MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis

MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis

Harold C Banda

Phone: +265 999 77 33 78.

Email(s) : [email protected]/[email protected]
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Natural numbers and induction

The set of real numbers is very important in the study of
mathematics.
We denote the set of natural numbers by N = {1, 2, 3, · · · }.
The elements of N are also called counting numbers or
positive numbers.
Each natural number has a successor namely n + 1. That is,
the successor of 2 is 3, the successor of 10 is 11, and so on.
The following properties of N are obvious:
1 1 belongs to N.
2 1 is not a successor of any natural number.
3 If n belongs to N, then its successor n + 1 belongs to N.
4 If m and n have the same successor, then m = n.
5 A subset of N which contains 1 and n + 1 whenever it n must
be equal to N.
6 We see that Pn+1 is true whenever Pn is true.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Natural numbers and induction...cont’d

Example
Prove that n! > n2 for all natural numbers n ≥ 4.

Proof.
When n = 4, 4! = 24 and 42 = 16. Clearly, n! > n2 . So,
LHS > RHS. Assume that it is true for n! > n2 . We now show
that Pn+1 holds by using (n + 1) in the inequality

(n + 1)! = (n + 1)n!
= n!n + n!
> 2n2 + 2n + 1 > n2 + 2n + 1
= (n + 1)2 .

This shows that (n + 1)! > (n + 1)2 implying that n! > n2 for all
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Natural numbers and induction...cont’d

Example
Prove that 7n − 4n is divisible by 3.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Natural numbers and induction...cont’d

Proof.
This is true when n = 1 since 71 − 41 = 3 which is divisible by 3.
Suppose 7n − 4n is divisible by 3. That is 7n − 4n = 3m for some
m a natural number. It follows that
7n+1 − 4n+1 = 7 · 7n − 4 · 4n
= (4 + 3) · 7n − 4 · 4n
= 4 · 7n + 3 · 7n − 4 · 4n
= 4(7n − 4n ) + 3 · 7n
= 4(3m) + 3 · 7n
= 3(4m + 7n ).

Since m and n are natural numbers, so is 4m + 7n . Thus

7n+1 − 4n+1 is divisible by 3 implying that 7n − 4n is divisible by
3.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Rational Numbers

The Rational Numbers

We will enlarge the set of natural numbers so that we are able
to perform subtraction as we can not subtract in N.
We first enlarge the set of natural numbers to the set of
integers denoted by Z = {0, 1, −1, 2, −2, · · · }.
In the set of integers, we can add, subtract, and multiply, but
division is not possible.
So we enlarge the set of integers to rational numbers denoted
by Q = { ba : a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0}.
in this set, we can perform addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division successfully.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Rational Numbers

The Rational Numbers...cont’d

Example
Prove that the sum of rational numbers is rational.

Proof.
Let m = ba , and let n = qp . Then m + n = a
b + qp = aq+bp
bq ∈ Q.

The proof can be extended to the product of two rational

numbers.
There are some of the elements of real numbers that are not
in the set of rational numbers. These are known as irrational
numbers. They are denoted by Q0 .
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Rational Numbers

The Rational Numbers...cont’d

Example
√ √
Prove that 3+ 2 is an irrational number.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Rational Numbers

The Rational Numbers...cont’d

Proof.
√ √
Suppose
√ √ 3 + 2 is an irrational number, then
3 + 2 = qp , q 6= 0 with no common factor of p and q other than
1. Then we have
p √ √
= 3+ 2
q
 2
p √ √
= ( 3 + 2)2
q
p2 √
2
=3+2 6+2
q
√
=5+2 6
p 2 − 5q 2 √
= 6.
2q 2
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Rational Numbers

The Rational Numbers...cont’d

√
Since the numerator and denominator are integers, then 6 is
a rational numbers.
√
This contradicts that 6 is an irrational number.
√ √
Hence, 3 + 2 is an irrational number.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Rational Numbers

Properties of Q
For all a, b, c ∈ Q, we have the following properties:
1 (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (associativity).
2 a + b = b + a (commutativity).
3 a + 0 = a (additive identity).
4 For each a 6= 0, there exists −a such that a + (−a) = 0
(additive inverse).
5 (ab)c = a(bc).
6 ab = ba.
7 a×1=a
8 For each a, there exists a−1 : a · a−1 = 1.
9 a(b + c) = ab + ac.
A system that satisfies all the above properties is called a field.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Rational Numbers

Order in Q
Given that a, b, c ∈ Q,
1 either a ≤ b or b ≤ a.
2 if a ≤ b and b ≤ a, then a = b.
3 if a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c.
4 if a ≤ b, then a + c ≤ b + c.
5 if a ≤ b and 0 ≤ c, then ac ≤ bc.
A field with an order satisfying these properties is called an
ordered field.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Real Numbers R
The sets of all rational numbers and irrational numbers make
the set of real numbers R.
A real number has three forms e.g., if a ∈ R, then a > 0,
a = 0 or a < 0.
In fact, the set Q has holes in it which are filled up by
irrationals.
In the terminology of Abstract Algebra, the system of real
numbers is called a field with respect to addition and
multiplication.
It is denoted F.
We now write down the field properties of R.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Properties of R
For all x, y , z ∈ F, we have the following properties:
1 (x + y ) + z = x + (y + z) (associativity).
2 x + y = y + x (commutativity).
3 There exists a 0: x + 0 = x (additive identity).
4 For each x 6= 0, there exists −x such that x + (−x) = 0
(additive inverse).
5 (xy )z = x(yz).
6 xy = yx.
7 F contains an element 1: x × 1 = x
8 For each x, there exists x −1 : x · x −1 = 1.
9 x(y + z) = xy + xz.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Consequences of field properties

For all a, b, c ∈ R,
1 a + c = b + c implies a = b.
2 a · 0 = 0.
3 (−a)b = −ab.
4 (−a)(−b) = ab.
5 ac = bc and c 6= 0 =⇒ a = b.
6 ab = 0 =⇒ either a = 0 or b = 0
Note: You need to provide proof for each property above!
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Ordered Sets

Definition
Let S be a set. An order on S is a relation denoted by 0 <0 with
the following properties
1 If a, b ∈ S, then one and only one of the following statements
is true a < b, a = b, b < a.
2 Let a, b, c ∈ S. If a < b and b < c, then a < c.

