0% found this document useful (0 votes)
15 views109 pages

Chapter 2 Application

Uploaded by

mokhtaari.narges
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
15 views109 pages

Chapter 2 Application

Uploaded by

mokhtaari.narges
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 109

Advanced Computer Networking

Graduate Course from Electrical Engineering School


A. Beheshti
Communication Group
Iran University of Science and Technology

Chapter 2
Application Layer
Text Book:
Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach
6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley
March 2012

All material copyright 1996-2012


J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved

Application Layer 2-1


Chapter 2: outline

2.1 principles of network applications


2.2 Web and HTTP
2.3 FTP
2.4 electronic mail
• SMTP, POP3, IMAP
2.5 DNS
2.6 P2P applications
2.7 socket programming with UDP and TCP

Application Layer 2-2


Chapter 2: application layer
goals:
•conceptual, implementation aspects of network application
protocols
• transport-layer service models
• client-server paradigm
• peer-to-peer paradigm
•learn about protocols by examining popular application-level
protocols
• HTTP
• FTP
• SMTP / POP3 / IMAP
• DNS
•creating
network applications
• socket API
Application Layer 2-3
Some network apps
o e-mail o voice over IP (e.g., Skype)
o web o real-time video
o text messaging conferencing
o remote login o social networking
o P2P file sharing o search
o multi-user network games o …
o streaming stored video o …
(YouTube, Hulu, Netflix)

Application Layer 2-4


Creating a network app
application

write programs that:


transport
network
data link
•run on (different) end systems physical

•communicate over network


(e.g., web server software
communicates with browser
software)
•no need to write software for
network-core devices application
•network-core devices do not transport
network
run user applications data link
physical
application
transport
network
•applications on end systems data link
physical
allows for rapid app
development, propagation

Application Layer 2-5


Application architectures

possible structure of applications:


• client-server
• peer-to-peer (P2P)

peer-peer

client/server

Application Layer 2-6


Client-server architecture
clients:
•communicate with server
•may be intermittently
connected
•may have dynamic IP addresses
•do not communicate directly
with each other

client/server
server:
•always-on host
•permanent IP address
•data centers for scaling

Application Layer 2-7


P2P architecture
• no always-on server peer-peer
• arbitrary end systems
directly communicate
• peers request service from
other peers, provide service
in return to other peers
• self scalability – new
peers bring new service
capacity, as well as new
service demands
• peers are intermittently
connected and change IP
addresses
• complex management

Application Layer 2-8


Processes communicating

process: program running clients, servers


within a host client process: process that
•within same host, two initiates communication
processes communicate using server process: process that
inter-process communication waits to be contacted
(defined by OS)
•processes in different hosts
communicate by exchanging
messages applications with P2P
architectures have both client
process & server process in
each peer

Application Layer 2-9


Sockets
• process sends/receives messages to/from its socket
• socket analogous to door
• sending process shoves message out door
• sending process relies on transport infrastructure on
other side of door to deliver message to socket at
receiving process

application application
socket controlled by
process process app developer

transport transport
network network controlled
link by OS
link Internet
physical physical

Application Layer 2-10


Addressing processes

• to receive messages, • identifier includes both IP


process must have identifier address and port numbers
• host device has unique 32- associated with process on
bit IP address host.
• Q: does IP address of host • example port numbers:
on which process runs • HTTP server: 80
suffice for identifying the • mail server: 25
process? • to send HTTP message to
• A: no, many processes gaia.cs.umass.edu web
can be running on same server:
host • IP address: 128.119.245.12
• port number: 80
• more shortly…

Application Layer 2-11


App-layer protocol defines
• types of messages exchanged,
• e.g., request, response
• message syntax:
• what fields in messages & how fields are delineated
• message semantics
• meaning of information in fields
• rules for when and how processes send & respond to
messages

Application Layer 2-12


App-layer protocol defines
• open protocols:
• defined in RFCs
• allows for interoperability
• e.g., HTTP, SMTP
• proprietary protocols:
• e.g., Skype

Application Layer 2-13


What transport service does for app layer?
data integrity throughput
•some apps (e.g., file transfer, • some apps (e.g.,
web transactions) require 100% multimedia) require
reliable data transfer minimum amount of
•other apps (e.g., audio) can
throughput to be
tolerate some loss “effective”
• other apps (“elastic apps”)

timing make use of whatever


throughput they get
•some apps (e.g., Internet
telephony, interactive games) security
require low delay to be
“effective” • encryption, data integrity,

Application Layer 2-14


Transport service requirements: common apps

application data loss throughput time sensitive

file transfer no loss elastic no


e-mail no loss elastic no
Web documents no loss elastic no
real-time audio/video loss-tolerant audio: 5kbps-1Mbps yes, 100’s
video:10kbps-5Mbps msec
stored audio/video loss-tolerant same as above
interactive games loss-tolerant few kbps up yes, few secs
text messaging no loss elastic yes, 100’s
msec
yes and no

Application Layer 2-15


Internet transport protocols services

• TCP service:
• reliable transport between sending and receiving process
• flow control: sender won’t overwhelm receiver
• congestion control: Stoping sender when network overloaded
• connection-oriented: setup required between client and
server processes
• does not provide: timing, minimum throughput guarantee,
security

Application Layer 2-16


Internet transport protocols services

• UDP service:
• unreliable data transfer between sending and receiving
process
• does not provide: reliability, flow control, congestion
control, timing, throughput guarantee, security, or
connection setup,

• Q: why bother? Why is there a UDP?


