Introduction to Groups Unit 1

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO GROUPS

UNIT STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Group
1.4 Properties of group
1.5 Subgroup
1.6 Cyclic group
1.7 Let us Sum Up
1.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.9 Further Readings
1.10 Model Questions

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to :

 define group
 know properties of group.
 subgroup
 cyclic group

1.2 INTRODUCTION

In this unit we will introduce the notion of groups. Group is an

algebraic structure, i.e, a non-empty set equipped with a binary operation
satisfying certain postulates. Group theory occupies an important position
in the study of abstract algebra.

1.3 GROUP

A non-empty set G, equipped with a binary operation  is called a

group if the following postulates are satisfied.
(i) Associativity
(a  b)  c = a  (b  c),  a, b , c  G
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(ii) Existence of Identity

There exists e  G such that
a  e = a = e  a,  a  G..
e is called identity.
(iii) Existence of Inverse
For every a  G, there exists b  G such that
a  b=e=b  a
b is called inverse of a and it is denoted by a 1 .
Furthermore, if  is commutative, G is called an Abelian group,
after the name of the celebrated Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik
Abel (1802–1829).
Note : 1. In order to be a group, there must be a non-empty set equipped
with a binary operation satisfying the postulates mentioned above.
Later on, we will simply write ‘Let G be a group’. It should be borne in
mind that there is a binary operation on G.
2. We will drop the binary operation symbol and simply write ab. It should
be borne in mind that this is not our usual multiplication.
3. A non-empty set G equipped with a binary operation is called a semigroup
if the binary operation is associative.
Finite and Infinite Groups
A group G is finite if the set G is finite; otherwise it is infinite group.
Order of a group
The number of elements of a finite group G is called the order of G.
Symbolically it is denoted by 0(G) or |G|.
Example 1 : Let G = {1}
Clearly multiplication is a binary operation on G.
Moreover, all the postulates for a group are satisfied.
G is a group under multiplication.
Furthermore, G is an Abelian group.
Example 2: Let G = {–1, 1}, the set consisting of the square roots of unity.
(i) From the table, we see that multiplication is a binary operation on G.
(ii) We know that multiplication of real numbers is associative.
(iii) 1 is the identity under multiplication.
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(iv) Every element G possesses inverse in G.  –1 1

1 is the inverse of 1, –1 1 –1
–1 is the inverse of –1. 1 –1 1
 G is a group under multiplication. Table 3.1
(v) Moreover, multiplication of real numbers is commutative.
 G is an Abelian group.
Example 3: Let G = {z : z is complex and zn=1}, i.e. G is the set consisting
of the n the roots of unity. (n  IN)
(i) Let z1, z2 G
 z1n=1, z2n =1
Now (z1 z2)n = 1  z1 z2  G
 multiplication is a binary operation on G..
(ii) We know that multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
(iii) There exists 1  G such that
1z = z = z1,  z  G
1 is the identity element.
(iv) Let z  G.. zn = 1
n
1 1 1
Now is a complex number and    n  1
z z z
1
 G
z
1 1 1
Thus, for every z  G, there exists G such that z =1= z
z z z
1
 z is the inverse of z.

 G is a group under multiplication of complex numbers.

(v) Moreover, multiplication of complex numbers is commutative.
 G is an Abelian group.
Note : We have seen that, for every positive integer n, there exists an
Abelian group of order n.
Example 4: Let Z be the set of integers
(i) Let a, b  Z
 a+b  Z,  a, b  Z
i.e. addition is a binary operation on Z.
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(ii) We know that multiplication of integers is associative.

