 Heat and Temperature

 Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy

possessed by the molecules of a substance.
 It is a relative measure of how hot or cold a
substance is and can be used to predict the
direction of heat transfer.
 Heat is energy in transit.
 The transfer of energy as heat occurs at the
molecular level as a result of a temperature
difference.
 Heat is capable of being transmitted through solids
and fluids by conduction, through fluids by
convection, and through empty space by radiation.
 Modes of Heat Transfer

 Conduction involves the transfer of heat by the

interactions of atoms or molecules of a material
through which the heat is being transferred.

 Convection involves the transfer of heat by the

mixing and motion of macroscopic portions of a
fluid.

 Radiation, or radiant heat transfer, involves the

transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that
arises due to the temperature of a body.
 Heat Transfer Rate and Heat Flux

 The rate at which heat is transferred is represented

by the symbol Q or q or qx. Common units for heat
transfer rate is Btu/hr (W or kW).
 heat flux is the heat transfer rate per unit area,
which has the symbol of Q” or q” or q”x. Units for
heat flux are Btu/hr-ft2 (W/m2 or kW/m2 ).
 The heat flux can be determined by dividing the
heat transfer rate by the area through which the
heat is being transferred.
Quantity Text Notation SI Unit English Unit

heat Q Joule (J) Btu

(heat transfer)

heat rate q Watt (W) Btu/hr

(heat transfer rate)
(heat energy rate)
(rate of heat flow)

heat flux q” W/m2 Btu/hr-ft2

(heat rate per unit area)

heat rate per unit length q’ W/m Btu/hr-ft

volumetric heat generation q W/m3 Btu/hr-ft3

(rate of heat production per
unit volume)

Conversions: 1 Btu = 1054 J

1 kcal = 4184 J
 Thermal Conductivity

 The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material

are measured by a property called the thermal
conductivity (k) measured in Btu/hr-ft-oF.
 It is a measure of a substance’s ability to transfer
heat through a solid by conduction.
 The thermal conductivity of most liquids and solids
varies with temperature.
 For vapors, it depends upon pressure.
 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

 The convective heat transfer coefficient (h),

defines, in part, the heat transfer due to
convection.
 It is sometimes referred to as a film coefficient and
represents the thermal resistance of a relatively
stagnant layer of fluid between a heat transfer
surface and the fluid medium.
 Common units used to measure the convective heat
transfer coefficient are Btu/hr ft2 oF.
 Log Mean Temperature Difference

 In heat exchanger applications, the inlet and outlet

temperatures are commonly specified based on the
fluid in the tubes.
 The temperature change that takes place across the
heat exchanger from the entrance to the exit is not
linear.
 A precise temperature change between two fluids
across the heat exchanger is best represented by
the log mean temperature difference (LMTD or
ΔTlm)
 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
 In the case of combined heat transfer, it is common
practice to relate the total rate of heat transfer (Q ),
the overall cross-sectional area for heat transfer
(Ao), and the overall temperature difference (ΔTo)
using the overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo).
 The overall heat transfer coefficient combines the
heat transfer coefficient of the two heat exchanger
fluids and the thermal conductivity of the heat
exchanger tubes. Uo is specific to the heat
exchanger and the fluids that are used in the heat
exchanger.
 Bulk Temperature

 The fluid temperature (Tb), referred to as the bulk

temperature, varies according to the details of the
situation.
 For flow adjacent to a hot or cold surface, Tb is the
temperature of the fluid that is "far" from the
surface, for instance, the center of the flow
channel.
 For boiling or condensation, Tb is equal to the
saturation temperature.
  Conduction is the transfer of heat from molecule
to molecule within a substance
 Molecules must be in direct contact with each
other
• If you put one end of a metal rod over a
fire, that end will absorb the energy from
the flame.
•Molecules at this end of the road will gain
energy and begin to vibrate faster
•As they do, their temperature increases
and they begin to bump into the molecules
next to them.
•The heat is being transferred from the
warmer end to the colder end, and
eventually to your finger.
 Conduction involves the transfer of heat by the
interaction between adjacent molecules of a material.

 Heat transfer by conduction is dependent upon the

driving "force" of temperature difference and the
resistance to heat transfer. The resistance to heat
transfer is dependent upon the nature and
dimensions of the heat transfer medium.

 All heat transfer problems involve the temperature

difference, the geometry, and the physical properties
of the object being studied.
 In conduction heat transfer problems, the object
being studied is usually a solid.