• A: UDP is used by time sensitive application. And
applications in which error is not important or done in
app. layer

Application Layer 2-17


Internet apps: application, transport protocols

application underlying
application layer protocol transport protocol

e-mail SMTP [RFC 2821] TCP


remote terminal access Telnet [RFC 854] TCP
Web HTTP [RFC 2616] TCP
file transfer FTP [RFC 959] TCP
streaming multimedia HTTP (e.g., YouTube), TCP or UDP
RTP [RFC 1889]
Internet telephony SIP, RTP, proprietary
(e.g., Skype) TCP or UDP

Application Layer 2-18


Securing TCP

TCP & UDP shortage SSL is at app layer


•no encryption •Apps use SSL libraries,
•Clear text passwords sent which “talk” to TCP
into socket traverse Internet SSL socket API
in clear text • cleartext passwords
SSL sent into socket
•provides encrypted TCP traverse Internet
connection encrypted
•data integrity • See Chapter 7
•end-point authentication

Application Layer 2-19


Chapter 2: outline

2.2 Web and HTTP

Application Layer 2-20


Web and HTTP
• What is WEB ?
• web page consists of objects
• object can be HTML file, JPEG image, Java applet,
audio file,…
• web page consists of base HTML-file which
includes several referenced objects
• each object is addressable by a URL, e.g.,
www.someschool.edu/someDept/pic.gif

host name path name

Application Layer 2-21


HTTP overview

HTTP: hypertext transfer


protocol
•Web’s application layer protocol
•client/server model
PC running
Firefox browser
• client: browser that requests,
receives, (using HTTP
protocol) and “displays”
Web objects server
• server: Web server sends running
(using HTTP protocol) Apache Web
objects in response to server
requests
iphone running
Safari browser

Application Layer 2-22


HTTP overview (continued)

HTTP uses TCP:


•clientinitiates TCP connection (creates socket) to server,
port 80
•server accepts TCP connection from client
•HTTP messages (application-layer protocol messages)
exchanged between browser (HTTP client) and Web server
(HTTP server)
•TCP connection closed

Application Layer 2-23


HTTP overview (continued)

• HTTP is “stateless”
• server maintains no information about past client requests

aside
• protocols that maintain
“state” are complex!
• past history (state) must be
maintained
• if server/client crashes, their
views of “state” may be
inconsistent, must be
reconciled

Application Layer 2-24


HTTP connections

non-persistent HTTP persistent HTTP


•at most one object sent •multiple objects can be
over TCP connection sent over single TCP
• connection then connection between
closed client, server
•downloading multiple
objects required multiple
connections

Application Layer 2-25


Non-persistent HTTP
suppose user enters URL: (contains text,
www.someSchool.edu/someDepartment/home.index references to 10
jpeg images)
1a. HTTP client initiates TCP
connection to HTTP server
(process) at 1b. HTTP server at host
www.someSchool.edu on port www.someSchool.edu waiting
80 for TCP connection at port 80.
“accepts” connection, notifying
2. HTTP client sends HTTP request client
message (containing URL) into
TCP connection socket. 3. HTTP server receives request
Message indicates that client message, forms response
wants object message containing requested
someDepartment/home.index object, and sends message into
its socket
time
Application Layer 2-26
Non-persistent HTTP (cont.)

4. HTTP server closes TCP


connection.
5. HTTP client receives response
message containing html file,
displays html. Parsing html file,
finds 10 referenced jpeg objects

time
6. Steps 1-5 repeated for each of
10 jpeg objects

Application Layer 2-27


Non-persistent HTTP: response time

• RTT (definition): time for a


small packet to travel from
client to server and back
• HTTP response time: initiate TCP
• one RTT to initiate TCP connection

connection RTT

• one RTT for HTTP request request


file
and first few bytes of HTTP RTT
time to
response to return transmit
file
• file transmission time file
received
• non-persistent HTTP
time time
response time = 2RTT+ file transmission time

Application Layer 2-28


Persistent HTTP

non-persistent HTTP issues:


•requires2 RTTs per object
•OS overhead for each TCP connection
•browsers often open parallel TCP connections to fetch
referenced objects
persistent HTTP:
•server leaves connection open after sending response
•subsequent HTTP messages between same client/server sent
over open connection
•client sends requests as soon as it encounters a referenced
object
•as little as one RTT for all the referenced objects

Application Layer 2-29


HTTP request message

Two types of HTTP messages: request, response


•HTTP request message:
• ASCII (human-readable format)
carriage return character
line-feed character
request line
(GET, POST, GET /index.html HTTP/1.1\r\n
HEAD commands) Host: www-net.cs.umass.edu\r\n
User-Agent: Firefox/3.6.10\r\n
Accept: text/html,application/xhtml+xml\r\n
header Accept-Language: en-us,en;q=0.5\r\n
lines Accept-Encoding: gzip,deflate\r\n
Accept-Charset: ISO-8859-1,utf-8;q=0.7\r\n
carriage return, Keep-Alive: 115\r\n
line feed at start Connection: keep-alive\r\n
\r\n
of line indicates
end of header lines
Application Layer 2-30
HTTP request message: general format

method sp URL sp version cr lf request


line
header field name value cr lf
header
~
~ ~
~ lines

header field name value cr lf


cr lf

~
~ entity body ~
~ body

Application Layer 2-31


Method types
• HTTP/1.0: • HTTP/1.1:
• GET • GET, POST, HEAD
• POST • PUT
• HEAD • uploads file in entity
• asks server to leave body to path specified
requested object out in URL field
of response • DELETE
• deletes file specified in
the URL field

