Major Assignment

By

Group Members : Tahreem Mansoor Ahmed

Noor Ahsan
Laraib
Zaianb
Course :Inferential Statistics - I
Course Instructor : Dr. Uzma Batool
Semester : 4th (M)

at the
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION SCIENCES

PROGRAM BACHELOR IN EDUCATION

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MODERN LANGUAGES (NUML), ISLAMABAD

 Corelation
Correlation, in statistics, refers to the relationship between two
variables. It tells you how much two things change together,
but it doesn't necessarily mean one causes the other. There are
two main things to consider with correlation:
 Strength: This describes how closely the two variables are
associated. A strong correlation means that as the value of
one variable changes, the other variable also tends to
change in a predictable way. This can be positive (both
increase or decrease together) or negative (one increases
as the other decreases).
 Direction: This indicates whether the relationship is
positive or negative.

Pearson Correlation Coefficient Formula

The most common formula is the Pearson Correlation
coefficient used for linear dependency between the data sets.
The value of the coefficient lies between -1 to +1. When the
coefficient comes down to zero, then the data is considered as
not related. While, if we get the value of +1, then the data are
positively correlated, and -1 has a negative correlation.

Where n = Quantity of Information

Σx = Total of the First Variable Value
Σy = Total of the Second Variable Value
Σxy = Sum of the Product of first & Second Value
Σx2 = Sum of the Squares of the First Value
Σy2 = Sum of the Squares of the Second Value

Types of Correlation:
There can be three such situations to see the relation between
the two variables –

1. Positive Correlation – when the values of the two

variables move in the same direction so that an
increase/decrease in the value of one variable is followed
by an increase/decrease in the value of the other variable.
2. Negative Correlation – when the values of the two
variables move in the opposite direction so that an
increase/decrease in the value of one variable is followed
by decrease/increase in the value of the other variable.
3. No Correlation – when there is no linear dependence or
no relation between the two variables.
 Purposes of Correlation
 Identify Relationships: The primary purpose of correlation
is to uncover whether a relationship exists between two
variables.
 Measure Strength of Association: Correlation goes
beyond simply identifying a connection. It provides a
statistical measure - the correlation coefficient - that
indicates how strong the association is between the
variables.
 Predict Future Trends: Correlation can be used for making
predictions.By understanding how one variable tends to
move with another, we can make predictions about future
values.
 Inform Further Research: Correlational studies can make it
easier for more in-depth research. By identifying
relationships, researchers can delve deeper to understand
the underlying causes and mechanisms at play. For
example, finding a correlation between air pollution and
asthma rates might lead to further studies on the specific
pollutants causing respiratory problems.
 Simplify Complex Data: Correlation helps us understand
complex datasets by summarizing the connection between
variables into a single coefficient. This allows for easier
comparison and analysis of relationships between various
factors.
 Assumptions of Corelation in
the field of education
 Continues Scale Variables
The variables should exhibit a linear relationship. You can check
this by creating a scatterplot of the data. If the points on the
scatterplot form a roughly straight line, it suggests a linear
relationship. However, if the points are scattered randomly, the
relationship may not be linear.
 Linear Relationship
The two variables of interest should be measured on a
continuous scale. This means that they should be quantitative
and not categorical. For example, you might examine the
correlation between students’ test scores and their attendance
rates, both of which are continuous variables.
 Normal or Near Normal distribution
The variables should be normally or near-to-normally
distributed. This assumption is particularly relevant when using
the Pearson correlation coefficient. If the data significantly
deviate from normality, alternative correlation methods (e.g.,
Spearman’s rank correlation) may be more appropriate.
  Independence of Observations
The observations (data points) used to calculate the correlation
coefficient should be independent of each other. This means
that the values of one observation should not be influenced by
or related to the values of another observation. For example, if
you’re examining the correlation between student test scores
and teacher ratings, ensure that each student’s score and rating
are independent of other students.
 Sample Size
Larger sample sizes tend to provide more reliable estimates of
correlation coefficients. While there is no strict rule, having a
reasonably large sample size (e.g., at least 30 observations) is
desirable for robust results.

Steps to Compute Correlation

in SPSS
1. Input the data into SPSS
2. Select the two variables to use
3. Go to Analyze > Correlate > Bivariate
4. Enter the variables in the Variables box
5. Select Pearson from the Correlation Coefficient box
6. Choose One-tailed or Two-tailed from the Test of
Significance box
7. Click OK
Interpretation of correlation in
SPSS
Interpreting SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)
data involves understanding various output tables and charts
generated from your analysis.
Steps to Interpret SPSS Output
Check Descriptive Statistics: Start with the descriptive statistics
to get an overview of your data’s central tendencies and
variability.
Examine Frequency Tables: Look at frequency tables to
understand the distribution of categorical variables.
Assess Relationships: Use cross-tabulations and chi-square
tests to explore relationships between categorical variables.
Evaluate Correlations: Look at Pearson’s correlation
coefficients to assess linear relationships between continuous
variables.
Analyze Variance and Mean Differences: Use ANOVA and t-
tests to compare group means.
Understand Predictive Models: Use regression analysis to
understand the relationship between dependent and
independent variables.
Interpret Factor Analysis: If applicable, use factor analysis to
reduce data dimensionality and identify underlying constructs.

Example Interpretation:
Suppose you ran a regression analysis with job satisfaction as
the dependent variable and salary, work environment, and
years of experience as independent variables. Your output
might include:
- R-Square = 0.65*: 65% of the variance in job satisfaction is
explained by salary, work environment, and years of
experience.
- Salary Coefficient = 0.4, p < 0.01*: Salary has a positive and
significant impact on job satisfaction.
- Work Environment Coefficient = 0.5, p < 0.01*: Work
environment has a positive and significant impact on job
satisfaction.
- Years of Experience Coefficient = 0.1, p > 0.05*: Years of
experience has a positive but not statistically significant impact
on job satisfaction.
This means salary and work environment significantly influence
job satisfaction, while years of experience does not have a
significant effect in your model.