B. The air expands. D. The air multiplied.
3. Jhon played the piano. She had eaten a cake and ice cream, and then
watched as his friends opened his gifts.
A. John was at the C. Jhon was at a birthday
funeral. party.
B. Jhon was at the D. Jhon was sleepy.
kitchen.
4. Anna woke up at 1:00 am and saw that the light was ON in the sala.
She heard thin footsteps on the stairs and later perceived a bang on
the door next to her.
A. There was a ghost. C. Her brother arrived.
B. Flicker was possible. D. Grandma was cooking.
5. A lady with a known boyfriend was on the stairways, but she suddenly
dropped from the second floor with an old, unused iron chair. Blood
flashed from the lower part of her body and collapsed. Why was there
a sudden flash of blood? Because according to the doctor...

2
 A. The lady was pregnant.
B. The lady was shocked.
C. Her lower private part was hit with a hard object.
D. The lady was vulnerable.

WHAT’S NEW

Activity 3. Let’s try guessing…

Directions: Each number has 4 pictures for you to analyze. Guess the
words that are related to the lessons in this module. Some letters are
already revealed as clues.
1. 2.

Source: https://heavy.com/4-pics-1-word- Source: https://heavy.com/4-pics-1-word-

cheats/2014/03/list-graph-chart-think/ cheats/2014/04/think-lecture-idea-why/

__ E __ __ M __ __ N __ A __ __ 0 __ __ __ N __ __ U __ __ __ N

3.

__ E __ E __ __ N __ __ S

Source: https://heavy.com/4-pics-1-word-
cheats/2014/04/cds-study-books-read/

3
 WHAT IS IT

Conclusions
The conclusion is intended to help the reader appreciate why the
research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A
conclusion is a synthesis of key points. For most essays, one well-developed
paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion; although in some cases, a two- or
three-paragraph conclusion may be required (USC Libraries, 2014).
You need to draw together the threads of research to arrive at some
general conclusions. In other words, you summarize the ideas of the research
in terms of research problem, or objectives and tie up both ends neatly. The
conclusions are drawn by logical inference from findings (Mutai, 2001).
The conclusion culminates the research report and is of utmost
importance to one’s readers because it answers the questions that sparked
the collected data and its analysis in the first place. In concluding one’s
report, it is important to discuss the practical application and implications
of one’s findings in the real world. Although one is supposed to have
interpreted evidence at every step of one’s analysis, one’s conclusions pull
the strands together in a broader perspective and indicate possible action,
where appropriate (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).
In the main text of the conclusion section, one needs to draw together
the threads of the research to arrive at some general conclusions and,
perhaps, suggest some ways forward. Rather than let the report fizzle out as
it reaches the end, this part of the report should be constructive and
positive. Conclusions should not contain any ideas not previously raised in
the report. It should state in unqualified terms what the findings are. The
findings should then be related to other evidences or hypotheses as
described in the main body, including a comparison with other similar
studies. Where appropriate, a variety of options arising from the study
should be explained. The content of the conclusion logically precedes it. In
tying these materials together, the conclusion can perform the three
functions, as follows:
1) Recapitulate the ideas of the paper: This is done in the manner where
the researcher returns to the first paragraph or so, review, summarize
and ties up both ends neatly.

2) Extend a challenge: This is usually reserved for the problem-solving

paper. Such a conclusion may call on the reader himself to help make
the solution to take effect by telling him/her what to do.

4
 3) Draw inferences: If opposing ideas have been presented, the
conclusions may challenge the reader to accept one or other ideas, or
at least to consider their relative value (Mutai, 2001).

Problems to Avoid in Making Conclusions

The following problems should be avoided in writing the conclusion

(Ebrahim, 2018):

1) Failure to be concise: The conclusion section should be concise and to

the point. Conclusions that are too long have unnecessary details. The
conclusion section is not the place for details about the methodology
or results. Although one should give a summary of what was learned
from the research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the
emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications, evaluations,
insights, and others that one makes.

2) Failure to comment on larger or more significant issues: In the

introduction, one’s task is to move from general (the field of study) to
specific (the research problem). However, in the conclusion, one’s task
is to move from specific (the research problem) back to general or field
– i.e., how the research contributes new understanding or fills an
important gap in the literature. In other words, the conclusion is
where one places the study research within a larger context.

3) Failure to reveal problems and negative results: Negative aspects of the

research process should never be ignored. Problems, drawbacks, and
challenges encountered during the study should be included as a way
of qualifying the overall conclusions. If one encountered negative
results of findings that are validated outside the research context in
which they were generated, one must report them in the results
section of the paper. In the conclusion, use the negative results as an
opportunity to explain how they provide information in which future
research can be based on.

4) Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned: In order to be

able to discuss how the research fits back into the field of study and
possibly the world at large, one needs to summarize it briefly and
directly. Often, this element of the conclusion is only a few sentences
long.

5) Failure to match the objectives of the research: Often, research

objectives change while the research is being carried out. This is not a

5
 problem unless one forgets to go back and refine the original
objectives in the introduction. As these changes emerge, they must be
documented so that they accurately reflect what one was trying to
accomplish in the research and not what one thought might be
accomplished when one began.

Recommendations

One’s summary and conclusions should lead logically to one’s

recommendations. Recommendations must be consistent with the purpose
of the study, its objectives, the evidence presented by the data, and the
interpretations given. Recommendations should be practical and achievable
(Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).

The recommendations concerning the action to be taken follow the

conclusions. Where recommendations involve policy decisions, state them
completely as possible including who should do what, when and why (Mutai,
2001).

Common recommendations that researchers often make include the following:

1) Areas of further research: Emphasizing the questions in the study that

remain unanswered and therefore ought to be explored further.

2) Methodological issues: These could be addressed and refined to

improve future research in the areas of study.

3) Actions that should be taken to address the problem based on the

research findings: Solving specific problems could involve designing
and implementing an intervention of a project (Mugenda & Mugenda,
2003).
Writing the References

As per the considerations of research ethics, the researchers should

identify and acknowledge various sources they have used in their
work/write up. Referencing is a system used by the academicians to
indicate the source of the ideas, theories, quotes, facts or any other
evidence, data, and information that have been used for any write up or
assignment. It is an essential part of any scientific writing and one must do
this in all the academic assignments. It is the accepted way of giving credit
to the ideas and evidence on which one’s argument is based. References are
listed in an organized, structured, and consistent way, at the end of the
write up/assignment. In thesis, the list of references appears before the
appendices.

6
 Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References

Vancouver style

Most journals in medical sciences use the Vancouver system to write

the references. In this system, the citation in the text is done by reference
number. In the list, the references are in a numeric order (Arabic) in which
they are first cited in the manuscript. References are numbered
consecutively in the order that they are first mentioned in the text. Each
reference number is placed in parentheses or superscripted throughout the
text, tables, and legends.