 There are several ways to correlate the geometry,

physical properties, and temperature difference of an
object with the rate of heat transfer through the
object.

 In conduction heat transfer, the most common means

of correlation is through Fourier’s Law of Conduction.

 The law, in its equation form, is used most often in its

rectangular or cylindrical form (pipes and cylinders).
Sample Prob.
 1000 Btu/hr is conducted through a section of insulating
material as shown in the figure, that measures 1 ft2 in
cross-sectional area. The thickness is 1 in. and the thermal
conductivity is 0.12 Btu/hr-ft-°F. Compute the
temperature difference across the material.
 A concrete floor with a conductivity of 0.8 Btu/hr-ft-
°F measures 30 ft by 40 ft with a thickness of 4 inches.
The floor has a surface temperature of 70°F and the
temperature beneath it is 60°F. What is the heat flux
and the heat transfer rate through the floor?
 Solution:
 1.

Principles of Heat Transfer, 7th Edition by Kreith, Manglik, and Bohn

Heat Transfer, 10th Edition by J. P. Holman
 Equivalent Resistance Method
 It is possible to compare heat transfer to current
flow in electrical circuits.
 The heat transfer rate may be considered as a
current flow and the combination of thermal
conductivity, thickness of material, and area as a
resistance to this flow. The temperature difference
is the potential or driving function for the heat
flow, resulting in the Fourier equation being
written in a form similar to Ohm’s Law of Electrical
Circuit Theory.
 If the thermal resistance term Δx/k is written as a
resistance term where the resistance is the
reciprocal of the thermal conductivity divided by
the thickness of the material, the result is the
conduction equation being analogous to electrical
systems or networks.
 The electrical analogy may be used to solve
complex problems involving both series and
parallel thermal resistances. A typical conduction
problem in its analogous electrical form is given in
the following example.
Where the "electrical" Fourier equation may be written as follows.
Sample Prob.
 A composite protective wall is formed of a 1 in.
copper plate, a 1/8 in. layer of asbestos, and a 2 in.
layer of fiberglass. The thermal conductivities of the
materials in units of Btu/hr-ft-oF are as follows: kCu =
240, kasb = 0.048, and kfib = 0.022. The overall
temperature difference across the wall is 500°F.
Calculate the thermal resistance of each layer of the
wall and the heat transfer rate per unit area (heat
flux) through the composite structure.
 Solution:
 Seatwork #1 Prob #1
A wall 2 cm thick is to be constructed from
material that has an average thermal
conductivity of 1.3 W/m◦C. The wall is to be
insulated with material having an average
thermal conductivity of 0.35 W/m◦C, so that
the heat loss per square meter will not
exceed 1830W. Assuming that the inner and
outer surface temperatures of the insulated
wall are 130x◦C and 3x◦C, calculate the
thickness of insulation required.
Cylindrical Coordinates
 Heat transfer across a rectangular solid is the most direct
application of Fourier’s law.
 Heat transfer across a pipe or heat exchanger tube wall is
more complicated to evaluate. Across a cylindrical wall,
the heat transfer surface area is continually increasing or
decreasing. Figure below shows the cross-sectional view
of a pipe constructed with homogeneous material.
 The surface area (A) for transferring heat through the
pipe (neglecting the pipe ends) is directly
proportional to the radius (r) of the pipe and the
length (L) of the pipe.
 A = 2πrL

