° FA a anujjindal.in Notes Perception This document provides important insight into what a perception is. It's nature, importance, process, factors affecting perception and much more. Introduction Nature of Perception Difference between Perception and Sensation Importance of Perception Perceptual Process Factors affecting Perception Perceptual Errors and Distortion Perceptual Defence Rationality in Decision-Making Introduction “sf Perception is essentially a psychological process whereby people select, organise and interpret sensory stimulations into meaningful information about their work environment, It is closely related to the personality of a person and has the potential to influence his behaviour. Every person perceives the world and approaches life problems differently. The opinion about and the evaluation of a particular event differ from person to person. The reason is that people behave on the basis of what they perceive reality to be and not necessarily as what reality is. That is why perception is one of the most important psychological factors affecting human behaviour. According to Joseph Reitz, “Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives information about his environment — seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling. The study of these perception processes shows that their functioning is affected by three classes of variables —Nou + The objects or events being perceived + The environment in which perception occurs + The individual doing the perceiving People working in an organisation differ in terms of physical characteristics (such as age, sex, etc); background characteristics (such as training and education); and personality traits (such as extroversion or aggressiveness). One of the consequences of such differences is that they do not view the same things in the same way. There is often a difference of opinion and evaluation. People differ in their reactions due to differences in perceptions they have about things. Perception may thus be described as a person’s view of reality. Itis the process by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the environment. Research has adequately established that people perceive the world and approach life problems differently. This fact is very important in understanding human behaviour. The world as we see is not necessarily the same as it really is. It is because what we hear is not really said. We buy what we like best and not what is best. It is because a particular job may appear a good job to one and bad to another. The “facts” as they are seen by one viewer, may be different from the facts as seen by another viewer. The tension or discomfort that one feels when he thinks he is missing something may not realize by others. Everyone wears his own rose-coloured glasses, i.e., one does not always see what is actually happening. If people behave on the basis of their perception, then changing behaviour in a predetermined direction can be made easier by understanding their perception of the world. Nature of Perception From the above discussion, we can identify the features as follows: 1. Perception is the intellectual process through which a person selected the data from the environment, originates it, and obtains meaning from it 2. Perception is a basic cognitive or psychological process. The manner in which a person perceives the environment affects his behaviour. Thus, people's actions, emotions, or feelings are triggered by the perception of their surroundings.3. Perception is a subjective process and different people may perceive the same environmental event differently based on what particular aspects of the situation they choose to absorb, how they organise this information and the manner in which they interpret it to obtain an understanding of the situation. Difference between Perception and Sensation Perception and sensation are two distinct processes involved in how we experience and interpret the world through our senses. While they are closely related, they have fundamental differences in their nature and function Definition Nature Function Example Sensation Sensation refers to the process of detecting and receiving sensory information from the environment through our senses (such as vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch). ‘Sensation is a physiological process that involves the activation of sensory receptors (¢.9., photoreceptors in the eyes, auditory receptors in the ears) in response to stimuli from the external world The primary function of sensation is to gather raw sensory data from the environment and transmit it to the brain for further processing. Sensation provides the basic sensory input that forms the building blocks of perception. When you touch a hot surface, sensory receptors in your skin detect the temperature and send signals to your brain, resulting in the sensation of heat. Importance of Perception Perception Perception is the process of organizing, interpreting, and making sense of sensory information received from the environment. It involves higher-level cognitive processes that occur in the brain Perception is a cognitive process that involves the brain's processing ‘and integration of sensory inputs to create a meaningful and coherent understanding of the world. The main function of perception is to give meaning and significance to the sensory input received through sensation. It involves interpreting sensory data based on past experiences, knowledge, and cognitive processes. Alter touching the hot surface, perception comes into play as your brain interprets the sensory input and identifies the surface as dangerous. You become aware that the object is hot and that touching it could cause harm.Perception affects the outcome of behaviour. This is so because people act on the basis of what they see. Hence, in understanding behaviour, managers must recognize that facts people do not perceive as meaningful usually will not influence their behaviour, whereas the things they believe to be real, even though factually incorrect or non-existent, will influence it. Thus, the understanding of human perception, particularly in the organizational setting, perception is important in various activities. However, there are three major areas which require social attention so far as perpetual accuracy is concerned, These are: 1. Interpersonal working relationship * Organizations are intended to bring about integrated behaviour. Therefore, managers in the organization need to know whether or not members share similar or at least compatible perceptions. * If they do not, the problems of the organisation are greater and will require efforts to make perceptions