In Vancouver style, the names of all the authors are written when
there are six authors. If there are more than six authors, “et al.” is used
after writing the first six authors.

While using the Vancouver style, if an author’s name is used in the

text, it is mandatory to use the citation number as well. For example, “as
Kaur 2 emphasized the high prevalence of depression in elderly...”

APA style

The APA style is a structured format for all sorts of academic writings,
including the journal articles, books, and other commentaries devised by the
American Psychological Association (APA) Table 1. The style guide titled as
‘Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association’ was first
published in 1929 as a seven-page document. After eighty years, the sixth
edition of the manual was published in 2009. This style is very widely used
in social and behavioral sciences like psychology, sociology, social work,
nursing, and education.

While citing reference in text, where one needs to cite one work by one
author, the following format is used: “Author’s Surname (year)”. For
example, “Sharma (2014) reported that 43% of antenatal females experience
intimate partner violence.” When the citation has three, four, or five authors,
cite all authors when the reference appears for the first time; in the
subsequent citations, include only the surname of the first author followed
by “et al.” and the year. For example:

“Kaur, Sharma, Bakshi and Sinha (2012) reported high prevalence of

stress among nurses…” (used as first citation in the text)

“Kaur et al. (2012) also found…” (used in the subsequent citation per
paragraph thereafter).

7
 For a web page with no author, cite the first few words of the title and
the year using double quotation marks around the title. The government
documents, books, technical/research reports, or brochures can also be
considered for writing the references. If a person is named on the title page,
use him or her as author. If no person is named, use the government
agency, department, or branch as a group author.

The reference list is written at the end of the article. The list provides
the necessary information required to identify and retrieve each source. In
APA style, the reference list should include only those references which are
actually used in the preparation of article. Hence, the APA style requires the
use of reference list, not bibliography. The order of the reference list is
prepared by arranging all entries in alphabetical order by the surname of
the first author followed by the initials of the author’s given name. The rule
is to alphabetize letter by letter. When there are several works by the same
author, they are to be arranged by year of publication; the earliest comes
first. For example, “Sharma N (2010)” precedes “Sharma N (2014)”. One-
author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the same
surname even if the multiple-author work was published earlier. For
example, “Kaur (2014)” shall precede “Kaur, Singh, and Sharma (2010)”.
This style mandates writing the names of all the authors in the reference list
up to seven authors. If there are more than seven authors, the following
format is used:

Kaur, S., Sharma, N., Sharma, S., Thakur, M., Agnihotri, N. Thakur
M,.…Saini, S. (2015). Effectiveness of peer evaluation in nursing training.
Education and Research Journal, 6, 167-177.

For government agency with no author, it can be written as U.S. Food

and Drug Administration, 2004.

Table 1
Format of Writing the References Using APA Style
Type of source Format Example

Book Personal “Author, A.A. (Year Kaur, S., Singh, M. (2014). Clinical Neuroscience
author(s) of Publication). Title and Critical Care Nursing. 1st Edition. New
of work. Publisher Delhi : Jaypee Medical Publishers
City, State:
Publisher”.

Book Author(s) Author, A.A. (Year of Chongtham, V (2016). Aggression in psychiatric

and Editor(s) publication). Title of patients. In N Sharma (Eds.). New Delhi: Sage.
book. In Editor’s
First Initial. Last
Name (Ed.). Place of
publication:

8
 Publisher.

Chapter in a “Author, AA, and Mohan, J. and Kaur, N. (2014). Emotional

book Author, B. B. (1995). Intelligence in relation to leadership traits in
Title of chapter or young women. In M. Meenakshi, A.K. Vashist,
entry. In A Editor, Luxmi and P.K. Ansal (Eds.). Emotional
B.Editor, and C. Intelligence. Past and present trends- shaping
Editor (Eds.), Title of the future. (pp.1-6). New Delhi: YS books.
book (pp. xxx-xxx).
Location: Publisher”

Journal article “Author, A.A. Ager, A. (2013). Annual Research Review:

Author, B. B., and Resilience and child well-being – public policy
Author, C. C. (year). implications. Journal of Child Psychology and
Title of article. Title Psychiatry, 54(4), 488–500.
of journal,xx, pp-pp. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12030
doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx”

Website/webpage “Author, A. (Date of Woollastan, V. (2014, Oct 1). What’s it like to

publication). Title of grow old in YOUR country? Global index ranks
work. Retrieved the world based on quality of life for the over-
month day, year, 60s. Retrieved June 24, 2015 from
from full URL” http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-
2776444/What-s-like-grow-old-YOUR-country-
Global-index-ranks-world-based-quality-life-
60s.html

Note: To check more examples of APA style and other examples for Vancouver style
and Harvard style, you may browse and read the full paper at
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335652047_Writing_References.

Harvard style
This is also known as Author and Date system. The Harvard system
puts the authors and the date of work being referred to at the appropriate
point in the text rather than using a number. This is called a “citation”. All
the works cited are then listed at the end of the report/paper in an
alphabetical order according to the authors’ surname. The reader can then
refer from the text to the reference. The reference list must contain all the
works cited in the text.

It is economical in terms of time. It is very flexible as entries can be

added, deleted, or changed with a minimum of disruption to the rest of the
document. In addition, the reader can tell immediately who the author is
and when the study was published. It emphasizes the name of the author
and the publication year in the text with full bibliographic details in a
reference list.

While using Harvard style, if a citation is to be used in text, depending

on the style of your sentence, you will either include both the author and
9
year in brackets or just the year in brackets, with the author forming part of
your sentence. For example, “interpersonal stress is very common in first
year students (Sharma, 2010),” or “in a descriptive study by Sharma (2010),
interpersonal stress was emphasized in first year students.” Further, the
style mandates the use of specific page number as well if one is using a
direct figure or idea from a particular page, for example “(Kaur, 2014)”. For a
work done by more than one author, the name of all authors is to be given
in text up to three authors. If there are more than three authors, then write
the name of the first author followed by “et al.”

WHAT’S MORE

Activity 4. Let’s do it…

Directions: Read the following questions and answer them on your

notebook or activity sheets.

1. What’s the relationship between the conclusion and the data analysis
results?

2. How do you determine the validity of evidence as basis for your

conclusions?

3. Are you playing the role of a debater in doing a conclusion of your

research paper? Justify your answer.

WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

Activity 5. Let’s reflect…

Directions: Write a short reflection on your activity notebook.

I thought that_____________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________.

I learned that ____________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________.

10
 WHAT I CAN DO

Activity 6. Let’s prove it…

Directions: Read the following items below and do what is asked.

1. Make a final research report with the following parts: Cover Page,
Table of Contents, Introduction (Statement of the Problem, Scope and
Delimitation of the Study, and Significance of the Study), Review of
Related Literature, Methodology (Research Design, Participants,
Sampling, Data Gathering Procedure), Results, Conclusions,
Recommendations, and References using APA style.