 As the radius increases from the inner wall to the

outer wall, the heat transfer area increases.
 The development of an equation evaluating heat
transfer through an object with cylindrical geometry
begins with Fourier’s law that;
 From the discussion, it is seen that no simple
expression for area is accurate. Neither the area of the
inner surface nor the area of the outer surface alone
can be used in the equation. For a problem involving
cylindrical geometry, it is necessary to define a log
mean cross-sectional area (Alm).
 Substituting the expression 2πrL for area in the
equation allows the log mean area to be calculated
from the inner and outer radius without first
calculating the inner and outer area.
 This expression for log mean area can be inserted into
Fourier’s equation, allowing us to calculate the heat
transfer rate for cylindrical geometries.
 Sample Prob.
 A stainless steel pipe with a length of 35 ft has an
inner diameter of 0.92 ft and an outer diameter of
1.08 ft. The temperature of the inner surface of the
pipe is 122oF and the temperature of the outer
surface is 118oF. The thermal conductivity of the
stainless steel is 108 Btu/hr-ft-oF.
 Calculate the heat transfer rate through the pipe.
 Calculate the heat flux at the outer surface of the
pipe.
 Solution:
 A 10 ft length of pipe with an inner radius of 1 in and
an outer radius of 1.25 in has an outer surface
temperature of 250°F. The heat transfer rate is 30,000
Btu/hr. Find the interior surface temperature. Assume
k = 25 Btu/hr-ft-°F.
 Solution:
 The evaluation of heat transfer through a cylindrical
wall can be extended to include a composite body
composed of several concentric, cylindrical layers, as
shown in the figure.
 Sample Prob.
 A thick-walled nuclear coolant pipe (ks = 12.5 Btu/hr-
ft-°F) with 10 in. inside diameter (ID) and 12 in.
outside diameter (OD) is covered with a 3 in. layer of
asbestos insulation (ka = 0.14 Btu/hr-ft-oF) as shown
in the figure. If the inside wall temperature of the
pipe is maintained at 550°F, calculate the heat loss per
foot of length. The outside temperature is 100°F.
 Solution:
  Seatwork #1 Prob. #2
A thick-walled tube of stainless steel with
thermal conductivity k = 19 W/moC has inner
diameter of 10 cm and outer diameter of 30
cm is covered with 5 cm layer of asbestos
insulation with thermal conductivity k = 0.2
W/moC. If the inside of the pipe and outside
of insulator temperature is maintained at
60xoC and 10xoC respectively. Determine the
heat loss per meter length of pipe and the
tube-insulation interface temperature.
 Convection involves the transfer of heat by the
motion and mixing of "macroscopic" portions of a
fluid (that is, the flow of a fluid past a solid
boundary).
 The term natural convection is used if this motion
and mixing is caused by density variations resulting
from temperature differences within the fluid.
 The transfer of heat from a hot water radiator to a
room is an example of heat transfer by natural
convection.
 The term forced convection is used if this motion and
mixing is caused by an outside force, such as a pump
and blower.
 The transfer of heat from the surface of a heat
exchanger to the bulk of a fluid being pumped
through the heat exchanger is an example of forced
convection.
 Heat transfer by convection is more difficult to
analyze than heat transfer by conduction because no
single property of the heat transfer medium, such as
thermal conductivity, can be defined to describe the
mechanism.
 Heat transfer by convection varies from situation to
situation (upon the fluid flow conditions), and it is
frequently coupled with the mode of fluid flow.
 In practice, analysis of heat transfer by convection is
treated empirically (by direct observation).
 Convection heat transfer is treated empirically
because of the factors that affect the stagnant film
thickness:
 Fluid velocity

 Fluid viscosity

 Heat flux

 Surface roughness

 Type of flow (single-phase/two-phase)

 Convection involves the transfer of heat between a
surface at a given temperature (Ts) and fluid at a bulk
temperature (Tb).
 The exact definition of the bulk temperature (Tb)
varies depending on the details of the situation.
 For flow adjacent to a hot or cold surface, Tb is the
temperature of the fluid "far" from the surface.
 For boiling or condensation, Tb is the saturation
temperature of the fluid.
 For flow in a pipe, Tb is the average temperature
measured at a particular cross-section of the pipe.
 The basic relationship for heat transfer by convection
has the same form as that for heat transfer by
conduction: Newton’s law of cooling
 The convective heat transfer coefficient (h) is
dependent upon the physical properties of the fluid
and the physical situation.
 Typically, the convective heat transfer coefficient for
laminar flow is relatively low compared to the
convective heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow.
 This is due to turbulent flow having a thinner
stagnant fluid film layer on the heat transfer surface.
 Values of h have been measured and tabulated for the
commonly encountered fluids and flow situations
occurring during heat transfer by convection.
Sample Prob.
 Many applications involving convective heat transfer
take place within pipes, tubes, or some similar
cylindrical device. In such circumstances, the surface
area of heat transfer normally given in the convection
equation varies as heat passes through the cylinder.
 In addition, the temperature difference existing
between the inside and the outside of the pipe, as well
as the temperature differences along the pipe,
necessitates the use of some average temperature
value in order to analyze the problem.
 This average temperature difference is called the log
mean temperature difference (LMTD), described
earlier.
 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

