Chemistry of Life ● COMPOUNDS

- A substance formed by
● Elements chemical combination of 2 or
- Simplest form of a substance more elements in definite
- Cannot be broken down any further proportions
without changing what it is - Ex. Water, salt, glucose, carbon
dioxide
● Atom - H2O, NaCl, CO2
- The actual basic unit
- Composed of protons, neutrons, and
electrons
- They are very small. If placed side by > The CELL is a complex chemical factory
side one million would stretch a distance containing some of the same elements found in
of 1cm the nonliving environment
- The atom is made up of 3 particles: > carbon (C) , hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and
nitrogen (N) are present in the greatest
percentages
Particle Charge
Two types of Compounds
Proton + 1. Organic
- Contain C, H, O in some ration
Neutron Neutral usually referred to as
chemicals of life
Electron -
- Carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids,
ELECTRONS are not present within the atom, nucleic acids
instead they revolve around the nucleus of the
atom and form ELECTRON CLOUD 2. Inorganic
- Usually “support” life
Atomic # = protons - No specific ratio of C, H, O
Atomic Mass = protons and neutrons - Water (H2O) and Carbon
Dioxide (CO2)
● ISOTOPES
- Atoms of the same element ● CHEMICAL BONDS
have a different number of - Hold the atoms in a molecule
neutrons together
- Some are radioactive. This - There are 2 types of chemical
means that their nuclei is bonds IONIC and COVALENT
unstable and will break down at IONIC BONDS
a CONSTANT RATE over time - Occur when 1 or more electrons are
- There are several particular TRANSFERRED from one atom to
uses for radioactive isotopes another.
1. Carbon Dating - When an atom loses an electron, it is a
2. Tracers POSITIVE charge
3. Kill bacteria/cancer cells - When an atom gains an electron it is a
NEGATIVE charge
- These newly charged atoms are now
called IONS
- example : NaCl (salt)
 - Facts about acids
COVALENT BONDS > Acid turns litmus paper BLUE and
- Occur when electrons are SHARED by usually taste SOUR
atoms > you eat acids daily (coffee, vinegar,
- These new structures that result from soda, spicy foods, etc.
covalent bonds are called MOLECULES BASES
- In general, the more chemical bonds a - Always (almost) end with -OH because
molecule has the more energy it of the excess of hydroxide ions (Oxygen
contains and Hydrogen)
- Ex. oven cleaner, bleach, ammonia, sea
MIXTURES water, blood, pure water
- Water is not always pure. It is often
found as part of a mixture NEUTRALIZATION REACTIONS
- A mixture is a material composed of 2 or - when acid reacts with a base to produce a salt
more elements or compounds that are and water
physically mixed Acid + Base → Salt + Water
Ex. salt and pepper mixed, sugar and sand - can HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (I)
be easily separated
pH SCALE
SOLUTION - Measures degree of substance alkalinity
Two parts: or acidity
> Solute - substance that is being dissolved - Ranges from 0 to 14
(sugar/salt) - 0-5 strong acid
> Solvent - the substance in which the solute - 6-7 neutral
dissolves - 8-14 strong base
*materials that do not dissolve are known as - The goal of the body is to maintain
SUSPENSIONS HOMEOSTASIS (neutrality) - to do this
- Blood is the most common example of when pH is concerned, we add weak
suspension acids and bases to prevent sharp
- Cells and other particles remain in changes in pH
suspension - These are called BUFFERS
Biochemistry portion of things
FORMULA Organic Compounds
- The chemical symbols and numbers that 1. CARBOHYDRATES
compose a compound (“recipe”) - Living things use carbohydrates as a
> STRUCTURAL FORMULA key source of ENERGY
- Line drawing of the compound tat shows - Plants use carbohydrates for structure
the elements in proportion and how they (CELLULOSE)
are bonded > include sugars and complex
> MOLECULAR FORMULA carbohydrates (Starches)
- The ACTUAL formula for a compound > contain the elements carbon,
- C2H6O hydrogen, and oxygen (the hydrogen is
in a 2:1 ratio to oxygen)
ACIDS AND BASES - Fuel and building blocks
ACIDS - Functions:
- Always (almost) begin with “H” because > structural elements
of the excess of H+ ions (hydrogen) > energy source
- Ex. lemon juice (6), stomach acid (1.5), - Synthesized by green plants via
acid rain (4.5), normal rain (6) photosynthesis
MONOSACCHARIDES (simple sugars)
- All have the formula C6H12O6 POLYSACCHARIDES (complex sugar)
- All have a single ring structure - formed of three or more simple sugar units
(glucose is an example) > Glycogen - animal starch stored in liver &
- Simple sugars muscles
- Those that are biologically important: > Cellulose - indigestible in humans - forms cell
> tetroses - four carbon atoms walls
> Pentoses - five carbon atoms > starches - used as energy storage
> hexoses - six carbon atoms
Example:
glucose , fructose, galactose
Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides Cellulose (wood) > gives plants