2. Submit your final research report to your research teacher. Make it

presentable (computer encoded or neatly handwritten). You may
consult your teacher if you need more time to do this activity.
However, be sure to submit your output within the time allotted for
the 2nd Quarter for grading purposes.

ASSESSMENT

Activity 7. Let’s check it out…

Directions: Read carefully the statements below and identify the correct
terms that match the descriptions for each number. Write your answers on
your activity notebook.
1. ________ is intended to help the reader understand why the research
should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper.
2. The _______ should be related to other evidences or hypotheses as
described in the main body, including a comparison with other
similar studies.
3. ________ recapitulates the ideas in the research paper.
4. _______ must be consistent with the purpose of the study, its
objectives, the evidence presented by the data, and the
interpretations given.

11
 5. _______ is a system used by the academicians to indicate the source
of the ideas, theories, quotes, facts or any other evidence, data and
information that have been used for any write up or assignment.
6. The_______ style is a structured format for all sorts of academic
writings including the journal articles, books and other
commentaries.
7. ________ is a list that provides the necessary information required to
identify and retrieve each source.
8. ________ is also known as the Author and Date system.
9. __________ is a referencing style that is very flexible as entries can be
added, deleted, or changed with a minimum of disruption to the rest
of the document.
10. The APA style requires the use of reference list, not___________.

ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES

Activity 7. Let’s go beyond…

Directions: Share your experience in writing your research. You may do this
in a journal style or a 40- to 60-second vlog. For those who opt to share
their experience through a vlog, introduce yourself first, share your
experience in writing research, and finally, give positive advices for the
future writers. Don’t forget to share the link to your teacher. For those who
opt to write a journal, write your name and section and follow the same
sequence.

12
 Review Article
Statistics

Types of Sampling in Research

Pooja Bhardwaj
Department of Cardiology, AIIMS, New Delhi, India
Downloaded from http://journals.lww.com/jpcs by BhDMf5ePHKav1zEoum1tQfN4a+kJLhEZgbsIHo4XMi0hCywCX1AW

Abstract
nYQp/IlQrHD3i3D0OdRyi7TvSFl4Cf3VC4/OAVpDDa8KKGKV0Ymy+78= on 10/13/2023

Sampling is one of the most important factors which determines the accuracy of a study. This article review the sampling techniques used
in research including Probability sampling techniques, which include simple random sampling, systematic random sampling and stratified
random sampling and Non-probability sampling, which include quota sampling, self-selection sampling, convenience sampling, snowball
sampling and purposive sampling.

Keywords: Sampling, statistics, methods, cluster, snowball

Introduction to Research 2. To know about the subject in depth, for example,

the characteristics, nature of a particular group, or
Research in common language means to search for knowledge.
individual‑descriptive research
Etymology 3. To correlate the association of some particulars with
Research is made up of two words – Re + cerchier derived something else – diagnostic research.
from old French recherchier meaning to search. There are different types of research; some of them are listed
Definition of research below:
D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of the 1. Descriptive and analytical
Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, 2. Applied and fundamental
concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, 3. Quantitative and qualitative
correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in 4. Conceptual and empirical
construction of theory or in the practice of an art.” 5. Other types include clinical, historical, and conclusion
oriented.
According to Clifford Woody, research comprises defining
and redefining problems; formulating hypothesis or suggested There are different steps which provide a useful procedural
solutions; collecting, organizing, and evaluating the data; guideline regarding the research process, some of the steps
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last are as follows:
carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they 1. Formulating the research problem
fit the formulating hypothesis. 2. Extensive literature survey
3. Hypothesis developing
Research can be taken as the contribution to the existing bundle 4. Preparing research design
of knowledge, making it more advanced.
The main objective of research is to know or to find out the
answers to questions in a scientific way. Address for correspondence: Dr. Pooja Bhardwaj,
AIIMS, New Delhi, India.
Some of the general objectives of research are as follows: E‑mail: [email protected]
1. To know about a subject or to find out something new in
that – exploratory or formulative research Date of Submission: 01‑Nov‑2019 Date of Acceptance: 28-Nov-2019
Date of Revision: 20-Nov-2019 Date of Web Publication: 20-Dec-2019

Access this article online This is an open access journal, and articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution‑NonCommercial‑ShareAlike 4.0 License, which allows others to
Quick Response Code: remix, tweak, and build upon the work non‑commercially, as long as appropriate credit
Website: is given and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.
www.j‑pcs.org
For reprints contact: [email protected]

DOI:
10.4103/jpcs.jpcs_62_19 How to cite this article: Bhardwaj P. Types of sampling in research. J Pract
Cardiovasc Sci 2019;5:157-63.

© 2019 Journal of the Practice of Cardiovascular Sciences | Published by Wolters Kluwer - Medknow 157
 Bhardwaj: Sampling in Statistics

5. Determining the sample size Types of sampling

6. Collecting the data Before we discuss about the different kinds of sampling, let
7. Execution of the project us discuss about what the word sample mean.
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis testing In research term, a sample is a group of people, objects, or
10. Generalization and interpretation items that are taken from a large population for measurement.
11. Preparation of report or presentation of the results. So, to get the accurate results, sampling is done.[6‑10]
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According to the above steps, we have to prepare the research For example, if we have to check all the chips in a factory
design and determine the sample size to carry out a complete made are good or not, it is very difficult to check each chip,
research. Hence, we will discuss in detail about the different so to check, we will be taking a random chip and check for its
accurate taste, shape, and size.
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types of sampling or the sample designs.

Hence, sampling is an important tool in research, when the
What is Sampling population size is large. Based on this, we have divided
it into two types: (1) probability (2) and nonprobability
Sampling is defined as a procedure to select a sample from
[Figure 2].
individual or from a large group of population for certain
kind of research purpose. There are different advantages and These two types of sampling are further divided into the
disadvantages of sampling. We would be thinking sometimes following subtypes:
that – Why there is a need of sampling? the answer is as it
Probability sampling
is too expensive and too time consuming to survey a whole
In this type of sampling, there is a known probability of each
population in a research study, we use sampling [Figure 1].[1‑5]
member of the population of being selected in the sample. When
Advantages and disadvantages of sampling population is highly homogenous, there are high chances of each
Advantages member of being selected in a sample. For example, in a bag full
• Saves time and money and gives faster results as the of rice, if we want to pick some rice, there are high chances of
sample size is smaller than the whole population each rice grain of being selected in a sample. Hence, the sample
• Sampling gives more accurate results as it is performed collected will be a representative of the whole rice bag.
by trained and experienced investigators For such a study, the population serves as relatively a
• When there is large population, sampling is the best homogenous group as every member of the population is the
way target respondent of the research [Figure 3].
• Sampling enables to estimate the sampling errors. Hence,
it assists in getting information concerning to some
characteristics of the population
• Study of samples requires less space and equipment as
they are small in size
• When there is limited resources, sampling is best.
The main disadvantage of the sampling is chances of bias.
But, seeing so many of advantages, sampling is the best way
to proceed in a research.