Application Layer 2-32


Uploading form input
methods:
GET: used when client request an object defined by URL
format (usually no entity body).
POST: often used when the page include forms input (input
is uploaded to server in entity body)
HEAD: similar to GET but must not return an object
(usually used for debugging)
PUT: usually used when user wants to publish or upload an
object to the server.
Search DELETE:
by URL method:
allows a user or application to delete an object on
•uses GET method
the the web server.
•input is uploaded in URL field of request line:

www.somesite.com/animalsearch?monkeys&banana
Application Layer 2-33
HTTP response message
status line (protocol status code
status phrase)
HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n
Date: Sun, 26 Sep 2010 20:09:20 GMT\r\n
Server: Apache/2.0.52 (CentOS)\r\n
Last-Modified: Tue, 30 Oct 2007 17:00:02
GMT\r\n
Header lines ETag: "17dc6-a5c-bf716880"\r\n
Accept-Ranges: bytes\r\n
Content-Length: 2652\r\n
Keep-Alive: timeout=10, max=100\r\n
Connection: Keep-Alive\r\n
Content-Type: text/html; charset=ISO-8859-
1\r\n
\r\n
data data data data data ...

data, e.g., requested HTML file

Application Layer 2-34


HTTP response status codes
• status code appears in 1st line in server-to-
client response message.
• some sample codes:
• 200 OK
• request succeeded, requested object later in this msg
• 301 Moved Permanently
• requested object moved, new location specified later in this msg
(Location:)
• 400 Bad Request
• request msg not understood by server
• 404 Not Found
• requested document not found on this server
• 505 HTTP Version Not Supported
Application Layer 2-35
User-server state: cookies
Example:
•Susan always access Internet from PC
•visits specific e-commerce site for first time
•How e-commerce server may know Susan in next visit?
•when initial HTTP requests arrives at server, site creates:
• unique ID for Susan
• Put an entry in backend database for this ID
• Depends on the server data base may complete its
information about Susan’s requests, interests and habits.
• All is done by a cookie.

Application Layer 2-36


User-server state: cookies

Many Web sites use cookies to track their users


Standard: RFC6265
Cookie has four components:
1) cookie header line of HTTP response message
2) cookie header line in next HTTP request message
3) cookie file kept on user’s host, managed by user’s
browser
4) back-end database at Web server

Browser and web server do different actions by


cookies.

Application Layer 2-37


Cookies: keeping “state” (cont.)
client server

ebay 8734
usual http request msg Amazon server
cookie file creates ID
usual http response
1678 for user create backend
ebay 8734
set-cookie: 1678 entry database
amazon 1678
usual http request msg
cookie: 1678 cookie- access
specific
usual http response msg action

one week later:


access
ebay 8734 usual http request msg
amazon 1678 cookie: 1678 cookie-
specific
usual http response msg action
Application Layer 2-38
Cookies (cont.)
aside
what cookies can be used cookies and privacy:
for: • cookies permit sites to
•authorization
learn a lot about you
•shopping carts
• you may supply name and
•recommendations
e-mail to sites
•user session state (Web e-
mail)

how to keep “state”:


• protocol endpoints: maintain state at
sender/receiver over multiple transactions
• cookies: http messages carry state

Application Layer 2-39


Web caches (proxy server)

goal: satisfy client request without involving original server


• user sets browser: Web
accesses via cache
• browser sends all HTTP proxy
requests to cache server
• object in cache: cache client
origin
returns object server
• else cache requests
object from original
server, then returns
object to client
client origin
server

Application Layer 2-40


More about Web caching

• cache acts as both client and server


• server for original requesting client
• client to origin server
• typically cache server keeps most usual pages in DRAM
or hard disc.
• Typically cache is installed by websites which have many
similar requests (university, company, residential ISP)

Application Layer 2-41


More about Web caching

why Web caching?


•reduce response time for client request
•reduce traffic on an institution’s access link
•Internet dense with caches: enables “poor” content
providers to effectively deliver content

Application Layer 2-42


Caching example:

assumptions:
• avg object size: 100K bits origin
• avg request rate from browsers to servers
origin servers:15/sec public
• avg data rate to browsers: 1.50 Mbps Internet
• RTT from institutional router to any
origin server: 2 sec
• access link rate: 1.54 Mbps 1.54 Mbps
consequences: access link

• LAN utilization: 15% problem! institutional


network
• access link utilization = 99% 1 Gbps LAN
• total delay = Internet delay + access
delay + LAN delay
• = 2 sec + minutes + usecs

Application Layer 2-43


Caching example: fatter access link
assumptions:
• avg object size: 100K bits origin
• avg request rate from browsers to servers
origin servers:15/sec public
• avg data rate to browsers: 1.50 Mbps Internet
• RTT from institutional router to any
origin server: 2 sec
• access link rate: 1.54 Mbps
154 Mbps 1.54 Mbps
154 Mbps
access link
consequences:
institutional
• LAN utilization: 15%
network
• access link utilization = 99% 9.9% 1 Gbps LAN
• total delay = Internet delay + access
delay + LAN delay
• = 2 sec + minutes + usecs
msecs
Cost: increased access link speed (not cheap!)
Application Layer 2-44
Caching example: install local cache
assumptions:
 avg object size: 100K bits origin
 avg request rate from browsers to servers
origin servers:15/sec public
 avg data rate to browsers: 1.50 Mbps Internet
 RTT from institutional router to any
origin server: 2 sec
 access link rate: 1.54 Mbps 1.54 Mbps
consequences: access link