strength and rigidity
Glucose Made by green plants > made up of many
glucose units
Galactose Found in milk combined; plant cell
wall; fiber
Fructose Found in fruits
Starch Made up of many
glucose units
combined,
Plant long-term food
DISACCHARIDES (double sugars) storage
- All have the formula C12H22O11
- Sucrose (table sugar) is an example Glycogen Animal storage in
liver and muscles

Disaccharides Chitin Protective coverings

in insects and other
Sucrose (table sugar) Glucose + fructose arthropods; also, in
fungus walls
Maltose (malt sugar) Glucose + glucose

Lactose (milk sugar) Glucose + galactose

How are complex carbohydrates formed and In addition:
broken down? - Fuel, building material, and storage
> Dehydration Synthesis product
- Combining simple molecules to form a - Made of fats and fat-like substances
more complex one with the removal of - Low polarity
water - Insoluble in water but soluble in organic
Ex.. Monosaccharides + solvents
monosaccharides → disaccharides + - Three principal groups
water > triglycerides
> phospholipids
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 → C12H22O11 + > steroids
H2O
3. PROTEINS
> Hydrolysis - contain the elements carbon, hydrogen,
- Addition of WATER to a compound to oxygen, and nitrogen (CHON)
SPLIT it into smaller subunits - Composed of MANY amino acid
- Also called chemical digestion subunits
- Ex. disaccharide + H2O → - It is the arrangement of the
monosaccharides + monosaccharides amino acid that forms the
C12H22O11 + H2O → C6H12O6 + primary structure of proteins
C6H12O6 - The basic amino acid form has
> carboxyl group on one end,
> methyl group that only has
2. LIPIDS one hydrogen in the middle,
- Fats, oils, waxes, steroids >. Amino acid group on the
- Chiefly function in energy other end
storage, protection, and - Attached to the methyl group is
insulation a R group (an R group is any
- Contain carbon, hydrogen, and group of atoms - this changes
oxygen but the H:O is NOT in a the properties of the protein)
2:1 ratio
- Neutral lipids are formed from FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
the union of one glycerol - There are certain groups of atoms that
molecule and 3 fatty acids are frequently attached to the organic
- 3 fatty acids + glycerol → molecules we will be studying, and
neutral fat (lipid) these are called functional groups
> Fats - found chiefly in animals - These are things like:
> Oils and waxes - found chiefly in plants > hydroxyl groups which form alcohols
- Oils are liquid at room temperature, > carbonyl groups which form aldehydes
waxes are solids or ketones
- Lipids along with proteins are key > carboxyl groups which form carboxylic
components of cell membranes acids
- Steroids are special lipids used to build > amino acids which from amines
many reproductive hormones and
cholesterol MAJOR PROTEIN FUNCTIONS
1. Growth and repair
2. Energy
3. Buffer - helps keep body pH
constant
In addition:
- Building blocks, enzymes, storage DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
products, etc. - Contains the genetic code of
- Large, complex molecules composed of instructions that direct a cell’s behavior
20 kinds of amino acids through the synthesis of proteins
- Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds - Found in the chromosomes of the
to form long, chainlike, polymers nucleus (and a few other organelle)