Figure 1: Population for sampling. Figure 2: Types of sampling.

158 Journal of the Practice of Cardiovascular Sciences ¦ Volume 5 ¦ Issue 3 ¦ September-December 2019
 Bhardwaj: Sampling in Statistics

Simple random sampling There are two types of simple random sampling:
In this type of sampling, the members of the sample are selected 1. Simple random sampling with replacement (SRSWR)
randomly and purely by chance. Hence, the quality of the 2. Simple random sampling without replacement (SRSWOR).
sample is not affected as every member has an equal chance Simple random sampling with replacement
of being selected in the sample. Selecting “n” number of units out of “N” units one by one in
This type of sampling is best for population which is highly such a way that at each stage of selection, the sample each unit
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homogenous. has equal chance of being selected, i.e., 1/N.

There are two different ways in which this type of sampling Simple random sampling without replacement
is carried out: Selecting “n” number of units out of “N” one by one at any
stage of selecting a sample in such a way that anyone of the
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Lottery method/envelope method

left units have the probability of being selected as a sample,
In this method, we assign unique numbers to each member or
i.e., 1/N.
element of the population, say in a population of 100 members,
we give number from 1 to 100 to the members on a paper For example, if we want to know the number of turtles in a pond
and keep it in a box. Then, we will take out any chit, and the of a village, so if we are catching turtles from water, measure
number on that chit is a random sample. them, and return them to water, there are high chances that we
choose the same turtle, this is SRSWR. However, if we take
However, in this method, when the population size is larger, it is
out the turtle from the water and don’t return it without taking
difficult to write the name of every number on the chits. Hence,
the next, it becomes SRSWOR.
another method is used, i.e., random number table (which will
be discussed later). Stratified random sampling
Another example given is an envelope method, say we want to In this type, the population is first divided into subgroups called
select dilated cardiomyopathy patients DCM patients for yoga strata on the basis of similarities and then from each group or
in a research project. The details of the 100 patients will be in strata, the members are selected randomly.
each envelope and any one will be selected randomly. Hence, Here, the purpose is to address the issue of less homogeneity
here, the chances of all patients to be selected as a sample are of the population and to make a true representative sample.
equal.
For example, in a school of 1000 students, if we want to know
Random number table method how many of them will choose medical as their career, asking
There are different number of random tables available, for each student is difficult. Hence, as inquiring the whole class
example, Fisher’s and yates tables and Tippets random number. is difficult, we will ask few grades and from them, we will
Here also, first we assign numbers to the population. If we choose samples.[6‑10]
have population of 20 and we have to choose five samples For example, consider the following number of students in
from this, we have to choose five random numbers from the class:
the table. For example, we choose – 12, 19, 01, 08, and 15. Grade  No. of students “n”
Hence, members of these numbers will be selected as the • Grade – 6 – 50
sample. • Grade – 7 – 50
• Grade – 8 – 100
Types of simple random sampling
• Grade – 9 – 100
In the above section, we have discussed about the methods
of doing simple random sampling. In this section, we will be • Grade – 10 – 200
discussing about the types of simple random sampling. • Grade – 11 – 200
• Grade – 12 – 300
Now calculate the sample of each grade using the following
formula:
Stratified sample: n6 = 100/1000 × 50 = 5, n7 = 100/1000 × 50
= 5…. and so on.
So, in this, from each grade, five samples will be selected, and
these will be selected according to the simple random method.
This type of sample is also called random quota sampling.
There should be classification on the basis of age,
Figure 3: Sampling: Example of probability, Probability to be a sample of socioeconomics, nationality, religion, and other such
all members is equal in this population. classifications.

Journal of the Practice of Cardiovascular Sciences ¦ Volume 5 ¦ Issue 3 ¦ September-December 2019 159
 Bhardwaj: Sampling in Statistics

Detailed steps to select stratified random sample: When to use stratified random sampling
1. First, we will target the audience • When we want to focus on a particular strata from the
2. Then, we will recognize the stratification variables which given population data
should match with the research objective and then will • When we want to establish relationship between two strata
figure out the number of strata to be used • When it is difficult to contact/access the sample
3. After gathering the information of stratification variables, population, this method is best as samples are easily
we will create a frame on this basis for all elements in involved in research with this method
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target audience • As the elements of samples are chosen from some specific
4. The whole population is then divided into different strata strata, the accuracy of statistical results is higher than that
which will be unique and different from each but should of simple random sampling.
cover each and every element/member of population. But,
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each member should be in one strata only

Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is an advanced form of simple random
5. Now, we will assign random, unique number to each element
sampling, in which we need complete data about the
6. Then divide the number of samples to be taken with the
population.
total number of population into number of people in that
group In this, a member is selected after a fixed interval. The member
7. The number now what we got is the number of samples thus selected will be known as the Kth element.
to be selected for that particular strata. Here, we will use
Steps to form/select the sample using systematic sampling:
the simple random technique.
• First develop a well‑defined structural population to start
Types of stratified sampling on sampling aspect
There are two types – (a)‑Proportionate stratified random • Figure out the ideal size of sample
sampling – in this type, the sample size is directly proportional • After deciding the sample size, assign number to every
to the entire population of strata, i.e., each strata sample has member of sample
the same sampling fraction. (b) When the sample size is not • Then, the interval of the sample is decided.
proportional. For example, we want to select a total of ten patients from a
Examples – in a medical college of 1000 students doing group of forty, then the Kth element will be selected by dividing
postgraduation (PG), there are five different branches of 40/10 = 4, so every 4th patient will be taken for sampling – 4,
doing PG and we want to study the reading pattern of all the 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, and 40.
students. Hence, it is highly difficult for us to go and ask every Types of systematic sampling
PG student. So, here, we will divide the class according to the 2 types
subjects and then according to the formulation, we will count
each number of samples to be taken from each stratum.
In another example – if in a study a researcher wants to study Linear Circular
which sex, male or female, is predominantly affected by
Linear systematic sampling
heart failure and what are the causes behind that. He/she will A list is made in a sequential manner of the whole population
divide the given population into two groups – one male and list. Decide the sample size and find the sampling interval by
then female. According to the stratified formula, the number formula: K = N/n, where K is the Kth element, N is the whole
of males and females to be selected from each strata will be population, and n = number of samples. Now, choose random
counted and then the members in sample with simple random number between 1 and K and then to the number what we got
method will be selected. add K to that to get the next sample.
From 1000 people, 700 males and 300 females, according to Circular systematic sampling
which if we want to choose 100 people, then 70 males should be In this, first, we will determine sample interval and then select
selected and 30 females should be selected, and this selection number nearest to N/n. For example, if N = 17 and n = 4, then k
will be random. is taken as 4 not 5 and then start selecting randomly between 1
Importance of this sampling to N, skip K units each time when we select the next unit until
• The main advantage of this sampling is that it gives we get n units. In this type, there will be N number of samples
better accuracy in results as compared to other sampling unlike K samples in linear systematic sampling method.
methods Advantages
• It is very easy to teach and easy to grasp by the trainees 1. It is very easy to create, conduct, and analyze the sample
• Even smaller sample sizes can also give good results using 2. Risk factor is very minimal
strata 3. As there is even distribution of members to form a sample,
• We can divide the large population into different systematic sampling is beneficial when there are diverse
subgroups/strata according to our need. members of population.