 LAN utilization: 15% institutional


access link utilization = 100% network
 ? 1 Gbps LAN
 total delay = Internet
? delay + access
delay + LAN delay local web
How to compute link
= 2 sec + minutes + usecs cache
utilization, delay?
Cost: web cache (cheap!)
Application Layer 2-45
Caching example: install local cache
Calculating access link
utilization, delay with cache: origin
•suppose cache hit rate is 0.4 servers
• 40% requests satisfied at cache, public
Internet
60% requests satisfied at origin
•• access link utilization:
• 60% of requests use access link
• data rate to browsers over access link 1.54 Mbps
= 0.6*1.50 Mbps = .9 Mbps access link
• utilization = 0.9/1.54 = .58 institutional
• total delay network
1 Gbps LAN
• = 0.6 * (delay from origin servers) +0.4
* (delay when satisfied at cache) local web
• = 0.6 (2.01) + 0.4 (~msecs) cache
• = ~ 1.2 secs
• less than with 154 Mbps link (and
cheaper too!)
Application Layer 2-46
Conditional GET

• Goal: don’t send object if cache client


has up-to-date cached version server
• no object transmission delay
• lower link utilization
HTTP request msg
• cache: specify date of cached If-modified-since: <date>
object
copy in HTTP request not
HTTP response modified
If-modified-since: <date> HTTP/1.0 before
• server: response contains no 304 Not Modified <date>
object if cached copy is up-to-
date:
HTTP/1.0 304 Not Modified HTTP request msg
If-modified-since: <date> object
modified
HTTP response after
HTTP/1.0 200 OK <date>
<data>
Application Layer 2-47
Chapter 2: outline

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Application Layer 2-48


FTP: the file transfer protocol
file transfer
FTP FTP FTP
user client server
interface
user
at host remote file
local file system
system

• transfer file to/from remote host


• client/server model
• client: side that initiates transfer (either to/from remote)
• server: remote host
• standard: RFC 959
• Port address: port 21
Application Layer 2-49
FTP: separate control, data connections

• FTP client contacts FTP TCP control connection,


server port 21
server at port 21, using TCP
• Client will be authorized over TCP data connection,
control connection FTP server port 20 FTP
client server
• client browses remote
directory, sends commands
over control connection • server opens another TCP
data connection to transfer
• when server receives file another file
transfer command, server
opens 2nd TCP data at port 20 • control connection: “out of
connection (for file) to client band”
• after transferring one file, • FTP server maintains
server closes data connection “state”: current directory,
earlier authentication

Application Layer 2-50


FTP commands, responses
• sample commands: • sample return codes
• sent as ASCII text over • status code and phrase (as
control channel in HTTP)
• USER username • 331 Username OK,
• PASS password password required
• LIST return list of file in • 125 data connection
current directory already open;
transfer starting
• RETR filename retrieves • 425 Can’t open data
(gets) file connection
• STOR filename stores • 452 Error writing
(puts) file onto remote host file

Application Layer 2-51


Chapter 2: outline

electronic mail (SMTP, POP3, IMAP)

Application Layer 2-52


Electronic mail
Three major components: user
agent
•user agents
•mail servers mail user
server agent
•simple mail transfer protocol:
SMTP SMTP mail user
server agent

User Agent SMTP


•a.k.a. “mail reader” SMTP user
agent
•composing, editing, reading mail
server
mail messages user
•e.g., Outlook, Thunderbird, agent
iPhone mail client user outgoing
agent message queue
•outgoing, incoming messages
user mailbox
stored on server
Application Layer 2-53
Electronic mail: mail servers
mail servers: user
agent
• mailbox contains incoming
messages for user mail user
server
• message queue of outgoing (to agent

be sent) mail messages SMTP mail user


• SMTP protocol between mail server agent
servers to send email SMTP
messages user
• client: sending mail server SMTP
agent
mail
• “server”: receiving mail server
server user
agent
user
agent

Application Layer 2-54


Electronic Mail: SMTP [RFC 2821]
• uses TCP to reliably transfer email message from
client to server at port 25
• direct transfer: sending server to receiving server
• three phases of transfer
• handshaking (greeting)
• transfer of messages
• closure
• command/response interaction (like HTTP, FTP)
• commands: ASCII text
• response: status code and phrase
• messages must be in 7-bit ASCI

Application Layer 2-55


Scenario: Alice sends message to Bob
1) Alice uses UA to compose 4) SMTP client sends Alice’s
message “to” message over the TCP
[email protected] connection
2) Alice’s UA sends message 5) Bob’s mail server places the
to her mail server; message message in Bob’s mailbox
placed in message queue 6) Bob invokes his user agent
3) client side of SMTP opens to read message
TCP connection with Bob’s
mail server