(iii) We have 0  Z and a+0 = a = 0+a,  a  Z
 0 is the identity..
(iv) For every a  Z, there exists –a  Z such that a+(–a) = 0 = (–a) +a.
 Z is a group under addition.
(v) Moreover, addition of real numbers is commutative.
 Z is an Abelian group under addition.
Note : Z is an infinite group.
Some other examples are the following.
 Q is an Abelian group under addition.
 IR is an Abelian group under addition.
 Q0, the set of non-zero rational numbers is an Abelian group under
multiplication.
 IR0, the set of non-zero real numbers is an Abelian group under
multiplication.
 C is an Abelian group under addition.
 C0, the set of non-zero complex numbers is an Abelian group under
multiplication.

 cos   sin   
Example 5: Let G =   :   IR 
 sin  cos   

 cos   sin  
(i) Let A     G,
 sin  cos  

 cos   sin  
A     G ;  ,   IR
 sin  cos  

 cos   sin    cos   sin  

Now A A =    
 sin  cos    sin  cos  

 cos(   )  sin(   ) 
=    A    G
 sin(   ) cos(   ) 
i.e. matrix multiplication is a binary operation on G.
(ii) We know that matrix multiplication is associative.

 1 0
(iii) We have I   
 0 1

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 cos 0  sin 0 
    G
 sin 0 cos 0 
and A I  A  IA ,  A  G .
 I is the identity element
cos   sin 
(iv) We have | A | 
sin  cos 

 cos 2   sin 2   1  0
1
 A exists.

 cos sin 
adjA   
  sin cos 
1 1
 A  adj A 
A

 cos  sin    cos(  )  sin(  ) 

    G
  sin  cos    sin(  ) cos(  ) 

G is a group under matrix multiplication.

(v) Moreover, A A   A    A     A  A
 G is an Abelian group.
 x x 
Example 6: Let G =   : x  IR, x  0
 x x 
x x y y
(i) Let    G,  G
x x  y y 
x, y  IR, x  0, y  0

x x y y   2 xy 2 xy 
Now      G , xy  IR, xy  0
x x   y y   2 xy 2 xy 
(ii) We know that matrix multiplication is associative.

1 1
2 2  G
(iii) We have  1 1
2 2

 x x x x
x x 1     
2 2    x x
1
  2 2   2 2 
and x x   12 1
2
 
 
x

x x x 
   x x 
 2 2 2 2

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Unit 1 Introduction to Groups

1 1  x x  x x
2 2   
1 1   x x   x x 
2 2 
1 1
  21 2
1 is the identity element
 
2 2

1 1 
x
(iv) For every 
x
  4x 
4x  G
x x   G
we have 1 1 
 4x 4x 

 x x 41x 1  1
  2
1


1 1

 x x

  1 4x 2  4x 4x 
such that
 x x  4x
1  1 1 
1 1  x x
4x  2 2 
4x 4x 

1 1 
 4x 4x  x
is the inverse of 
x
.
 1 1  x 
x
 4x 4x 
 G is a group under matrix multiplication.
x x y y   2 xy 2 xy 
(v) Moreover,      
x x  y y   2 xy 2 xy 

 2 yx 2 yx 
  
 2 yx 2 yx 
y y x x
   
y y   x x 
 G is an Abelian group.

1 1
 
2 2
Note : In the above example, the identity element is  1 1 .
 
2 2
Example 7: Let G be the set of rational numbers excluding 1. We define 
on G as follows.
a  b = a+b–ab,  a, b  G
(i)  is a binary operation on G
(ii)  is associative on G

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Introduction to Groups Unit
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(iii) We have 0  G and

a  0 = a + 0 – a0 = a
0  a = 0 + a –0a = a
 0 is the identity under  .
a
(iv) For every a  G, there exists  G such that.
a 1
a a
a =0= a
a 1 a 1 
a
 is the inverse of a under  .
a 1
 G is an Abelian group.