Definition
An ordered set is a set in which an order is defined. Hence, we
have
1 If a > 0 and b > 0, then a + b > 0.
2 If a > 0 and b > 0, then ab > 0.
3 a < b if and only if (b − a) > 0.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Consequences of ordered field properties

1 If a ≤ b, then −b ≤ −a.

2 If a ≤ b, and c ≤ 0, then bc ≤ ac.

3 If 0 ≤ a and b ≥ 0, then ab ≤ 0.
4 a2 ≥ 0.
5 0 < 1.
1
6 If a ≥ 0, then a ≥ 0.
1 1
7 If b > a > 0, then a > b for all a, b ∈ R.
Note: You need to provide proof for each property above!
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Absolute Value

Definition
If a ∈ R, then the absolute value of a denoted by

a if a ≥ 0,
|a| =
−a if a < 0.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Properties of Distance
1 |a| ≥ 0, ∀a ∈ R.
2 |ab| = |a| · |b|, ∀a, b ∈ R.
3 |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|, ∀a, b ∈ R (Triangle Inequality) .
4 d(a, c) ≤ d(a, b) + d(b, c), ∀a, b, c ∈ R.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Maximum and Minimum of a Set

Definition
Let S be a nonempty subset of R.
1 Is S contains the largest element xo , i.e., xo ∈ S : x ≤ xo ,
∀x ∈ S, then xo is the maximum of S.
2 If S contains a smallest element xo , we call it the minimum os
S.

If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, the MaxA = 5 and MinA = 1.

If S = {n ∈ Z : −4 < n ≤ 100}, the MaxS = 100 and
MinS = −3.
√
Let A = {r ∈ Q : 0 ≤ r ≤ 2}. Then, MaxA = none and
MinA = 0.
Note: The Max. and Min. of a set are always in the set!
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Bounds in a Set

Definition
Let S be a nonempty subset of R.
1 The set S is bounded above if there exists a number M such
that x ≤ M, ∀x ∈ S. The number M is called the upper
bound of S.
2 The set S is bounded below if there exists a number m such
that x ≥ m, ∀x ∈ S. The number m is called the lower bound
of S.
3 The set S is bounded if it is bounded above and below. That
is |x| ≤ M =⇒ −M ≤ x ≤ M.

Note: The Maximum of a set is always the upper bound and

Minimum of a set are always the lower bound!
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Supremum (least upper bound) and infimum (greatest lower

bound)

Definition
Let S ⊆ R.
1 If S is bounded above, then a number u is said to be a
supremum of S if it satisfies the conditions.
(a) u is an upper bound of S.
(b) If v is any upper bound of S, then u ≤ v .
2 If S is bounded below, then a number w is said to be an
infimum of S if it satisfies the conditions
(a) w is a lower bound of S.
(b) If t is any lower bound of S, then t ≤ w
Note: The supremum(infimum) of a set is unique.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Completeness Axiom of Real Numbers

This is the axiom that assures us that real numbers have no
gaps.
It is the axiom the distinguishes Q from R.
It states that “Every nonempty subset of real numbers that is
bounded above has a least upper bound.” (i.e., If S is
nonempty and bounded above, then sup S exists and is a real
number).Corollary: Every nonempty subset of real numbers
that is bounded below has a greatest lower bound (Check for
the proofs of these two from any Real Analysis book).

Example
Suppose that A and B are nonempty subsets of real numbers that
satisfy the property a ≤ b, ∀a ∈ A and ∀b ∈ B. Prove that sup
A ≤ inf B.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Completeness Axiom of Real Numbers...cont’d

Proof.
Given b ∈ B, we have a ≤ b, ∀a ∈ A. This implies that b is an
upper bound of A so that sup A ≤ b. Since the inequality holds
∀b ∈ B, we see that the number supA is a lower bound for the set
B. This implies that supA ≤ inf B.

Let S be a nonempty subset of R that is bounded above, and

let a be any number in R. Define the set
a + S = {a + s : s ∈ S}, Prove that sup(a + S)=a+supS.
Let S be a nonempty bounded subset of R. If a > 0, let
aS = {as, s ∈ S}. Prove that sup(aS)=asupS.
MAT 2201N: Foundation of Analysis
The Real Numbers

Archimedian Property for Real Numbers

It states that “If a > 0 and b > 0, then for some positive
integer n, we have na > b.”
Note: The set of rational numbers is dense in real numbers in
the sense that given any two real numbers , there is a rational
number between them. In fact, there are infinitely many
rational numbers between any two real numbers (Density of
rational numbers in real numbers).
Formally put: “If x and y are any real numbers with x < y ,
then there exists a rational number r ∈ Q such that
x < r < y .” (proofs are left as an exercise).