 Many of the heat transfer processes encountered in

engineering facilities involve a combination of both
conduction and convection.
 For example, heat transfer in a steam generator
involves convection from the bulk of the reactor
coolant to the steam generator inner tube surface,
conduction through the tube wall, and convection
from the outer tube surface to the secondary side
fluid.
 In cases of combined heat transfer for a heat
exchanger, there are two values for h. There is the
convective heat transfer coefficient (h) for the fluid
film inside the tubes and a convective heat transfer
coefficient for the fluid film outside the tubes.
 The thermal conductivity (k) and thickness (Δx) of
the tube wall must also be accounted for.
 An additional term (Uo), called the overall heat
transfer coefficient, must be used instead.
 It is common practice to relate the total rate of heat
transfer (Q) to the cross-sectional area for heat
transfer (Ao) and the overall heat transfer coefficient
(Uo).
 The relationship of the overall heat transfer coefficient to the
individual conduction and convection terms is shown in the
figure below.
 An example of this concept applied to cylindrical
geometry is illustrated by the figure below, which
shows a typical combined heat transfer situation.
 Referring from the figure representing flow in a pipe, heat
transfer by convection occurs between temperatures T1
and T2; heat transfer by conduction occurs between
temperatures T2 and T3; and heat transfer occurs by
convection between temperatures T3 and T4.
 Thus, there are three processes involved.
 Each has an associated heat transfer coefficient, cross-
sectional area for heat transfer, and temperature
difference.
 ΔTo can be expressed as the sum of the ΔT of the three
individual processes.

 If the basic relationship for each process is solved for its

associated temperature difference and substituted into
the expression for ΔTo above, the following relationship
results.
 This relationship can be modified by selecting a reference
cross-sectional area Ao.

 Solving for results in an equation in the form .

 ˙Q = Uo Ao ΔT
 where:
 Equation for the overall heat transfer coefficient in
cylindrical geometry is relatively difficult to work with.
 The equation can be simplified without losing much
accuracy if the tube that is being analyzed is thin-walled,
that is the tube wall thickness is small compared to the
tube diameter.
 For a thin-walled tube, the inner surface area (A1), outer
surface area (A2), and log mean surface area (A1m), are all
very close to being equal.
 Assuming that A1, A2, and A1m are equal to each other and
also equal to Ao allows us to cancel out all the area terms
in the denominator of the equation.
 This results in a much simpler expression that is similar to
the one developed for a flat plate heat exchanger .

 The convection heat transfer process is strongly

dependent upon the properties of the fluid being
considered.
 Correspondingly, the convective heat transfer coefficient
(h), the overall coefficient (Uo), and the other fluid
properties may vary substantially for the fluid if it
experiences a large temperature change during its path
through the convective heat transfer device.
 This is especially true if the fluid’s properties are
strongly temperature dependent. Under such
circumstances, the temperature at which the
properties are "looked-up" must be some type of
average value, rather than using either the inlet or
outlet temperature value.
 For internal flow, the bulk or average value of
temperature is obtained analytically through the use
of conservation of energy.
 For external flow, an average film temperature is
normally calculated, which is an average of the free
stream temperature and the solid surface
temperature.
 In any case, an average value of temperature is used to
obtain the fluid properties to be used in the heat
transfer problem.
 The following example shows the use of such
principles by solving a convective heat transfer
problem in which the bulk temperature is calculated.
 Water flows through a cast steel pipe (k= 50 W/m K)
with an outer diameter of 104 mm and 2 mm wall
thickness.
 Calculate the Heat loss by convection and conduction
per meter length of uninsulated pipe when the water
temperature is 15oC, the outside air temperature is -
10oC, waterside heat transfer convective coefficient is 30
kW/m2K and outside heat transfer convective
coefficient is 20 W/m2K.
 Calculate the corresponding heat loss per meter of pipe
when it is lagged with insulation having an outer
diameter of 300 mm and thermal conductivity of k =
0.05 w/mK.
 How much can be save for insulating 100 m of pipe in
one month continuous operation, assuming that energy
costs Php 10.85 per kWh?
 Seatwork
A 50-cm-diameter pipeline in the Arctic carries hot
oil where the outer surface is maintained at 3xoC
and is exposed to a surrounding temperature of
−1xoC.Aspecial powder insulation 5 cm thick
surrounds the pipe and has a thermal conductivity
of 7mW/moC. The convection heat-transfer
coefficient on the outside of the pipe is 9 W/m2oC.
Estimate the energy loss from the pipe per meter of
length.