1.4 PROPERTIES OF GROUP

Theorem 1: Let G be a group. Then

(i) identity element is unique;
(ii) inverse of each element in G is unique;
(iii) (a–1)–1 = a, for all a  G, where a–1 denotes the inverse of a,
(iv) (ab)–1 = b–1a–1, for all a, b  G
(v) ab = ac  b = c, (left cancellation law)
ba = ca  b = c, (right cancellation law) for all a, b, c  G..
Proof (i) If possible, let e, f be two identities of G.
 ef = e = fe [ f is identity]
Again ef = f = fe [  e is identity]
e= f
Thus, identity element is unique.
Note : In view of the above theorem, we write the identity, not ‘an identity’.
(ii) Let a  G and e be the identity of G..
If possible, let b and c be two inverses of a.
 ab = e = ba [ b is inverse of a]
ac = e = ca [ c is inverse of a]
Now b = be [ e is the identity}
= b(ac) [ e = ac]
= (ba)c [by associativity]

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Unit 1 Introduction to Groups

= ec [ e is the identity]
=c
Thus, inverse of a is unique.
Note : In view of the above theorem, we write ‘the inverse of a’, not ‘ an
inverse of a’.
(iii) We have aa–1 = e = a–1a
 a–1 is the inverse of a, and vice versa, a is the inverse of a–1 i.e. (a–1)–1 = a
(iv) Let e be the identity of G and a, b  G
Now (ab)(b–1a–1) = a(bb–1)a–1
= a e a–1
= aa–1
=e
(b–1a–1)(ab) = b–1(a–1a)b
= b–1 eb
= b–1 b
=e
 b–1a–1 is the inverse of ab, i.e. (ab)–1 = b–1a–1
(v) We have ab = ac
 a–1(ab) = a–1(ac)
 (a–1a)b=(a–1a)c, [by associativity]
 eb = ec
 b = c, [ e is the identity]
Again ba = ca
 (ba)a–1 = (ca) a–1
 b(aa–1) = c(aa–1) [by associativity]
 be = ce
 b = c [ e is the identity]
Example 8: If, in a group G, every element is its own inverse, prove that G
is Abelian.
Solution: Let G be a group. Let a, b  G
 a–1 = a, b–1 = b (given)
Now ab = (ab)–1 = b–1a–1 =ba [Theorem 1 (iv)]
 G is Abelian
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Introduction to Groups Unit
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Example 9: Prove that a group G is Abelian if and only if (ab)2 = a2b2, for all
a, b  G..
Solution: (ab)2 = a2 b2
 (ab) (ab) = (aa) (bb)
 a(ba)b = a(ab)b
 (ba)b = (ab)b, [by left cancellation law]
 ba = ab, [by right cancellation law]
 G is Abelian.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1

2
Q 1: Show that the set G = {1, ,  } consisting of
the cube roots of unity is a group under usual
multiplication. (  is a complex cube root of unity).
Q 2: Show that the set G consisting of all 2 x 2 non-singular matrices
over reals is a group under matrix multiplication.

  x 0 
Q 3: Let G =    : x  IR, x  0
  0 0 
Show that G is an Abelian group under matrix multiplication.
Q 4: If for every element a in a group G, a2 = e; prove that G is
Abelian. (e is the identity of G).

1.5 SUBGROUP

Let us consider the set Z of integers.

We know that Z is a group under addition.
Let 2Z = {0,  2,  4, ....} be the set of even integers.
Clearly 2Z is a non-empty subset of Z.
Moreover, 2Z is also a group under addition.
In this case, 2Z is said to be a subgroup of Z.
Definition : A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if H is
also a group under the same binary operation of G. Symbolically, we write
H  G..
Note : (1) If e is the identity of G, {e} is also a subgroup of G, called the trivial

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subgroup of G. All other subgroups are nontrivial.

(2) G itself is a subgroup of G, called the improper subgroup of G. All other
subgroups are proper. [John B. Fraleigh, A First Course in Abstract
Algebra (First Indian Reprint, 2003)]
Example 1: Let us consider G = {–1, 1, –i, i}, i = 1
We know that G is a group under multiplication,
Let H = {–1, 1}.
We have H  G..
Also H is group under multiplication
 H  G.It is a proper subgroup of G..
Note : The set of real numbers IR is a group under addition. The set
IR+ of positive real numbers is a group under multiplication. IR+ is a
subset of IR, but not a subgroup of IR. Binary operations are different.
Theorem 3: Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then
(i) the identity element of H is the identity element of G;
(ii) the inverse of any element of H is the same as the inverse of the
element of G.
Proof : Let G be a group and H  G..
(i) If possible, let e be the identity of G, and f be the identity of H.
Let a  H.
 af = a = fa [ f is the identity of H]
Again a  H  a  G..
 ae = a = ea [ e is the identity of G]
 af = ae
 f = e [by left cancellation law]
(ii) Let e be the identity of G
 e is also the identity of H.
Let a  H.
If possible, let b be the inverse of a in H, and c be the inverse of a in G.
 ab = e = ba
ac = e = ca
 ab = ac  b = c [by left cancellation law]
Note : If H, K are two subgroups of a group G and e is the identity of G,
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Introduction to Groups Unit 1