more compatible. Misperceptions usually lead to strained relations and may even result in open conflict among people 2. Selection of Employees + Organizations typically select new employees on the basis of selection tests, interviews and reviews of the applicants’ backgrounds. + In many instances, much of the information is vague, and managers are subject to many perceptual problems when they make selection decisions. The major areas of problem in this are that © The managers’ emotional state may vary from day to day causing unfair perceptions of the same applicants and © There may be strong tendencies toward logical error and stereotyping especially during initial interviews.3. Performance Appraisal + The appraisal of a subordinate’s performance is highly affected by the accuracy of a manager's perceptions. The major areas of concern in this context are © Managers may have tendencies to positively evaluate some employees because they are better liked, are on favoured tasks, or are particularly noticeab| ind © Because of a halo effect, performance appraisal will be affected adversely. Perceptual Process Perception is the process through which people receive, select, organise and interpret information from their environment, Through perception, people process information input into decisions and actions. It is a way of forming impressions about oneself, other people, and daily life experiences. It is also a screen or filter through which information passes before having an effect on people. Perceptual inputs are first received, then processed by the perceiver and the resultant output becomes the base of behaviour caw oa Perceptual Perceptual Mechanism Perceptual cai oma i: 5 ct seen terran tan rN I 1 Characteristics ofthe ‘Characteristics ofthe Sination Porceiver + The components of the perceptual process are discussed below: 1. Inputs: The perceiver comes across information, objects, events, people, etc., in the environment. These serve as the inputs of the perceptual Notes Perceptprocess. Thus, perceptual inputs encompass all stimuli that exist in the environment. 2. Perceptual Mechanisms: when the perceiver receives information, he tries. to process it through the sub-processes of selection, organisation and interpretation. Thus, the mechanisms of perception are selection, organisation and interpretation. Perceptual selection takes account of only those stimuli that are relevant and appropriate for an individual Perceptual organisation is concerned with shaping the perceived inputs and converting them into a meaningful shape or formPersonal interpretation deals with inferences drawn from observed meaning from the perceived events or objects. From it emerges the resultant behaviour of the perceiver. 3. Outputs: As a result of the perceptual process, the outputs that the, individual gets are changes in attitudes, opinions, beliefs, feelings, etc. 4, Behaviour: The perceiver's behaviour is shaped by the perceived outputs, i.e., changes in attitudes, opinions, beliefs, etc. The perceiver’s behaviour generates responses depending upon the situation and these responses further give rise to a new set of inputs. Factors affecting Perception Perceiving people and events as they really are is important for a manager because behaviour occurs as a result of perception. If a person perceives hostility, he will mould behaviour appropriate to such threats. If one subconsciously feels inferior to another, he will act in a submissive manner. The factors that influence perceptual mechanisms are of three kinds: 1. Characteristics of the perceiver 2. Characteristics of the perceived or target, and 3. Characteristics of the situationy == Characteristics of the Perceiver When a person looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he sees, the interpretation is greatly influenced by his personal characteristics which are discussed below: 1. Needs and Motives: People’s perception is determined by their inner needs. A need is a feeling of tension or discomfort when one thinks he is missing something or requires something. People with different needs usually experience different stimuli, Similarly, people with different needs select different items to remember or respond to. When people are able to satisfy their needs, they are engaged in wishful thinking which is a way to satisfy the need, not in the real world but in the imaginary world, i.e., daydreaming. For instance, if someone is hungry and motivated to find food, they are more likely to notice and interpret food-related cues in their environment. According to Freud, wishful thinking is the same by which the Id, a part of the personality, attempts to achieve tension reduction. In such cases, people will only perceive items that suit their wishful thinking, 2. Self-Concept: How a person views the world depends greatly on the self- concept or image he has about himseff. The self-concept plays an important role Notes Percoptin perceptual selectivity. It can be thought of as an internal form of attention- getting and is largely based on the individual's complex psychological makeup. Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately. 3. Beliefs: A person's beliefs have a profound influence on his perception, Thus, a fact is conceived not on what it is but what a person believes it to be. The individual normally censors stimulus inputs to avoid disturbance of his existing beliefs. This is referred to as “maintenance of cognitive consistency”. For instance, if someone believes a particular product is of high quality due to its brand reputation, then the person is more likely to perceive it positively, even if she has no objective evidence of its quality. 4, Past Experience: A person's past experiences mould the way he perceives the current situation. Ifa person has been betrayed by a couple of friends in the past, he would tend to distrust any new friendship that he might be in the process of developing 5, Current Experience: The emotional and psychological states of an individual are likely to influence how things are perceived. Ifa person is depressed, he is likely to perceive the same situation differently than if he is elated. Similarly, if a girl has been scared out of her wits by seeing a snake in the garden, she is likely to perceive a rope under the bed as a snake. Characteristics of the Target or Perceived Certain characteristics of the target can affect what is perceived. These include the following. 