D.A.

V PUBLIC SCHOOL, POKHARIPUT

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT OF CHEMISTRY

ON
“STUDY OF THE METHODS PURIFICATION OF
WATER”

For the partial fulfilment of the conditions laid down

by session 2023-24

SUBMITTED BY: - UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF: -

NAME: AYESHA SIDDIKA Mr SUKUMAR PANI

CLASS: XI–A PGT,CHEMISTRY

SCHOOL NUMBER: 9958

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to profound sense of gratitude to my
guide Mr Sukumar Pani, my chemistry teacher for
his valuable guidance and suggestions during
preparation of my project work.
I am also extremely grateful to my Principal, Mr.
Bipin Kumar Sahu, for his encouragement and
constant inspiration.
With great pleasure, I also extend my gratitude to
my parents, other family members, and friends for
their support and our laboratory assistant for his
help, which enabled me to finish this piece of work
successfully.

DATE:

SIGNATURE OF THE STUDENT:

 DECLARATION
I, Ayesha Siddika, a student of class
XI-A of D.A.V Public School, Pokhariput, hereby
submit the project entitled "Study of methods of
purification of water" for the Chemistry practical
ofsession2023-24. This project consists of the
original work done by me under the able guidance
and supervision of my Chemistry teacher Mr.
Sukumar Pani.

SIGNATURE OF THE STUDENT

 Certificate
This is to certify that the project entitled
"Study of methods of purification of water" is an
original piece of work by Ayesha Siddika of
class XI-A and is in accordance with the topic
allotted to her.
This project is submitted towards the partial
fulfilment of the conditions laid down forsession
2023-24 and embodies the work done by her under
my guidance and supervision.

Signature of external examiner Signature of internal examiner

Signature of the supervisor

 CONTENT
1. Objective
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Sources of water
5. Treatments
• Goals
• Pre-treatment
• Coagulation
• Flocculation
• Sedimentation
• Dissolved air flotation
• Filtration
▪ Rapid sand filters
▪ Slow sand filters
▪ Bank filtration
• Removal of ions and other dissolved
substances
• Disinfection
• Other water purification techniques
6. Conclusion
7. Bibliography
 OBJECTIVE
The objective of this project is to study the methods of
purification of water.

ABSTRACT
Water purification, process by which undesired chemical compounds,
organic and inorganic materials, and biological contaminants are
removed from water. That process also includes distillation (the
conversion of a liquid into vapour to condense it back to liquid form)
and deionization (ion removal through the extraction of dissolved
salts). One major purpose of water purification is to provide clean
drinking water. Water purification also meets the needs of medical,
pharmacological, chemical, and industrial applications for clean and
potable water. The purification procedure reduces the concentration
of contaminants such as suspended particles, parasites, bacteria,
algae, viruses, and fungi. Water purification takes place on scales
from the large (e.g., for an entire city) to the small (e.g., for individual
households).
 INTRODUCTION
Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals,
biological contaminants, suspended solids, and gases from water. The
goal is to produce water that is fit for specific purposes. Most water is
purified and disinfected for human consumption (drinking water), but
water purification may also be carried out for a variety of other
purposes, including medical, pharmacological, chemical, and
industrial applications. The history of water purification includes a
wide variety of methods. The methods used include physical
processes such as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation; biological
processes such as slow sand filters or biologically active carbon;
chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination; and the use
of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.