then e is also the identity of H as well as of K. So, H and K have at least

one common element, viz., the identity element. Thus, we can conclude
that there cannot be two disjoint subgroups of a group.
Theorem 1 : A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if and
only if a, b  H  ab–1  H.
Proof : Let H  G and a, b  H.
b  H  b–1  H [ H is a group]
Now a  H, b–1  H
 ab–1  H
Conversely, let H  G such that a, b  H  ab–1  H
(i) Now a, a  H  aa–1  H (by the given condition)
 e  H,
where e is the identity of G.
(ii) e  H, a  H  ea–1  H
 a–1  H
 every element of H has inverse in H.
(iii) b  H  b–1  H by (ii)
Now a  H, b–1  H  a(b–1)–1 H (Since (b–1)–1 H)
 ab  H
(iv) The binary operation is associative in H as it is associative in G.
 H is a group under the same binary operation in G. Also H  G..
 H  G..
Note : If G is an additive group, i.e., if G is a group under addition, then a
non-empty subset H of G is a subgroup of G if and only if a, b  H
 a–b H.
Theorem 2 : The intersection of two subgroups of a group is again a
subgroup of the group.
Proof : Let G be a group and e be the identity of G.
Let H  G, K  G..
We note that H  K   ,
for at least the identity element e  H  K
Let a, b  H  K
a  H  K  a  H and a  K
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b  H  K  b  H and b  K
Now a, b  H and H  G.. ab–1  H
a, b  K and K  G..  ab–1  K
ab–1  H and ab–1  K  ab–1  H  K
H  K  G
Note : The union of two subgroups is not necessarity a subgroup.
Let Z = {0,  1,  2,  3, .....} be the additive group of integers.
Let 2Z = {0,  2,  4,  6,.....}
3Z = {0,  3,  6,  9,.....}
Clearly 2Z  Z, 3Z  Z
Now 2  2 Z  3 Z, 3 2Z  3Z
But 2+3 = 5  2 Z  3 Z
 addition is not a binary operation on 2Z  3 Z.
 2 Z  3 Z cannot be a group.
Theorem 4 : The union of two subgroups is a subgroup if and only if one of
them is contained in the other.
Proof : Let G be a group and H  G, K  G..
Let H  K. Then H  K = K.
 K  G,,  H  K  G
Conversely, let H  G, K  G such that H  K  G..
Let e be the identity of G.
We are to prove that either H  K or K  H
If possible, let it not be true.
H  K and K  H
 there exists a  H such that a  K
Also, there exists b  K such that b  H
Now a H  a  H  K
b K  b  H  K
 H  K  G,,  ab  H  K
This  ab  H or ab  K
If ab  H, then a  H, ab  H  a–1(ab)  H
 (a–1a)b  H
 eb  H
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 b  H,
which is a contradiction.
Similarly, if ab  K, then ab  K, b  K  (ab)b–1  K
 a(bb–1)  K
 ae  K
 a K
which is a contradiction.
So, our assumption is wrong.
 either H  K or K  H.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2

Q 1: Is the multiplicative group IR+ of positive real
numbers a subgroup of the additive group
IR of real numbers? Justify your answer.
Q 2: Can there be two disjoint subgroups of a group? Justify your
answer.
Q 3: Can an Abelian group have a non-Abelian subgroup ?
Q 4: Let Z be the additive group of integers. Let m be a fixed integer.
Show that the set.
m Z = {0,  m,  2m,  3m, .....} is a subgroup of Z.
Q 5: Let G be the group consisting of all 2 x 2 non-singular real
matrices under matrix multiplication. Let

 a b  
H =   : a, b, c, d  IR and ad  bc  1
 c d  
Show that H is a subgroup of G.
Q 6: Give an example to show that a group cannot be expressed
as the union of two of its proper subgroups.