1. Size: The bigger the size of the perceived stimulus, the higher the probability that itis perceived. Size attracts the attention of an individual. It establishes dominance and enhances perceptual selection.In a crowded conference room, a speaker uses a large visual aid (such as a big projection screen) to display important information during a presentation. The large size of the visual aid attracts the attention of the audience, making it more likely that they will perceive and focus on the information being presented. 2. Intensity: Intensity attracts to increase selective perception. PI aretal store, a new products displayed with bright and vibrant colours, accompanied by attention-grabbing signs and lighting. The intense visual display increases the likelihood that customers will notice and perceive the new product, potentially leading to higher sales, 3. Frequency: Repeated external stimulus is more attention-attracting than a single time. __f Amarketing campaign for a new smartphone runs on television, radio, social media, and online platforms for several weeks. Frequent exposure to the ads increases the likelihood that consumers will notice and perceive the smartphone as a desirable product, which can influence their purchasing decisions. 4, Status: Perception is also influenced by the status of the perceiver. High-status people can have a greater influence on the perception of an employee than low- status people. During a company meeting, @ high-status executive presents a new strategic direction for the organization. Employees are more likely to perceive the executive's ideas positively and with greater importance due to their high status within the organization. Conversely, if the same ideas were presented by a lower-status employee, they might not receive the same level of attention or perceived importance. Characteristics of the SituationThe context in which an individual sees objects or events is very important. Elements in the surrounding environment influence one’s perception. The situational factors that affect perception include physical (location, light, heat. etc), social and organisational factors. Even the time at which an object or event is seen can affect ‘one’s perception, Perceptual Errors and Distortion Quite often, errors creep into the perceptual interpretation of individuals because of short-cuts in judging others or events. The errors may arise due to selective perception, projection, stereotyping, halo effect, impression, inference, attribution, etc. Such errors usually creep in while appraising the performance of subordinates or forming impressions of others. The following section deals with perceptual errors and explains how perceptual distortion could be avoided: 1, Selective Perception + People differ in terms of their needs, motives, interests, etc. They tend to perceive what is in accordance with their needs, motives and interest. Sometimes, they distort meanings so that may fit with what they want. If a man feels very threatened or insecure everything around him will appear to be a potential source of danger. + People are more likely to pay attention to those aspects of their environment that they anticipate or expect rather than those they do not anticipate or expect. And people tend to anticipate what they are familiar with Thus, they selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their background, interests, attitudes and experience.J) Take an example, a doctor, a mechanic and a policeman who saw an automobile accident happen right in front of them. Because of their experience in particular fields, each one will probably notice certain things about the accident — things that will stand out for each. The doctor will see the condition of the people involved in the accident, and whether they need medical help and an ambulance. The mechanic will notice the condition of the car, and how much damage has taken place. The policeman might see who violated a traffic rule. Thus, each might select from the total event the aspects he thought were significant. 2. Projection It means attributing one’s own traits or characteristics to the people being judged. + The tendency to attribute one's own characteristics to other people can disport perceptual judgment about others. This may be particularly true regarding undesirable traits which the perceiver possesses but fails to recognise in himself. J For example, An individual who is not very energetic may see others as lazy or may explain their lack of achievement as resulting from their unwillingness to work hard. One who is dishonest may be suspicious of others and may perceive dishonest intentions in others that do not exist. People who are afraid may interpret others’ behaviour as fearful or anxious. + When a manager engages in projection, he compromises his ability to respond to individual differences. He tends to see people as more homogenous than they really are. In order to avoid this error in judging others, the manager should be conscious of his weakness of overlooking differences among people. 3. StereotypingNotes Percept Judging people on the basis of the characteristics of the group to which they belong is called ‘stereotyping’ ‘Some examples of common Americans are materialistic, Japanese are nationalistic, and German are industrious. Stereotyping is the tendency for a person's perception of another to be influenced by the social group to which he belongs. In perceiving another, a person is likely to categorise the other according to some salient group characteristics such as sex, race, religion, nationality, occupation or organisational affiliation. The individual's experiences with others in the category in which he has placed them lead him to believe that they have certain traits in common. Halo Effect It refers to the tendency of drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance. This is a very common type of error committed by managers while evaluating their subordinates. Halo error creeps in when the manager or rater allows one aspect of a man’s character or performance to influence his entire evaluation. It is the tendency of many raters to let the rating on all subsequent characteristics Arater may tend to give an employee approximately the same rating in all factors. + This error is recognised quite easily on a factor scale. One way of minimising the effect of halo error is to have the manager judge all his subordinates on a single factor or trait before going to the next. In this manner, he can consider all of the men relative to a standard or to each other on each trait. * The Halo effect takes place in all walks of life.~F For example, a teacher may award higher marks to those students who are more social. In an employment interview, candidates with vocal skills may be given higher weightage. Communication from an important person tends to be overrated and the same from an ordinary person may be discounted. 