160 Journal of the Practice of Cardiovascular Sciences ¦ Volume 5 ¦ Issue 3 ¦ September-December 2019
 Bhardwaj: Sampling in Statistics

Cluster sampling When to use/execute judgmental sampling:

In cluster sampling, various segments of a population are • When the number of people is less in the population and
treated as cluster, and members from each cluster are selected the researcher knows that the target population fulfill
randomly. his/her demands, in that case, the judgmental sampling
is the best sample
Cluster sampling and stratified sampling are different from
• When there is a need to filter the samples chosen by
each other.
other sample methods, this sampling method is best as it
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In stratified sampling, the researcher is dividing the depends on the researcher’s knowledge and experience.
population into subgroups on the basis of age, sex,
Another example of this type of sampling is if a researcher
profession, etc., but in cluster sampling, we are selecting
wants to know how many patients of depression are doing
randomly from already‑existing or naturally occurring
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particular yoga postures and meditation, he/she will select

groups/cluster, for example, towns within a district and
those patients who he/she thinks will give 100% feedback.
families within a society.
Advantage of judgmental sampling
For example, in a city, if we want to know the list of individuals
• As selection of the sampling is done by experienced
affected by HBsAg, here it is difficult to find, but if we search
researcher, there will be no hurdles and thus selecting the
area wise, we may get better results. Here, the area acts as a
sample becomes convenient
cluster and the individuals will be treated as sampling unit.
• As the samples selected will be good respondents for that
In this method, first, we make clusters according to our particular study, almost we will get the real‑time results,
need and then we select sample according to simple random as members will have appropriate knowledge and they
sampling/systematic sampling. understand the subject well
• A researcher can produce desired results as he/she can
Multistage sampling
directly communicate with the target audience.
As the name suggests, it contains many stages and hence called
multistage sampling. Convenience sampling
In this, each cluster of samples is further divided into smaller Selecting the members of a sample on the basis of their
clusters and the members are selected from each smaller cluster convenient accessibility is called convenience sampling. In
randomly. It is a complex form of cluster sampling this, only those members are selected who are easily accessible
to the researcher.
Naturally, groups in a population selected as cluster
In this sampling, the available data are used without any further
additional requirements.
This is used in pilot testing more commonly.
Each cluster is divided into smaller cluster
The participants/samples are selected which are easier to
recruit for the study.
Then, from each smaller cluster, members are selected Some of the examples for this type of sampling are:
randomly. • Different challenges/games at the shopping malls on
different festivals
Nonprobability sampling • In a study, a researcher wants to know how many people
Nonprobability sampling is a type of sampling where each
in a particular area know about dengue, so the researcher
member of the population does not have known probability
will ask questionnaire to the people present and who
of being selected in the sample. For example, to study the
knows something about dengue will participate in it.
impact of child labor on children, the researcher will search and
interview only the children who are subjected to child labor. Even the researcher can use the different social networking
sites by putting his/her questions on them and interested
It is of the following types:
people will join.
Purposive sampling Advantage of convenience sampling
In this type of sampling, according to the purpose of the • Very easy to implement and inexpensive to create samples
study, the members for a sample are selected. It is also called • Useful for pilot studies and for hypothesis generations
deliberate sampling. It is also called judgmental sampling. • In a very short duration of time, we can collect data.
For example, to study the impact of yoga on DCM patients, Disadvantages
only the DCM patients can be the best respondents for Chances of high sampling error.
this study; every member of heart disease is not the
best respondent for this study. Hence, the researcher Snow‑ball sampling
deliberately selects only the DCM patients as respondents Also known as chain sampling or sequential sampling, it
for this study. is used where one respondent identifies other respondents

Journal of the Practice of Cardiovascular Sciences ¦ Volume 5 ¦ Issue 3 ¦ September-December 2019 161
 Bhardwaj: Sampling in Statistics

(from his/her friends or relatives or known‑to). This kind of In the following areas, snowball sampling can be applied:
sampling is adopted in situations where it is difficult to identify
1. Medical records: There are many rare diseases which are
the members in a sample.
yet to be researched and there could be restricted number
For example, a researcher wants to study problems faced of individuals suffering from such rare disease. Some of
by the migrants in an area. So, he/she will start from one the examples of such disease are mad cow disease, Alice
and that migrant will give him/her the information about in Wonderland, water allergy, laughing death, pica, and
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the other migrant and so it makes a chain and in this way, Moebius syndrome. Hence, with this kind of sampling,
sample goes on growing like a snowball and the researcher the people affected with such disease can be traced and
continues this method until the required sample size is research could be done
achieved. 2. Social research: In this, we take as many participants as
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When to use snowball sampling: much possible