Water purification can reduce the concentration of particulate matter

including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, and
fungi as well as reduce the concentration of a range of dissolved and
particulate matter.
 IMPORTANCE
There are many good reasons for wanting to purify your drinking water.
Reasons of importance of water purification:
• Helps prevent various carcinogenic risks
Different types of chemicals and viruses found in contaminated water cause
different diseases and can increase the chances of developing some types of
cancer risk. However, pure drinking water keeps things moving in the digestive
tract and helps push food through and has a healthy digestive system.
• Water quality assurance
Since water filters remove all types of pollutants available from the water, you
can expect to get a good water intake which can also decompose over time.
Water is used in our homes in many ways, such as bathing, cooking, washing,
farming, etc… The better quality of water you will use, the better atmosphere
you can maintain.
• Removes chlorine from the water and makes it healthy for drinking
purposes
Generally, chlorine is used in swimming pool water which can tan but you
cannot drink it because chlorine is not food for your health at all. Chlorine can
affect your health in different ways. It can be responsible for difficulty
breathing, chest tightness, skin and eye irritation, and other types of health
problems. Therefore, before you drink it, you need to make sure that it is
chlorine-free.
• Filtered water does not contain lead, which is very harmful to human
health
Water softeners remove the volume of available lead in the water instantly.
With this, you can expect to keep your family away from the diseases caused by
these toxins. According to experts, lead is the main culprit in affecting learning
disorders among your children. For this reason, we strongly advise you to purify
your water.
 SOURCES OF WATER
Groundwater: The water emerging from some deep ground water may have
fallen as rain many tens, hundreds, or thousands of years ago. Soil and rock
layers naturally filter the ground water to a high degree of clarity and often, it
does not require additional treatment besides adding chlorine or chloramines
as secondary disinfectants. Such water may emerge as springs, artesian springs,
or may be extracted from boreholes or wells. Deep ground water is generally of
very high bacteriological quality but the water may be rich in dissolved solids,
especially carbonates and sulphates of calcium and magnesium. Primary
disinfection may also be required. Where groundwater recharge is practised
the groundwater may require additional treatment depending on applicable
state and federal regulations.

Upland lakes and reservoirs: Typically located in the headwaters of river

systems, upland reservoirs are usually sited above any human habitation and
may be surrounded by a protective zone to restrict the opportunities for
contamination. Bacteria and pathogen levels are usually low, but some
bacteria, protozoa or algae will be present. Where uplands are forested or
peaty, humic acids can colour the water. Many upland sources have low pH
which require adjustment.
Rivers, canals and low land reservoirs: Low land surface waters will have a
significant bacterial load and may also contain algae, suspended solids and a
variety of dissolved constituents.
Atmospheric water generation is a new technology that can provide high
quality drinking water by extracting water from the air by cooling the air and
thus condensing water vapour.
Rainwater harvesting or fog collection which collect water from the
atmosphere can be used especially in areas with significant dry seasons and in
areas which experience fog even when there is little rain.
Surface water: Freshwater bodies that are open to the atmosphere and are not
designated as groundwater are termed surface waters.

TREATMENTS
Goals:
The purpose of the treatment is to rid the water of undesirable elements and
render it suitable for use in industry or medicine, or safe to drink. To get rid of
pollutants such fine particles, microorganisms, certain dissolved inorganic and
organic compounds, or environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants, a
wide range of treatments are available. The method used will be determined
by the standards of quality expected of the treated water, the cost of the
treatment procedure, and the quality of the water to be treated.
The processes below are the ones commonly used in water purification plants.
Some or most may not be used depending on the scale of the plant and quality
of the raw (source) water.

Pre-treatment:
Pumping and containment – Most of the water needs to be diverted into pipes
or holding tanks or pumped from its source. This physical infrastructure needs
to be built with the right materials and in a way that prevents inadvertent
contamination in order to prevent adding pollutants to the water.
Screening – Removing heavy material, such as sticks, leaves, trash, and other
large particles that could obstruct further filtration stages, is the first step in
purifying surface water. Screening is usually not necessary before further
purification processes in deep groundwater.
Storage – River water can also be kept for a few days up to several months in
bankside reservoirs to facilitate natural biological filtration. This is particularly
crucial if slow sand filters are being used for treatment. Additionally, storage
reservoirs provide as a buffer against brief droughts and enable the
maintenance of the water supply in the event of brief pollution events in the
source river.
Pre-chlorination – In many plants the incoming water was chlorinated to
minimise the growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. Because
of the potential adverse quality effects, this has largely been discontinued.