5. Impression People often form impressions of others at first sight. Even before knowing any of their probability traits, they start making an impression and making an assessment of individuals they meet for the first time. This sometimes leads to perceptual distortion because the first impression need not be the last impression. If a new employee in an industrial organisation is judged on the basis of his first impression of the superior, it will be a great injustice to such an employee. 6. Inference There is a tendency on the part of some people to judge others on limited information. _f For example, an employee might be siting at his desk throughout the working hours without doing anything, but it may be inferred that he is sincere towards his duties. Thus, performance appraisal must not be based on half-cooked or incomplete information. In the above case, the productivity and the behaviour of the concerned employee towards customers, fellow employees and others must also be taken into consideration. 7. Attribution + When we observe people, we attempt to explain to ourselves why they behave in certain ways, * Attribution theory states that we perceive others based on the meaning we attribute and assumptions we make about that person’s internal state. As we observe a person's behaviour we tend to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. Our determination of that person's behaviour frames our perception of him or her.* There is also a tendency to attribute success oneself to internal factors and put the blame for failure on external factors. This is called self-serving bias. + Three factors help us in determining whether a behaviour was internally or externally caused: 8. Perceptual Set Previously held beliefs about objects influence an individual's perception of similar objects. This is called a perceptual set. ~ 2 For example, a manager may have developed a general belief and attitude that workers are lazy and shirkers, and they want to gain whatever is possible from the organisation without giving their best to it. His subsequent perceptions will be influenced by this set when he meets a group of workers. The manager tends to interpret the behaviour of workers according to his mindset. Perceptual Defence The principle of perceptual defence lays down an individual is likely to put a defence when confronted with some conflicting, unacceptable or threateningstimuli. Perceptual defence refers to the screening out of those elements which create conflict and threatening situations for people. They may even perceive other factors to be present that are not part of the situation. Ina study, some college students were presented with the word ‘intelligent’ as a characteristic of factory workers. This was conflicting with the notion of a factory worker held by the students. The defences put up by the students were: 1, Outright Denial: Some students denied that the factory workers could be intelligent 2. Modification: Some students said that the worker was intelligent, but lacked the initiative to rise above his group 3. Change in perception: A few felt that the word intelligent conflicted with their understanding of a worker. What they believed about the worker was that he was not too intelligent. 4, Recognition: Very few students felt that the workers were really intelligent. But this change in perception was very subtle. For example, “He cracks jokes’ became ‘He is witty” leaking to change in perception mechanism Rationality in Decision-Making An individual can take decisions by intuition, i.e., without considering carefully all alternatives and available data, Practically, everyone takes decisions in this way because of the feeling that the particular course of action is the best one. This kind of feeling may have no logic behind it. Moreover, itis difficult to explain why one is feeling a particular way. Psychologists emphasize that there are forces other than reason within a person which influence and shape a decision. Decisions based on intuition are subjective and are taken without any conscious effort to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of various alternatives. Effective decision-making requires a rational choice of a course of action. There is aneed to define the term ‘rational’ here. Rationality is the ability to follow a systematic, logical, thorough approach to decision-making. Thus, if a decision is taken after thorough analysis and reasoning and weighing the consequences of various alternatives, such a decision will be called an objective or rational decision.In actual practice, people take decisions which involve a combination of intuition and rational thinking. A person who depends much upon logical thinking is more objective. This is what Herbert Simon called the ‘principle of bounded rationality’. Simon emphasized that a person makes decisions not only on absolutely logical analysis of facts but also on his intuition, value system and way of thinking, which are subjective in nature. Instead of taking optimal decisions, people contend with just satisfactory decisions. ‘Subjectivity in decision-making arises because! + The individual does not want to study and analyse the problem because of his. perception * The individual does not have the full knowledge of the alternatives and/or their consequences + The individual interprets the organisational goals in his own way. He may adopt a course of action that according to him will meet the goals effectively. + The individual is careless in taking the decision, He may be indifferent to the consequences of his decision The concept of bounded rationality explains the behaviour of people in practice. It recognises that a man cannot be expected to have full knowledge and information and his capacity to perceive, retain and retrieve information is not unlimited. He follows the satisficing model under which he chooses the solution that is satisfactory or good enough. The traditional theory of complete rational and economic man cannot work in practice.Allindian || Allindia || All India All India All India Rank 01 Rank 03 Rank 06 Rank 10 Rank 11 Rajendran s a ENROLL NOW ! @youubecomanyiindal G) onusineatin callus at: +9 9999466225 Notes PerceptionEffectiveness: It is concerned with doing the right task, completing activities and achieving goals. In other words, it is concerned with the end result. Efficiency: it means doing the right task correctly with minimum cost. sf Effectiveness: It is concerned with doing the right task, completing activities and achieving goals. in other words, it is concerned with the end result. Efficiency: it means doing the right task correctly with minimum cost.