3. Cases of discord: In cases of disputes and act of terrorism,
Snowball sampling totally depends on referrals. In this, the rights violation, we will choose people who are witness
population is unknown and rare, due to which it is highly for that or people who are affected by that.
difficult to find the samples/participants.
Advantage of snowball sampling
Just as snowball increases on adding more snow, samples • Can collect samples very quickly
increase in this technique until we collect enough data to • It is cost‑effective.
analyze. Hence, it is named snowball sampling.
Disadvantages of snowball sampling
Types of snowball sampling • High chances of sampling bias and margin of error
There are three types: • If no one cooperates, it is difficult to find the samples.
a. Linear snowball sampling: In this, the collection of
samples starts from collecting data from one and then that Quota sampling
individual tells about the other and so in this way, a chain In this kind of sampling, members are selected on the basis of
is formed and it continues till we get enough number of some specific characteristics chosen by the researcher. These
individuals to analyze. specific characteristics serve as a quota for selection of the
For example, a researcher performing study on Crohn’s members of the sample.
disease needs to find out the people suffering from Crohn’s In this type of sampling, we gather representative data from
disease which is difficult, so he/she asks one patient and a group. It is similar to stratified random sampling which is
gets information about the other patient suffering from a type of probability sampling. The only difference between
Crohn’s disease and this way, a chain is formed and the both is that in stratified random sampling, the elements of
researcher will continue to take the patients till enough sample are chosen randomly, but in quota sampling, it is
data he/she collects. not so.
b. Exponential nondiscrimination snowball sampling: In this,
one individual will be giving information about more than The number of participants is taken in specific category in
one individual and those individuals in turn will be giving well‑planned manner; for example, 100 males and 100 females.
information about the others and in this way, with more It is of two types – controlled quota sampling in which there
and more referrals, the chain is formed and we collect are limitations to the choice of the researcher. The other type is
data. uncontrolled quota sampling in which there are no limitations,
For example, to collect data regarding Diabetic mellitus and samples are selected according to the convenience of the
from an area, we find an individual who is suffering from researcher.
Diabetic mellitus.So from him, there are high chances that
we will get some information about other people he may Consecutive sampling
know suffering from Diabetic mellitus. In this type of nonprobability sampling, the researcher will
i. Exponential discrimination snowball sampling: select the samples according to his/her ease/convenience. This
In this type of snowball sampling, one patient is also similar to convenience sampling with little change.
gives multiple referrals, but the recruitment will
In this, the researcher first picks up a group of people for
be done only for one patient on the basis of the
research, does it for some time period, collects samples, gives
nature and type of the research study.
results, and once the research completes, he/she will move on to
For example, if we take the above same example, if
the next group of people. Hence, in this way, a researcher will
that one patient tells us about another five patients who
fine tune his/her research work with the help of this sampling,
are suffering from the same disease, now if the study
and he/she gets chance to work with multiple sampling.
researcher wants patients only below 40 years of age and
who have much controlled sugar, then he/she selects the In many of the researches, the techniques used, the data
patients according to this. analyzed, and conclusion given by researcher will either come

162 Journal of the Practice of Cardiovascular Sciences ¦ Volume 5 ¦ Issue 3 ¦ September-December 2019
 Bhardwaj: Sampling in Statistics

under null hypothesis or disapproving it and accepting the Disadvantages

alternative hypothesis. The samples obtained cannot be randomized, and we cannot
represent the whole population by this.
Null hypothesis is denoted by H0, and there is no significant
difference in the variables, whereas alternative hypothesis is Financial support and sponsorship
denoted by H1, which is opposite to null hypothesis where Nil.
there is some relationship between the two variables.
Conflicts of interest
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However, consecutively, the 3rd option is available, that is, here There are no conflicts of interest.
the researcher, will either come under null hypothesis or if he
disapproves it, he accepts the alternative hypothesis. References
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For example, for advertising the hospital, we distribute 1. Elfil M, Negida A. Sampling methods in clinical research; an educational
review. Emergency. 2017;5.
leaflets telling about the hospital and its facilities, once
2. Shorten A, Moorley C. Selecting the sample. Evid Based Nurs
the camp organized for checking blood sugar and blood 2014;17:32‑3.
pressure (BP) as free, people will come and do their checkups. 3. Martínez-Mesa J, González-Chica DA, Duquia RP, Bonamigo RR,
Many of the people will just see the leaflet and will move, Bastos JL. Sampling: how to select participants in my research study?.
Anais brasileiros de dermatologia. 2016;91:326-30.
but some of them will come and check for GRBS and BP. In 4. Sampling P, Guidelines P, Choices MS, Oaks T. Choosing the Type
this case, some might be only checking and going, and there of Sampling. Ch. 5. 2012. p. 125‑74. Avaliable on: https://www.
will be another group of people who will check and want to academia.edu/30353662/Sampling_methods_in_Clinical_Research_
an_Educational_Review. [Last accessed on 2019 Nov 30].
show results to doctor and consult them. Hence, this group 5. Teddlie C, Yu F. Mixed methods sampling: A typology with examples.
of people will provide conclusive results for showing the J Mix Methods Res 2007;1:77‑100.
reports to doctor. 6. Cochran WG. Sampling Techniques. 3rd ed., Vol. 98. New York: Wiley
and Sons; 1977. p. 259‑61.
Advantages 7. Guba EG, Lincoln YS. Competing paradigms in qualitative research.
a. In this, there are different options to sample size and Handbook of Qualitative Research. 1994. p. 105.
8. Joseph F. Hair Jr. William C. Black Barry J. Babin Rolph E. Anderson
sampling schedule Multivariate Data Analysis 7th edition. Pearson Education Limited;
b. Sampling schedule depends on the nature of research, if England 2014.
we are not able to get conclusive results with one sample, 9. Saunders MN, Saunders M, Lewis P, Thornhill A. Research Methods for
Business Students. 5th Edition, Pearson Education, Essex 2011.
then we will go to next
10. Hendlin YH, Vora M, Elias J, Ling PM. Financial conflicts of interest
c. This is not time‑consuming and also very little effort is and stance on tobacco harm reduction: A systematic review. Am J Public
required. Health 2019;109:e1‑8.

Journal of the Practice of Cardiovascular Sciences ¦ Volume 5 ¦ Issue 3 ¦ September-December 2019 163
TYPES OF SAMPLING
RESEARCH
Different Types Of Research
1. Descriptive and analytical
2. Applied and fundamental
3. Quantitative and qualitative
4. Conceptual and empirical
5. Other types include clinical, historical, and
conclusion oriented.
Different Types Of Research
1. Descriptive and analytical
2. Applied and fundamental
3. Quantitative and qualitative
4. Conceptual and empirical
5. Other types include clinical, historical, and
conclusion oriented.
• When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to
collect data from every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample.

• The sample is the group of individuals who will actually participate in the
research.

• To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how
you will select a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. This is
called a sampling method. There are two primary types of sampling methods
that you can use in your research:
– PROBABILITY SAMPLING involves random selection, allowing you to
make strong statistical inferences about the whole group.

– NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING involves non-random selection based on

convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.
The population is the entire
group that you want to draw
conclusions about.

The sample is the specific

group of individuals that you
will collect data from.
• The population can be defined in terms of geographical location, age, income,
or many other characteristics.

• Population vs sample It can be very broad or quite narrow: maybe you want
to make inferences about the whole adult population of your country; maybe
your research focuses on customers of a certain company, patients with a
specific health condition, or students in a single school.

• It is important to carefully define your target population according to the

purpose and practicalities of your project.

• If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and geographically

dispersed, it might be difficult to gain access to a representative sample. A
lack of a representative sample affects the validity of your results, and can
lead to several research BIASES, particularly sampling bias.
Sampling frame
The actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn from. Ideally, it
should include the entire target population (and nobody who is not part of that
population).

Sample size
The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on
various factors, including the size and variability of the population and your
research design. There are different sample size calculators and formulas
depending on what you want to achieve with statistical analysis.

Probability sampling method

Every member of the population has a chance of being selected. It is mainly
used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are
representative of the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the
 Different Steps Which Provide A Useful
Procedural Guideline Regarding The Research
Process
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Hypothesis developing
4. Preparing research design
5. Determining the sample size
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
SAMPLING
• A procedure to select a
sample from individual
or from a large group of
population for certain
kind of research
purpose.
• Why there is a need of sampling?