pH Adjustment:
pH is a measure of the degree of acidity of the water. It is measured on a scale
of 0-14 pH units, with low numbers being acidic, 7 being neutral and higher
values being classed as alkaline. Many waters are a few units either side of
neutral – the regulatory standard for pH in drinking water is within a range
between 6.5 and 9.5. Many water supplies derived from source in peaty upland
areas, will be slightly acidic due to dissolved organic acids.
The simplest method of elevating pH is to pass the water through a filter bed of
alkaline granular material. Such filters are referred to as pH correction filters or
neutralizing filters. The alkaline media is usually calcium carbonate or
magnesium oxide, or a combination of both. The materials are processed to
render them more suitable for water treatment use, and several proprietary
brands of pH correction media are available. These neutralizing media, or a
blend, will often be used to fill a sediment filter shell. On most supplies, pH
correction will usually take place after other filtration stages but prior to UV
disinfection. This is probably correct, but in such circumstances, sediment from
the pH filter can cause fouling of the UV lamp. If this is the case, a further small
filter may be required prior to the UV system. There should be no metal
pipework between the pH filter and the UV system to avoid metal deposition
on the lamp. If Chlorine disinfection is used, careful thought needs to be given
to the siting of any pH correction as higher pH renders disinfection less
effective.
 Coagulation
Coagulant chemicals with charges opposite those of the suspended solids are
added to the water to neutralize the negative charges on non-settleable solids
(such as clay and colour-producing organic substances). Once the charge is
neutralized, the small suspended particles are capable of sticking together.
These slightly larger particles are called microflocs, and are not visible to the
naked eye. Water surrounding the newly formed microflocs should be clear. If
not, coagulation and some of the particle’s charge has not been neutralized.
More coagulant chemicals may need to be added. A high-energy, rapid-mix to
properly disperse coagulant and promote particle collisions is needed to
achieve good coagulation. Over-mixing does not affect coagulation, but
insufficient mixing will leave this step incomplete. Contact time in the rapid-mix
chamber is typically 1 to 3 minutes.

FLOCCULATION
Flocculation, a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle size from sub
microscopic microfloc to visible suspended particles. Microfloc particles collide,
causing them to bond to produce larger, visible flocs called pinflocs. Floc size
continues to build with additional collisions and interaction with added
inorganic polymers (coagulant) or organic polymers. Macroflocs are formed
and high molecular weight polymers, called coagulant aids, may be added to
help bridge, bind, and strengthen the floc, add weight, and increase settling
rate. Once floc has reached it optimum size and strength, water is ready for
sedimentation. Design contact times for flocculation range from 15 or 20
minutes to an hour or more, and flocculation requires careful attention to the
mixing velocity and amount of mix energy. To prevent floc from tearing apart or
shearing, the mixing velocity and energy are usually tapered off as the size of
floc increases. Once flocs are torn apart, it is difficult to get them to reform to
their optimum size and strength. The amount of operator control available in
flocculation is highly dependent upon the type and design of the equipment.

SEDIMENTATION
Waters exiting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation basin, also
called a clarifier or settling basin. It is a large tank with low water velocities,
allowing floc to settle to the bottom. The sedimentation basin is best located
close to the flocculation basin so the transit between the two processes does
not permit settlement or floc break up. Sedimentation basins may be
rectangular, where water flows from end to end, or circular where flow is from
the centre outward. Sedimentation basin outflow is typically over a weir so
only a thin top layer of water—that furthest from the sludge—exits.
In 1904, Allen Hazen showed that the efficiency of a sedimentation process was
a function of the particle settling velocity, the flow through the tank and the
surface area of tank. Sedimentation tanks are typically designed within a range
of overflow rates of 0.5 to 1.0 gallons per minute per square foot (or 1250 to
2500 litres per square meter per hour). In general, sedimentation basin
efficiency is not a function of detention time or depth of the basin. Although,
basin depth must be sufficient so that water currents do not disturb the sludge
and settled particle interactions are promoted. As particle concentrations in the
settled water increase near the sludge surface on the bottom of the tank,
settling velocities can increase due to collisions and agglomeration of particles.
Typical detention times for sedimentation vary from 1.5 to 4 hours and basin
depths vary from 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4.5 meters).
Lamella clarifiers, inclined flat plates or tubes can be added to traditional
sedimentation basins to improve particle removal performance. Inclined plates
and tubes drastically increase the surface area available for particles to be
removed in concert with Hazen's original theory. The amount of ground surface
area occupied by a sedimentation basin with inclined plates or tubes can be far
smaller than a conventional sedimentation basin.