1 user mail user


mail agent
agent server server
2 3 6
4
5
Alice’s mail server Bob’s mail server
Application Layer 2-56
Sample SMTP interaction
S: 220 hamburger.edu
C: HELO crepes.fr
S: 250 Hello crepes.fr, pleased to meet you
C: MAIL FROM: <[email protected]>
S: 250 [email protected]... Sender ok
C: RCPT TO: <[email protected]>
S: 250 [email protected] ... Recipient ok
C: DATA
S: 354 Enter mail, end with "." on a line by itself
C: Do you like ketchup?
C: How about pickles?
C: .
S: 250 Message accepted for delivery
C: QUIT
S: 221 hamburger.edu closing connection

Application Layer 2-57


SMTP: final words
• SMTP uses persistent comparison with HTTP:
connections
•HTTP: pull
• SMTP requires message
•SMTP: push
(header & body) to be in
7-bit ASCII •both have ASCII
• SMTP server uses command/response
CRLF.CRLF to interaction, status codes
determine end of message
•HTTP: each object
encapsulated in its own
response msg
•SMTP: multiple objects sent
in multipart msg

Application Layer 2-58


Mail message format
RFC822 allow user to add other
header lines starting with X-
SMTP: protocol for
exchanging email msgs header
blank
RFC 822: standard for text line
message format:
• header lines, e.g.,
• To: body
• From:
• Subject:
• different from SMTP
MAIL FROM, RCPT TO:
commands!
• Body: the “message”
• ASCII characters only

Application Layer 2-59


Message Format

Multipurpose internet mail extensions (MIME)


• Messages in languages with accents (e.g., French and German).
• Messages in non-Latin alphabets (e.g., Hebrew and Russian).
• Messages in languages without alphabets (e.g., Chinese and
Japanese)
• Messages not containing text at all (e.g., audio or images).
• MIME is described in RFC1341 and revised at RFC2045-2049
•MIME headers added to RFC822
7-bit ASCII
8- bit character
Binary encoding

Application Layer 2-60


Message Format

Binary encoding in MIME


•Base64 encoding:
• 3 bytes=4 six bits
• Each 6-bit is replaced by an ASCII code
• == and = show that the last group has 8 or 16 bits
• CR and line feed codes are used to separate lines
•Quoted-printable encoding
• ASCII codes not change. other codes are replace by =XX
each X is a hexadecimal digit.

Application Layer 2-61


Mail access protocols
user
mail access user
SMTP SMTP protocol
agent agent
(e.g., POP,
IMAP)

sender’s mail receiver’s mail


server server

SMTP: delivery/storage to receiver’s server


mail access protocols: retrieval from server
•POP: Post Office Protocol [RFC 1939]:
authorization, download
•IMAP: Internet Mail Access Protocol [RFC 1730]:
more features, including manipulation of stored msgs
on server
•HTTP: gmail, Hotmail, Yahoo! Mail, etc.

Application Layer 2-62


POP3 protocol
S: +OK POP3 server ready
C: user bob
authorization phase S:
C:
+OK
pass hungry
•clientcommands: S: +OK user successfully logged on
• user: declare username
• pass: password C: list
S: 1 498
•server responses
S: 2 912
• +OK S: .
• -ERR C: retr 1
transaction phase, client: S:
S:
<message 1 contents>
.
•list: list message numbers C: dele 1
•retr: retrieve message by C: retr 2
number S: <message 1 contents>
•dele: delete S: .
•quit C: dele 2
C: quit
S: +OK POP3 server signing off
Application Layer 2-63
POP3 (more) and IMAP
more about POP3 IMAP
• previous example uses • keeps all messages in one
POP3 “download and place: at server
delete” mode • allows user to organize
• Bob cannot re-read e- messages in folders
mail if he changes • keeps user state across
client sessions:
• POP3 “download-and- • names of folders and
keep”: copies of messages mappings between
on different clients message IDs and folder
• POP3 is stateless across name
sessions

Application Layer 2-64


Chapter 2: outline

Domain Name System (DNS)

Application Layer 2-65


DNS: domain name system

people: many identifiers: Domain Name System:


• SSN, name, passport # • distributed database
Internet hosts, routers: implemented in hierarchy of
• IP address (32 bit) - many name servers
used for addressing • application-layer protocol: hosts,
datagrams name servers communicate to
• “name”, e.g., resolve names (address/name
www.yahoo.com - translation)
used by humans • note: core Internet function,
Q: how to map between IP implemented as application-
layer protocol
address and name, and vice
versa ? • complexity at network’s
“edge”

Application Layer 2-66


DNS: services, structure
DNS services why not centralize DNS?
• hostname to IP address • single point of failure
translation • traffic volume
• host aliasing • distant centralized database
• canonical, alias names • maintenance
• mail server aliasing
• load distribution A: doesn’t scale!
• replicated Web
servers: many IP
addresses correspond
to one name

Application Layer 2-67


DNS: a distributed, hierarchical database
Root DNS Servers

… …

com DNS servers org DNS servers edu DNS servers

pbs.org poly.edu umass.edu


yahoo.com amazon.com
DNS servers DNS serversDNS servers
DNS servers DNS servers

client wants IP for www.amazon.com; 1st approx:


• client queries root server to find com DNS server
• client queries .com DNS server to get amazon.com DNS server
• client queries amazon.com DNS server to get IP address for
www.amazon.com