1.6 CYCLIC GROUPS

Definition : A group G is said to be cyclic if there exists an element

a in G such that every element of G can be expressed in the form an, n  Z.
a is said to be a generator of G. Symbolically we write G = <a>, i.e., G is a

cyclic group generated by a.We can also write, G  a n : a  G , n  Z 
Note : If the group G is additive, every element of G is expressed in the form
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Unit 1 Introduction to Groups

na.
Examples
(1) We know that G = {–1, 1} is a group under multiplication.
We have (–1)1 = –1, (–1)2=1
 G is a cyclic group generated by –1, i.e. G = <–1>
(2) We know that G = {1,  ,  2 } is a group under multiplication ;  is a
complex cube root of unity.
We have,  1   ,  2   2 ,  3  1
.. G is cyclic group generated by  i.e., G = <  >
2
Similarly G = <  >
(3) We know that G = {–1, 1, –i, i} is a group under multiplication.
We have i1 = i, i2 = –1, i3 = –i, i4 = 1
 G is a cyclic group generated by i , i.e. G = < i >
Similarly G = < – i >
(4) Let Z be the additive group of integers.
Let x  Z Then x = 1x
 G is a cyclic group generated by 1, i.e. G=<1>
Similarly G = < –1 >.
Theorem 5 : Every cyclic group is Abelian.
Proof : Let G = < a > be a cyclic group.
Let x, y  G..
Then there exist integers m, n such that x = am, y = an
Now xy = aman
= am+n
= an+m
= an am
= yx
 G is Abelian.
Theorem 6 : If a is a generator of a cyclic group G, a–1 is also a generator of
G.
Proof : Let G = < a > be a cyclic group.
Let x, y  G..

22 Abstract Algebra
Introduction to Groups Unit 1

Then there exists integer m such that x = am

= (a–1)–m
 G = < a–1 >.
Division Algorithm for Z
If b is a positive integer and a is any integer, then there exist unique
integers q and r such that a = bq+r, 0  r < b
Theorem 7 : A subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Proof : Let G = <a> be a cyclic group.
Let H  G..
Let e be the identity of G.
Case 1. If H = {e}, there is nothing to prove.
Case 2. If H = G, then also the result is obvious,
Case 3. Let H  G, H  {e}
Each element of H is a power of a.
Let m be the least positive integer such that am  H.
Let x  H.
Then x = ap for some p.
Now, by Division Algerithm, there exist unique integers q and r such that
p = mq + r, where 0  r <m
 r = p–mq
 ar = ap–mq = ap (am)–q = x(am)–q
Now x (am)–q  H.  ar  H.
But m is the least positive integer such that am  H.  r must be 0.
 p = mq
 x = ap = amq = (am)q
 H = <am> is a cyclic group.
Theorem 8 : A group of prime order is cyclic.
Proof : Let G be a finite group, and O (G) = p, where p is a prime number.
Let e be the identity of G.
Let a  G such that a  e
Let H = {an : n is an integer}
Clearly, H is a cyclic subgroup of G.
 by Lagrange’s subgroup order theorem, [ see unit 6.4 ]
Abstract Algebra 23
Unit 1 Introduction to Groups