Too expensive and too time consuming to survey a

whole population in a research study, we use
sampling
 Advantages And Disadvantages Of Sampling
Advantages Disadvantage
Saves time and money and gives faster results as
the sample size is smaller than the whole
• chances of BIAS.
population
• Sampling gives more accurate results as it is
performed by trained and experienced
investigators
• When there is large population, sampling is the
best way
• Sampling enables to estimate the sampling errors.
Hence, it assists in getting information concerning
to some characteristics of the population
• Study of samples requires less space and
equipment as they are small in size
• When there is limited resources, sampling is best.
Probability sampling

Non- Probability sampling

TYPES OF SAMPLING
 Simple Random Samping
Probability Sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population

has an equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame
should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like

random number generators or other techniques that are based
entirely on chance.
 Simple Random Samping
Probability Sampling

The members of the sample Lottery Method/Envelope Method

are selected randomly and • In this method, we assign unique
purely by chance. Hence, the numbers to each member or
quality of the sample is not element of the population, say in a
affected as every member population of 100 members, we
give number from 1 to 100 to the
has an equal chance of members on a paper and keep it in
being selected in the sample. a box. Then, we will take out any
chit, and the number on that chit is
a random sample.
This type of sampling is best
for population which is highly
homogenous.
 Simple Random Samping
Probability Sampling

The members of the sample Random Number Table Method

are selected randomly and • first we assign numbers to the
purely by chance. Hence, the population. If we have population of
quality of the sample is not 20 and we have to choose five
affected as every member samples from this, we have to
choose five random numbers from
has an equal chance of the table. For example, we choose
being selected in the sample. – 12, 19, 01, 08, and 15.

This type of sampling is best • Hence, members of these numbers

for population which is highly will be selected as the sample.
homogenous.
 Simple Random Samping
Types of Simple Random Sampling
Probability Sampling

1. Simple random sampling with replacement (SRSWR)

2. Simple random sampling without replacement (SRSWOR)

 Simple Random Samping
Types of Simple Random Sampling
Probability Sampling

1. Simple random sampling with replacement (SRSWR)

Selecting “n” number of units out of “N” units one by one in such a way that at
each stage of selection, the sample each unit has equal chance of being
selected, i.e., 1/N.
2. Simple random sampling without replacement (SRSWOR)

Selecting “n” number of units out of “N” one by one at any stage of selecting a
sample in such a way that anyone of the left units have the probability of
being selected as a sample, i.e., 1/N.
 Stratified Random Sampling
Probability Sampling

The population is first divided Example

into subgroups called strata • In a school of 1000 students, if we
on the basis of similarities want to know how many of them will
and then from each group or choose medical as their career,
strata, the members are asking each student is difficult.
selected randomly. • Hence, as inquiring the whole class
is difficult, we will ask few grades
and from them, we will choose
Here, the purpose is to address samples
the issue of less homogeneity
of the population and to make a
true representative sample
 Stratified Random Samping
Probability Sampling

This type of sample is also

called random quota
sampling.
There should be classification
on the basis of age,
socioeconomics, nationality,
religion, and other such
classifications.
 Stratified Random Sampling
Steps to select stratified random sampling
Probability Sampling

1. First, we will target the audience

2. Then, we will recognize the stratification variables which should match with
the research objective and then will figure out the number of strata to be used
3. After gathering the information of stratification variables, we will create a
frame on this basis for all elements in target audience
4. The whole population is then divided into different strata which will be unique
and different from each but should cover each and every element/member of
population. But, each member should be in one strata only
5. Now, we will assign random, unique number to each element
6. Then divide the number of samples to be taken with the total number of
population into number of people in that group
7. The number now what we got is the number of samples to be selected for that
particular strata. Here, we will use the simple random technique.
 Stratified Random Sampling
Types of Simple Random Sampling
Probability Sampling

1. Proportionate stratified random sampling

– in this type, the sample size is directly proportional to
the entire population of strata, i.e., each strata sample
has the same sampling fraction.

2. When the sample size is not proportional.

 Stratified Random Sampling
Importance
Probability Sampling

1. The main advantage of this sampling is that it gives

better accuracy in results as compared to other sampling
methods
2. It is very easy to teach and easy to grasp by the trainees
3. Even smaller sample sizes can also give good results
using strata
4. We can divide the large population into different
subgroups/strata according to our need.
 Stratified Random Sampling
When to use stratified random sampling
Probability Sampling

1. When we want to focus on a particular strata from the

given population data
2. When we want to establish relationship between two strata
3. When it is difficult to contact/access the sample population,
this method is best as samples are easily involved in
research with this method
4. As the elements of samples are chosen from some
specific strata, the accuracy of statistical results is higher
than that of simple random sampling.
 Systematic Sampling
Probability Sampling

An advanced form of simple Steps:

random sampling, in which • First develop a well‑ defined
we need complete data structural population to start on
about the population. sampling aspect
• Figure out the ideal size of sample
• After deciding the sample size, assign
In this, a member is selected number to every member of sample
after a fixed interval. The • Then, the interval of the sample is
member thus selected will be decided.
known as the Kth element.
 Systematic Sampling
Types of Simple Random Sampling
Probability Sampling

1. Linear systematic sampling

– A list is made in a sequential manner of the whole population list.
Decide the sample size and find the sampling interval by formula: K = N/n,
where K is the Kth element, N is the whole population, and n = number of
samples. Now, choose random number between 1 and K and then to the
number what we got add K to that to get the next sample..
2. Circular systematic sampling
In this, first, we will determine sample interval and then select number
nearest to N/n. For example, if N = 17 and n = 4, then k is taken as 4 not 5 and
then start selecting randomly between 1 to N, skip K units each time when we
select the next unit until we get n units. In this type, there will be N number of
samples unlike K samples in linear systematic sampling method.
 Systematic Sampling
Advantages
Probability Sampling

1. It is very easy to create, conduct, and analyze the sample

2. Risk factor is very minimal
3. As there is even distribution of members to form a sample,
systematic sampling is beneficial when there are diverse
members of population.
 Cluster Sampling
Probability Sampling

various segments of a
population are treated as
cluster, and members from
each cluster are selected
randomly.
Note:
• In stratified sampling, the researcher is dividing the
population into subgroups on the basis of age, sex,
profession, etc., but in cluster sampling, we are selecting
randomly from already-existing or naturally occurring
groups/cluster, for example, towns within a district and
families within a society.
 Multistage Sampling
Probability Sampling

It contains many stages and Note:

hence called
It is a complex form of cluster sampling
multistage sampling.

In this, each cluster of

samples is further divided
into smaller clusters and the
members are selected from
each smaller cluster
randomly
Nonprobability Sampling

A type of sampling where each member of the

population does not have known probability of being
selected in the sample.