DIPEPTIDE RNA (ribonucleic acid

- Formed from two amino acid subunits - Directs cellular protein synthesis
- Formed by the process of dehydration - Found in ribosomes and nucleoli
synthesis - Has a catalytic activity (ribozymes)
- Amino acid + amino acid → Dipeptide + - First enzymes could have been RNA
water - Earliest self-replicating molecules cloud
have been RNA
> hydrolysis of a dipeptide - Proteins are better catalysts and DNA is
- Breaking down of a dipeptide into amino more stable than RNA
acids
- Dipeptide + H2O → amino acid + amino
acid CHEMICAL REACTIONS
- A process that changes one set of
POLYPEPTIDE (protein) chemicals into another set of chemicals
- Composed of three or more amino acids > REACTANTS - elements or compounds that
linked by synthesis reactions enter into a chemical reaction
- example s of proteins include insulin, > PRODUCTS - elements or compounds that
hemoglobin, and enzymes are produced in a chemical reaction
- There are an extremely large number of
different proteins - Chemical reactions always involve the
- The bases for variability include breaking of bonds in reactants and the
differences in number, kinds, and formation of new bonds in products
sequences of amino acids in the - In a reaction, energy is either TAKEN IN
proteins (ENDOTHERMIC) or GIVEN OFF
(EXOTHERMIC)
4. NUCLEIC ACIDS
- In all cells ENZYMES AND ENZYME ACTION
- Composed of NUCLEOTIDES > catalyst
- Store and transmit heredity/genetic - Inorganic or organic substance which
information speeds up the rate of a chemical
- Nucleotides consist of 3 parts reaction without entering the reaction
> 5-carbon sugar itself
> phosphate group > enzymes
> nitrogenous base - Organic catalysts made of protein
- adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), - Most enzyme names end in -ase
and guanine (G) (thymine is replaced by - Enzymes lower the energy needed to
uracil (U) in RNA start a chemical reaction (activation
- purines (adenine and guanine) - two energy)
ringed - Begin to be destroyed above 45
- Pyrimidine (cytosine, thymine, and degrees celsius (above this temperature
uracil - one all proteins begin to be destroyed)
It is a thought that, in order for an enzyme to shape so enzyme active site no
affect the rate of a reaction, the following events longer fits with the substrate and
must take place the enzyme can’t function)
1. The enzyme must form a temporary
association with the substance or Testing the Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis
substances whose reaction rate it - Prebiotic synthesis of small organic
affects. These substances are known as molecules
SUBSTRATES - Stanley Miller and Harold Urey (1953)
2. The association between enzyme and > successfully simulated the
substrate is thought to form a close Oparin-Haldane hypothesis
physical association between the > circulated a mixture of
molecules and is called the - H2
ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMPLEX - H2O
3. While the enzyme-substrate complex is - CH4
formed, enzyme action takes place - NH3
4. Upon completion of the reaction, the > energy source: electrical spark
enzyme and product(s) separate. The
enzyme molecule is now available to
form additional complexes THEORIES
1. Spontaneous generation
LOCK AND KEY THEORY 2. Abiogenesis
- Each enzyme is specific for one and 3. Biogenesis
ONLY one substrate (one lock - one 4. Creation of God - divine theory
key)
- This theory has many weaknesses, but GEOMETRY OF WATER MOLECULES
it explains some basic things about Water
enzyme function - Origin and maintenance of life on earth
depends on water
FACTORS INFLUENCING RATE OF ENZYME - 60-90% of organisms
ACTION - Hydrogen bonds
1. pH
- The optimum (best) in most Properties
living things is close to 7 1. High heat capacity
(neutral) 2. High heat of vaporization
- High or low pH levels usually 3. High surface tension
slow enzyme activity 4. Universal solvent
- A few enzymes (such as gastric 5. Participate in hydrolysis
protease) work best at a pH of 6. Base - hydroxyl ion
about 2.0
2. Temperature SOURCES OF ENERGY
- Strongly influences enzyme 1. Sun
activity 2. UV
- Optimum temperature for 3. Lightning
maximum enzyme function is 4. Heat from volcano
usually about 35-40 C
- Reactions proceed slowly below
optimal temperatures
- Above 45 C most enzymes are
denatured (change in their