O (H) divides O (G)

i.e. O(H) divides p
This  O(H) = 1 or p
But O(H)  1,  a  e.
 O (H) = p = O(G)
H= G
 G is a cyclic group generated by a.
Example 2: Prove that a group of order  5 is Abelian.
Solution: Obviously, a group of order one is Abelian. We know that every
group of prime order is cyclic and every cyclic group is Abelian.
 groups of orders 2, 3, 5 are Abelian.
Let us consider group of order 4.
Let G = {e, a, b, c}, where all the elements are distinct, and e is the identity
of G.
Clearly, e is its own inverse. Similarly if each of the remaining three
elements is its own inverse, then G is Abelian. (Ref. Example 18)
If not, let b–1 = c, c–1 = b. Then a–1 = a
Now let us complete the operation table
 a–1 = a  aa = e
Again, each element of G must appear exactly once in every row or
column of the operation table.
 ab = b or ab = c.
Now ab = b  ab = eb  a = e (by right cancellation law), which is
a contradiction.
 ab = c, and  ac = b
 b = c–1,  bc = e
 ba = a or ba = c
ba = a  b = e, which is a contradiction
 ba = c, and bb = a
Again,  c = b–1  cb = e
 ca = a or ca = b
ca = a  c = e, which is a contradiction.
 ca = b, and  cc = a
24 Abstract Algebra
Introduction to Groups Unit 1

We see that the operation table is symmetrical about the principal diagonal.
  G is Abelian.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3

Q 1: How many generators are there of the cyclic
group G of order 10 ?
Q 2: Which of the following groups are cyclic? For
each cyclic group list all the generators of the group.
(a) G = <Z, + >
(b) G = < Q, + >
(c) G = < Q+, + >
(d) G = {6n : n  z} under multiplication.

1.7 LET US SUM UP

 A group is an algebraic structure i.e., a non-empty set equipped with a

binary operation satisfying certain postulates.
 Elementary Properties of a group are discussed
 A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if H is also a
group under the same binary operation of G.
 A group G is said to be cyclic if there exists an element a in G such
that every element of G can be expressed in the form an; n  Z

1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESSCHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1

Ans to Q No 1: Left as an exerci
Ans to Q No 2: Left as an exercise
Ans to Q No 3: Left as an exercise

Abstract Algebra 25
Unit 1 Introduction to Groups

Ans to Q No 4: Left as an exercise

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2
Ans to Q No 1: No,Binary operations are different.
Ans to Q No 2: No. Two subgroups of a group have at least one common
element, viz., the identity element.
Ans to Q No 3: No.
Ans to Q No 4: Left as an exercise
Ans to Q No 5: Left as an enexise
Ans to Q No 6: Z = {0,  1,  2,  3, ...} is an additive group.
2 Z = {0,  2,  4,  6, ...}
and 3 Z = {0,  3,  6,  9, ...}
are two subgroups of Z
Z  2 Z  3 Z.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3
Ans to Q No 1: Since 1, 3, 7, 9 are relatively prime to 10. Thus, a, a3, a7 and
a9 are generators of G.
Ans to Q No 2: Left as an exercise

1.9 FURTHER READINGS

1) Lanski, Charles : Concepts in Abstract Algebra, (First Indian edition,

2010) American Mathematical Society.
2) Vasistha, A. R. : Modern Algebra (Abstract algebra), Krishna Prakashan
Media (p) Ltd. Meerut-250001 (U. P).
3) Vinberg, E. B. : A course in Algebra (First Indian edition, 2009), American
Mathematical Society).
4) Vatsa, B. S. and Vatsa, Suchi : Modern Algebra, New Age International
(p) Ltd., New Delhi-110002.
5) Sen, M. K, Ghosh, Shamik and Mukhopadhyay, Parthasarthi : Topics
in Abstract Algebra, Universities Press (India) Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad,
500029.

26 Abstract Algebra
Introduction to Groups Unit
Unit31

1.10 MODEL QUESTION

Q 1: Let G be the set of odd integers. A binary operation  on G is defined

as follows a  b = a+b–1; a, b  G..
Show that G is an Abelian group under  .
Q 2: Prove that a group G is Abelian if and only if (ab)–1 = a–1b–1, for all a, b  G..
Q 3: Let G be an Abelian group. Prove that the set H = {x G : x = x–1} is a
sub group of G.
Q 4: Show that a group of order 4 is always Abelian.
Q 5: Let g be a group and e be the identity of G. Prove that G is Abelian if b–
a ba = e, for all a, b  G..
1 -1

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Abstract Algebra 27