FLOC BLANKET CLARIFIERS

A subcategory of sedimentation is the removal of particulates by entrapment in
a layer of suspended floc as the water is forced upward. The major advantage
of floc blanket clarifiers is that they occupy a smaller footprint than
conventional sedimentation. The disadvantages are that particle removal
efficiency can be highly variable depending on changes in influent water quality
and influent water flow rate

Dissolved air flotation

When particles to be removed do not settle out of solution easily, dissolved air
flotation (DAF) is often used. After coagulation and flocculation processes,
water flows to DAF tanks where air diffusers on the tank bottom create fine
bubbles that attach to the floc resulting in a floating mass of concentrated floc.
The floating floc blanket is removed from the surface and clarified water is
withdrawn from the bottom of the DAF tank. Water supplies that are
particularly vulnerable to unicellular algae blooms and supplies with low
turbidity and high colour often employ DAF

Filtration
Once the flocs have settled to the bottom of the water, the clear water on top
is filtered to separate additional solids from the water. During filtration, the
clear water passes through filters that have different pore sizes and are made
of different materials (such as sand, gravel, and charcoal). These filters remove
dissolved particles and germs, such as dust, chemicals, parasites, bacteria, and
viruses. Activated carbon filters also remove any bad odours. Water treatment
plants can use a process called ultrafiltration in addition to or instead of
traditional filtration. During ultrafiltration, the water goes through a filter
membrane with very small pores. This filter only lets through water and other
small molecules (such as salts and tiny, charged molecules).

RAPID SAND FILTRATION

Rapid Sand Filters use coarse sand as a filtration medium to remove fine
suspended solids from water with varying levels of turbidity (or ‘muddiness’).
Rapid Sand Filters consist of a tank or basin containing the filter media with a
gravel support at the base, an underdrain system to collect filtered water and
inject backwash water, and troughs along the top of the filter (0.5 metres
above the unexpanded filter bed) to collect the backwash water. Rapid Sand
Filters mainly remove particles from the water using physical processes, the
most important of which is adsorption, though sedimentation and straining
also play a role. Rapid Sand Filters require backwashing. Pressurised Rapid Sand
Filters are often part of compact water treatment units designed for
emergencies.

SLOW SAND FILTRATION

Slow sand filtration is a simple and reliable process. They are relatively
inexpensive to build, but do require highly skilled operators. The process
percolates untreated water slowly through a bed of porous sand, with the
influent water introduced over the surface of the filter, and then drained from
the bottom. Properly constructed, the filter consists of a tank, a bed of fine
sand, a layer of gravel to support the sand, a system of underdrains to collect
the filtered water, and a flow regulator to control the filtration rate. No
chemicals are added to aid the filtration process.

BANK FILTRATION
The initial stage of pollutant filtration in bank filtration is provided by the
naturally occurring sediments in a riverbank. The water obtained from the
related extraction wells is far less troublesome than river water taken straight
from the river, even though it is usually not clean enough to be utilized directly
for drinking water.

MEMBRANE FILTRATION
Membrane filters are widely used for filtering both drinking water and sewage.
For drinking water, membrane filters can remove virtually all particles larger
than 0.2 μm—including giardia and cryptosporidium. Membrane filters are an
effective form of tertiary treatment when it is desired to reuse the water for
industry, for limited domestic purposes, or before discharging the water into a
river that is used by towns further downstream. They are widely used in
industry, particularly for beverage preparation (including bottled water).
However, no filtration can remove substances that are actually dissolved in the
water such as phosphates, nitrates and heavy metal ions.

REMOVAL OF IONS AND OTHER

DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES
Ultrafiltration membranes use polymer membranes with chemically formed
microscopic pores that can be used to filter out dissolved substances avoiding
the use of coagulants. The type of membrane media determines how much
pressure is needed to drive the water through and what sizes of micro-
organisms can be filtered out.
Ion exchange: Ion-exchange systems use ion-exchange resin- or zeolite-packed
columns to replace unwanted ions. The most common case is water softening
consisting of removal of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions replacing them with benign (soap
friendly) Na+ or K+ ions. Ion-exchange resins are also used to remove toxic ions
such as nitrite, lead, mercury, arsenic and many others.
Precipitative softening: Water rich in hardness (calcium and magnesium ions)
is treated with lime (calcium oxide) and/or soda-ash (sodium carbonate) to
precipitate calcium carbonate out of solution utilising the common-ion effect.
Electrode ionization: Water is passed between a positive electrode and a
negative electrode. Ion-exchange membranes allow only positive ions to
migrate from the treated water toward the negative electrode and only
negative ions toward the positive electrode. High purity deionised water is
produced continuously, similar to ion-exchange treatment. Complete removal
of ions from water is possible if the right conditions are met. The water is
normally pre-treated with a reverse osmosis unit to remove non-ionic organic
contaminants, and with gas transfer membranes to remove carbon dioxide. A
water recovery of 99% is possible if the concentrate stream is fed to the RO
inlet.