Application Layer 2-68


DNS: root name servers
• contacted by local name servers that can not resolve name
• root name server:
• contacts authoritative name server if name mapping not known
• gets mapping
• returns mapping to local name server

c. Cogent, Herndon, VA (5 other sites)


d. U Maryland College Park, MD k. RIPE London (17 other sites)
h. ARL Aberdeen, MD
j. Verisign, Dulles VA (69 other sites ) i. Netnod, Stockholm (37 other sites)

e. NASA Mt View, CA m. WIDE Tokyo


f. Internet Software C. (5 other sites)
Palo Alto, CA (and 48 other
sites)

a. Verisign, Los Angeles CA 13 root name


(5 other sites)
b. USC-ISI Marina del Rey, CA
“servers”
l. ICANN Los Angeles, CA worldwide
(41 other sites)
g. US DoD Columbus,
OH (5 other sites)

Application Layer 2-69


DNS hierarchies

top-level domain (TLD) servers:


• responsible for com, org, net, edu, aero, jobs, museums,
and all top-level country domains, e.g.: uk, fr, ca, jp
• Network Solutions maintains servers for .com TLD
• Educause for .edu TLD
authoritative DNS servers:
• organization’s own DNS server(s), providing
authoritative hostname to IP mappings for organization’s
named hosts
• can be maintained by organization or service provider

Application Layer 2-70


Local DNS name server

• does not strictly belong to hierarchy


• each ISP (residential ISP, company, university) has
one local DNS
• also called “default name server”
• when host makes DNS query, query is sent to its
local DNS server
• has local cache of recent name-to-address translation
pairs (but may be out of date!)
• acts as proxy, forwards query into hierarchy

Application Layer 2-71


DNS name
resolution example root DNS server

2
• host at cis.poly.edu 3
TLD DNS server
wants IP address for 4
gaia.cs.umass.edu
5

iterated query: local DNS server


dns.poly.edu
• contacted server 7 6
1 8
replies with name of
server to contact
authoritative DNS server
• “I don’t know this dns.cs.umass.edu
name, but ask this requesting host
server” cis.poly.edu

gaia.cs.umass.edu

Application Layer 2-72


DNS name
resolution procedure root DNS server

2 3
recursive query: 7
6
• puts burden of name TLD DNS
server
resolution on
contacted name local DNS server
server dns.poly.edu 5 4

• heavy load at upper 1 8


levels of hierarchy?
authoritative DNS server
dns.cs.umass.edu
requesting host
cis.poly.edu

gaia.cs.umass.edu

Application Layer 2-73


DNS: caching, updating records

• once (any) name server learns mapping, it caches


mapping
• cache entries timeout (disappear) after some time (TTL)
• TLD servers typically cached in local name servers
• thus root name servers not often visited
• cached entries may be out-of-date (best effort
name-to-address translation!)
• if name host changes IP address, may not be known
Internet-wide until all TTLs expire
• update/notify mechanisms proposed IETF standard
• RFC 2136

Application Layer 2-74


DNS records
DNS: distributed db storing resource records (RR)
RR format: (name, value, type, ttl)

type=A type=CNAME
• name is hostname • name is alias name for some
• value is IP address “canonical” (the real) name
type=NS • value is canonical name
• name is domain (e.g., www.ibm.com is really
foo.com) servereast.backup2.ibm.com
• value is hostname of
authoritative name type=MX
server for this domain • value is name of mail server
associated with name

Application Layer 2-75


DNS message protocol
• query and reply messages, both with same message
format 2 bytes 2 bytes

msg header identification flags

• identification: 16 bit # for # questions # answer RRs


query, reply to query uses
# authority RRs # additional RRs
same #
• flags: questions (variable # of questions)
• query or reply
• recursion desired answers (variable # of RRs)
• recursion available
• reply is authoritative authority (variable # of RRs)

additional info (variable # of RRs)

Application Layer 2-76


DNS message protocol

2 bytes 2 bytes

identification flags

# questions # answer RRs

# authority RRs # additional RRs

name, type fields


questions (variable # of questions)
for a query
RRs in response answers (variable # of RRs)
to query
records for
authority (variable # of RRs)
authoritative servers
additional “helpful” additional info (variable # of RRs)
info that may be used
Application Layer 2-77
Inserting records into DNS
example: new startup “Network Utopia”
•register name networkuptopia.com at DNS registrar (e.g.,
Network Solutions)
• provide names, IP addresses of authoritative name server
(primary and secondary)
• registrar inserts two RRs into .com TLD server:
(networkutopia.com, dns1.networkutopia.com, NS)
• (dns1.networkutopia.com, 212.212.212.1, A)
•create
authoritative server type A record for
www.networkuptopia.com; type MX record for
networkutopia.com

Application Layer 2-78


Attacking DNS

DDoS attacks Redirect attacks


• Bombard root servers • Man-in-middle
with traffic • Intercept queries
• Not successful to date • DNS poisoning
• Traffic Filtering • Send bogus relies to DNS
• Local DNS servers server, which caches
cache IPs of TLD Exploit DNS for DDoS
servers, allowing root
server bypass • Send queries with spoofed

• Bombard TLD servers source address: target IP


• Potentially more • Requires amplification
dangerous

Application Layer 2-79


Chapter 2: outline

P2P applications

Application Layer 2-80


Pure P2P architecture
• no always-on server
• arbitrary end systems directly
communicate
• peers are intermittently connected
and change IP addresses
examples:
• file distribution (BitTorrent)
• Streaming (KanKan)
• VoIP (Skype)