For example,

to study the impact of child labor on children, the

researcher will search and interview only the children
who are subjected to child labor
 Multistage Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling

It is also called Example:

deliberate sampling.
To study the impact of yoga on DCM
patients, only the DCM patients can be
It is also called judgmental the best respondents for this study;
every member of heart disease is not the
sampling.
best respondent for this study.

Hence, the researcher deliberately

selects only the DCM patients as
respondents
for this study
 Multistage Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
When to use/execute judgmental sampling:
1. When the number of people is less in the population and
the researcher knows that the target population fulfill
his/her demands, in that case, the judgmental sampling is
the best sample
2. When there is a need to filter the samples chosen by other
sample methods, this sampling method is best as it
depends on the researcher’s knowledge and experience.
 Multistage Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
Advantage of judgmental sampling
1. As selection of the sampling is done by experienced
researcher, there will be no hurdles and thus selecting the
sample becomes convenient
2. As the samples selected will be good respondents for that
particular study, almost we will get the real-time results, as
members will have appropriate knowledge and they
understand the subject well
3. A researcher can produce desired results as he/she can
directly communicate with the target audience.
 Convenience Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
Selecting the members of a sample on the basis of their convenient
accessibility is called convenience sampling. In this, only those
members are selected who are easily accessible to the researcher.

In this sampling, the available data are used without any further
additional requirements.

This is used in pilot testing more commonly.

The participants/samples are selected which are easier to

recruit for the study
 Convenience Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
Examples for this type of sampling are:
1. Different challenges/games at the shopping malls on
different festivals

2. In a study, a researcher wants to know how many people

in a particular area know about dengue, so the researcher
will ask questionnaire to the people present and who
knows something about dengue will participate in it.
 Convenience Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
Advantage Disadvantages
1. Very easy to implement Chances of HIGH sampling
and inexpensive to create error.
samples
2. Useful for pilot studies and
for hypothesis generations
3. In a very short duration of
time, we can collect data
Nonprobability Sampling Snow-ball Sampling
Also known as chain sampling or sequential sampling, it is used
where one respondent identifies other respondents (from his/her
friends or relatives or known-to).

This kind of sampling is adopted in situations where it is difficult to

identify the members in a sample.
Snowball sampling totally depends on referrals. In this, the population
is unknown and rare, due to which it is highly difficult to find the
samples/participants.
Just as snowball increases on adding more snow, samples increase
in this technique until we collect enough data to analyze. Hence, it is
named snowball sampling
 Snow-ball Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
Types
a. Linear snowball sampling:
In this, the collection of samples starts from collecting
data from one and then that individual tells about the other and
so in this way, a chain is formed and it continues till we get
enough number of individuals to analyze.
For example, a researcher performing study on Crohn’s
disease needs to find out the people suffering from Crohn’s
disease which is difficult, so he/she asks one patient and gets
information about the other patient suffering from Crohn’s
disease and this way, a chain is formed and the researcher will
continue to take the patients till enough data he/she collects.
 Snow-ball Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
Types
b. Exponential nondiscrimination snowball sampling:
i. Exponential discrimination snowball sampling:
In this type of snowball sampling, one patient gives
multiple referrals, but the recruitment will be done only for one
patient on the basis of the nature and type of the research study.

For example, if we take the above same example, if that

one patient tells us about another five patients who are suffering
from the same disease, now if the study researcher wants
patients only below 40 years of age and who have much
controlled sugar, then he/she selects the patients according to
this.
 Snow-ball Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
In the following areas, snowball sampling can be applied:
1. Medical records: There are many rare diseases which are
yet to be researched and there could be restricted number of
individuals suffering from such rare disease. Some of the examples
of such disease are mad cow disease, Alice in Wonderland, water
allergy, laughing death, pica, and Moebius syndrome. Hence, with
this kind of sampling, the people affected with such disease can be
traced and research could be done
2. Social research: In this, we take as many participants as much
possible
3. Cases of discord: In cases of disputes and act of terrorism,
rights violation, we will choose people who are witness for that or
people who are affected by that
Nonprobability Sampling Snow-ball Sampling
Advantage Disadvantages
• Can collect samples very • High chances of sampling
quickly bias and margin of error

• It is cost‑ effective. • If no one cooperates, it is

difficult to find the samples.
Nonprobability Sampling Quota Sampling
In this kind of sampling, members are selected on the basis of some
specific characteristics chosen by the researcher. These specific
characteristics serve as a quota for selection of the members of the
sample.
In this type of sampling, we gather representative data from a group. It
is similar to stratified random sampling which is a type of probability
sampling. The only difference between both is that in stratified random
sampling, the elements of sample are chosen randomly, but in quota
sampling, it is not so.
The number of participants is taken in specific category in well-
planned manner; for example, 100 males and 100 females.
Nonprobability Sampling Quota Sampling
Types
It is of two types – controlled quota sampling in which
there are limitations to the choice of the researcher.

The other type is uncontrolled quota sampling in which

there are no limitations, and samples are selected
according to the convenience of the researcher.
Nonprobability Sampling Consecutive Sampling
The researcher will select the samples according to his/her
ease/convenience. This is also similar to convenience sampling with
little change.
In this, the researcher first picks up a group of people for research,
does it for some time period, collects samples, gives results, and once
the research completes, he/she will move on to the next group of
people. Hence, in this way, a researcher will fine tune his/her research
work with the help of this sampling, and he/she gets chance to work
with multiple sampling.
In many of the researches, the techniques used, the data analyzed,
and conclusion given by researcher will either come under null
hypothesis or disapproving it and accepting the alternative hypothesis
Nonprobability Sampling Consecutive Sampling
Null hypothesis is denoted by H0, and there is no significant
difference in the variables, whereas alternative hypothesis is
denoted by H1, which is opposite to null hypothesis where
there is some relationship between the two variables.

However, consecutively, the 3rd option is available, that is,

here the researcher, will either come under null hypothesis or
if he disapproves it, he accepts the alternative hypothesis.
Nonprobability Sampling Consecutive Sampling
Advantage Disadvantages
a. In this, there are different The samples obtained
options to sample size and cannot be randomized, and
sampling schedule we cannot represent the
whole population by this
b. Sampling schedule depends
on the nature of research, if
we are not able to get
conclusive results with one
sample, then we will go to next
c. This is not time‑ consuming
and also very little effort is
required.
DIRECTIONS: You have already started writing your introduction of your own
study in Module 3 and RRL in Module 4. Retrieve your research paper from
your research teacher and continue writing the methodology section as an
output for Module 5. Be guided by the subsections below.
Expected Output:
Title: ___________________
Introduction (What compels you to study on the problem you identified?)
Statement of the Problem
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Significance of the Study
Review of Related Literature
Methodology
Research Design
Participants
Sampling
Data Gathering Procedure