DISINFECTION
Water disinfection means the removal, deactivation or killing of pathogenic
microorganisms. Microorganisms are destroyed or deactivated, resulting in
termination of growth and reproduction. When microorganisms are not
removed from drinking water, drinking water usage will cause people to fall ill.
Sterilization is a process related to disinfection. However, during the
sterilization process all present microorganisms are killed, both harmful and
harmless microorganisms.

CHLORINATION
Chlorination involves adding a measured amount of chlorine to water to
produce a residual sufficient to kill bacteria, viruses, and cysts. The killing effect
of chlorine depends on the pH of the water, temperature, chlorine level and
contact time (i.e., the time the chlorine is in the water before consumption).
Typically, chlorine is added to public drinking water as the final stage of
treatment, often following an upstream filtration step which removes that can
tie up chlorine and shield organisms from its effect. Unfortunately, chlorine
reacts with many organic compounds to form chlorine disinfection by-products
that are recognized as potent carcinogens at low levels of concentrations. Such
organic compounds include humic and fulvic acids, which derive from rotting
vegetation common in surface waters. Reactions between free chlorine and
these acids may produce a class of compounds called trihalomethanes.
Strategies to reduce these in public water supplies include enhanced filtration
for better organic removal and use of ammonia together with chlorine to
produce chloramines for use in lieu of chlorine.
OzONE DISINFECTION
Ozone is a volatile molecule that readily releases one atom of oxygen,
providing a strong oxidising agent that is toxic to most aquatic organisms.
Ozone disinfection or ozonation is a method of inactivating harmful protozoa
which form cysts. Oxygen is created by passing oxygen through an ultraviolet
light or a “cold” electrical discharge. Ozone must be produced on-site and then
added to water by bubble contact to be disinfected. Some of the benefits of
ozone are: Less dangerous by-products are produced Taste and odour problems
are reduced No residual ozone remains in the water

ULTRAVIOLET DISINFECTION
Ultraviolet light (UV) is very effective at inactivating cysts, in low turbidity
water. UV light's disinfection effectiveness decreases as turbidity increases, a
result of the absorption, scattering, and shadowing caused by the suspended
solids. The main disadvantage to the use of UV radiation is that, like ozone
treatment, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water; therefore, it is
sometimes necessary to add a residual disinfectant after the primary
disinfection process. This is often done through the addition of chloramines,
discussed above as a primary disinfectant. When used in this manner,
chloramines provide an effective residual disinfectant with very few of the
negative effects of chlorination.
 Other water purification
techniques

REVERSE OSMOSIS
Reverse osmosis involves mechanical pressure applied to force water through a
semi-permeable membrane. Contaminants are left on the other side of the
membrane. Reverse osmosis is theoretically the most thorough method of
large-scale water purification available, although perfect semi-permeable
membranes are difficult to create. Unless membranes are well-maintained,
algae and other life forms can colonise the membranes.

DISTILLATION
Distillation involves boiling water to produce water vapour. The vapour
contacts a cool surface where it condenses as a liquid. Because the solutes are
not normally vaporised, they remain in the boiling solution. Even distillation
does not completely purify water, because of contaminants with similar boiling
points and droplets of unvapourised liquid carried with the steam. However,
99.9% pure water can be obtained by distillation.

Direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) passes heated seawater along the
surface of a hydrophobic polymer membrane. Evaporated water passes from
the hot side through pores in the membrane forming a stream of cold pure
water on the other side. The difference in vapour pressure between the hot
and cold side helps to push water molecules through.
 CONCLUSION
We can conclude from the project that there are various methods of
purification of water. Today, we know that water is present
everywhere on earth in different forms but due to human activities
water is being polluted day by day not only that about 97% of earths
water is in oceans which is not suitable for drinking or any other
purpose. So, there is very small volume of water is left, to utilise that
humans are using best ways to purify it. Water purification and
disinfection is crucial. It ensures that you and your family are in good
health, free from the dangers posed by consumption of
contaminated water. It is, therefore, crucial to choose a method of
water purification for your house, depending on the quality of water
available in your local area. In present time humans are capable to
purify water and all the methods to purify it are mentioned in the
project.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
• [Link]

• [Link]

• [Link]