Application Layer 2-81


File distribution: client-server vs P2P

Question: how much time to distribute file (size F) from


one server to N peers?
• peer upload/download capacity is limited resource

us: server upload


capacity

di: peer i download


file, size F u1 d1 capacity
us u2 d2
server
di
uN network (with abundant
bandwidth) ui
dN
ui: peer i upload
capacity

Application Layer 2-82


File distribution time: client-server
• server transmission: must
sequentially send (upload) N F
us
file copies:
di
• time to send one copy: F/us
network
• time to send N copies: NF/us ui

• client: each client must


download file copy
• dmin = min client download rate
• Max client download time: F/dmin

time to distribute F
to N clients using Dc-s > max{NF/us,,F/dmin}
client-server approach

increases linearly in N
Application Layer 2-83
File distribution time: P2P
• server transmission: must
upload at least one copy F
us
• time to send one copy: F/us
di
• client: each client must network
download file copy ui
• Max client download time: F/dmin
• clients: as aggregate must download NF bits
• max upload rate (limting max download rate) is us + Sui

time to distribute F
to N clients using DP2P > max{F/us,,F/dmin,,NF/(us + Sui)}
P2P approach

increases linearly in N …
… but so does this, as each peer brings service capacity
Application Layer 2-84
Client-server vs. P2P: example
client upload rate = u, F/u = 1 hour, us = 10u, dmin ≥ us

3.5
P2P
Minimum Distribution Time

3
Client-Server
2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

N
Application Layer 2-85
P2P file distribution: BitTorrent
• file divided into 256Kb chunks
• peers in torrent send/receive file chunks

tracker: tracks peers torrent: group of peers


participating in torrent exchanging chunks of a file

Alice arrives …
… obtains list
of peers from tracker
… and begins exchanging
file chunks with peers in torrent

Application Layer 2-86


P2P file distribution: BitTorrent
peer joining torrent:
•has no chunks, but will
accumulate them over time from
other peers
•registers with tracker to get list
of peers, connects to subset of
peers (“neighbors”)

• while downloading, peer uploads chunks to other peers


• peer may change peers with whom it exchanges chunks
• churn: peers who may come and go
• once peer has entire file, it may (selfishly) leave or (kindly)
remain in torrent

Application Layer 2-87


BitTorrent: requesting, sending file chunks

requesting chunks: sending chunks: tit-for-tat


• at any given time, different • Alice sends chunks to those four
peers have different subsets peers currently sending her chunks at
highest rate
of file chunks • other peers are choked by Alice (do
• periodically, Alice asks each not receive chunks from her)
peer for list of chunks that • re-evaluate top 4 every10 secs
they have • every 30 secs: randomly select
another peer, starts sending chunks
• Alice requests missing
• “optimistically unchoke” this peer
chunks from peers, rarest
first • newly chosen peer may join top 4

Application Layer 2-88


BitTorrent: tit-for-tat
(1) Alice “optimistically unchokes” Bob
(2) Alice becomes one of Bob’s top-four providers; Bob reciprocates
(3) Bob becomes one of Alice’s top-four providers

higher upload rate: find better


trading partners, get file faster !

Application Layer 2-89


Distributed Hash Table (DHT)

• DHT: a distributed P2P database


• database has (key, value) pairs, such as:
• key: ss number; value: human name
• key: movie title; value: IP address
• Distribute the (key, value) pairs over the (millions
of peers)
• a peer queries DHT with key
• DHT returns values that match the key
• peers can also insert (key, value) pairs

Application 2-90
Q: how to assign keys to peers?
• central issue:
• assigning (key, value) pairs to peers.
• basic idea:
• convert each key to an integer
• Assign integer to each peer
• put (key, value) pair in the peer that is closest
to the key

Application 2-91
DHT identifiers
• assign integer identifier to each peer in range [0,2n-1]
for some n.
• each identifier represented by n bits.

• require each key to be an integer in same range


• to get integer key, hash original key
• e.g., key = hash(“Led Zeppelin IV”)
• this is why its is referred to as a distributed “hash” table

Application 2-92
Assign keys to peers
• rule: assign key to the peer that has the
closest ID.
• convention in lecture: closest is the
immediate successor of the key.
• e.g., n=4; peers: 1,3,4,5,8,10,12,14 are alive;
• key = 13, then successor peer = 14
• key = 15, then successor peer = 1

Application 2-93
Circular DHT
1

3
15

4
12
5
10
8
• each peer only aware of immediate successor and
predecessor.
• “overlay network”
Application 2-94
Circular DHT
O(N) messages
on avgerage to resolve 0001 Who’s responsible
query, when there for key 1110 ?
are N peers I am
0011
1111
1110

1110
0100
1110

1100
1110
1110 0101
Define closest 1110

as closest 1010
successor 1000
Application 2-95
Circular DHT with shortcuts
1 Who’s responsible
for key 1110?
3
15

4
12
5
10
8
• each peer keeps track of IP addresses of predecessor,
successor, short cuts.
• reduced from 6 to 2 messages.
• possible to design shortcuts so O(log N) neighbors, O(log N)
messages in query
Application 2-96
Peer churn
1 handling peer churn:
• peers may come and go (churn)
3 • each peer knows address of its
15 two successors
• each peer periodically pings its
4
two successors to check
12 aliveness
5 • if immediate successor leaves,
10 choose next successor as new
8 immediate successor
example: peer 5 abruptly leaves
•peer 4 detects peer 5 departure; makes 8 its immediate
successor; asks 8 who its immediate successor is; makes
8’s immediate successor its second successor.
•what if peer 13 wants to join?
Application 2-97
Peer churn
1

3
15
13 4
12
5
10
8
what if peer 13 wants to join?
•Ask peer 1 who is its immediate predecessor?
•Peer 1 ask who is 13’s predecessor?
•Peer 12 reply I am and change its successor.
•Peer 13 ask 12’s predecessor and successor?
•Now all can change their predecessor and successors. Application 2-98
Chapter 2: outline

Socket programming with UDP and TCP

Application Layer 2-99


Socket programming
goal: learn how to build client/server applications that
communicate using sockets
socket: door between application process and end-
end-transport protocol

application application
socket controlled by
process process app developer

transport transport
network network controlled
link by OS
link Internet
physical physical

Application Layer 2-100


Socket programming
Two socket types for two transport services:
• UDP: unreliable datagram
• TCP: reliable, byte stream-oriented

Application Example:
1. Client reads a line of characters (data) from its
keyboard and sends the data to the server.
2. The server receives the data and converts
characters to uppercase.
3. The server sends the modified data to the client.
4. The client receives the modified data and displays
the line on its screen.
Application Layer 2-101
Socket programming with UDP
UDP: no “connection” between client & server
•no handshaking before sending data
•sender explicitly attaches IP destination address and port # to
each packet
•rcvr extracts sender IP address and port# from received
packet
UDP: transmitted data may be lost or received out-
of-order
•Application viewpoint:
•UDP provides unreliable transfer of groups of bytes
(“datagrams”) between client and server

Application Layer 2-102


Client/server socket interaction: UDP

server (running on serverIP) client


create socket:
create socket, port= x: clientSocket =
serverSocket = socket(AF_INET,SOCK_DGRAM)
socket(AF_INET,SOCK_DGRAM)
Create datagram with server IP and
port=x; send datagram via
read datagram from clientSocket
serverSocket

write reply to
serverSocket read datagram from
specifying clientSocket
client address,
port number close
clientSocket

Application 2-103
Example app: UDP client
Python UDPClient
include Python’s socket
library
from socket import *
serverName = ‘hostname’
serverPort = 12000
create UDP socket for clientSocket = socket(socket.AF_INET,
server

get user keyboard


socket.SOCK_DGRAM)
input message = raw_input(’Input lowercase sentence:’)
Attach server name, port to
message; send into socket clientSocket.sendto(message,(serverName, serverPort))
read reply characters from modifiedMessage, serverAddress =
socket into string
clientSocket.recvfrom(2048)
print out received string print modifiedMessage
and close socket
clientSocket.close()

Application Layer 2-104


Example app: UDP server
Python UDPServer
from socket import *
serverPort = 12000
create UDP socket serverSocket = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_DGRAM)
bind socket to local port
number 12000
serverSocket.bind(('', serverPort))
print “The server is ready to receive”
loop forever while 1:
Read from UDP socket into message, clientAddress = serverSocket.recvfrom(2048)
message, getting client’s
address (client IP and port) modifiedMessage = message.upper()
send upper case string serverSocket.sendto(modifiedMessage, clientAddress)
back to this client

Application Layer 2-105


Socket programming with TCP
client must contact server • when contacted by client,
•server process must first be server TCP creates new socket
running for server process to
•server must have created
communicate with that
socket (door) that welcomes particular client
client’s contact • allows server to talk with
multiple clients
client contacts server by: • source port numbers used
•Creating TCP socket, to distinguish clients
specifying IP address, port (more in Chap 3)
number of server process
when client creates socket: application viewpoint:
client TCP establishes TCP provides reliable, in-order
connection to server TCP byte-stream transfer (“pipe”)
between client and server

Application Layer 2-106


Client/server socket interaction: TCP
server (running on hostid) client
create socket,
port=x, for incoming
request:
serverSocket = socket()

wait for incoming create socket,


connection request
TCP connect to hostid, port=x
connectionSocket = connection setup clientSocket = socket()
serverSocket.accept()

send request using


read request from clientSocket
connectionSocket

write reply to
connectionSocket read reply from
clientSocket
close
connectionSocket close
clientSocket

Application Layer 2-107


Example app: TCP client
Python TCPClient
from socket import *
serverName = ’servername’
create TCP socket for
serverPort = 12000
server, remote port 12000
clientSocket = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM)
clientSocket.connect((serverName,serverPort))
sentence = raw_input(‘Input lowercase sentence:’)
No need to attach server clientSocket.send(sentence)
name, port
modifiedSentence = clientSocket.recv(1024)
print ‘From Server:’, modifiedSentence
clientSocket.close()

Application Layer 2-108


Example app: TCP server
Python TCPServer
from socket import *
create TCP welcoming serverPort = 12000
socket serverSocket = socket(AF_INET,SOCK_STREAM)
serverSocket.bind((‘’,serverPort))
server begins listening for
incoming TCP requests serverSocket.listen(1)
print ‘The server is ready to receive’
loop forever
while 1:
server waits on accept()
for incoming requests, new
connectionSocket, addr = serverSocket.accept()
socket created on return

sentence = connectionSocket.recv(1024)
read bytes from socket (but
not address as in UDP) capitalizedSentence = sentence.upper()
close connection to this connectionSocket.send(capitalizedSentence)
client (but not welcoming
socket) connectionSocket.close()
Application Layer 2-109

You might also like