Chapter 2 Electric Potential and Capacitance

 Electric Potential
Charge is an electrical property. Every charged object creates an electric field around it. Energy is
required to create a charged system. This energy is stored with charge as electrostatic energy. We can
also say that it is electric energy available with charge, which exists as electric field around it.
Charges apply force on each other using this electric field.

If there is a positive source charge fixed in space and a unit positive charge is brought near it from
infinity to a point, work is done against the repulsive force. This amount of work will be different at
different points around the source charge.
The amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge without acceleration from infinity to a
given point against the electric field of a source charge is known as electric potential at that point.
It is denoted by V
V(r) = Work/charge
Electric potential is a scalar quantity.
Its SI unit is volt (V)
where 1 volt = 1J /1C
❖ Derivation of Electric potential due to a point charge

Consider a source charge +q fixed in space at point O. A test charge +q0 is brought without
acceleration from infinity to a point P at distance ‘r’ from the source charge against its electric field .
Potential at point P ,
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒒𝒐 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 ∞ 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 +𝒒
V=
𝒒𝒐
𝑾
V=
𝒒𝒐

To find the work done by external force, consider an intermediate point A at distane ‘x’ from source
charge (x>r).
The force on test charge at A by the electric field = ⃗𝑭𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 = qo⃗𝑬
𝐹𝐸𝑥𝑡 is applied in a direction opposite the the force by electric field such that at all instants (acc=0)
⃗ 𝑬𝒙𝒕 = - 𝐹𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑭 ( net force will be zero so no acceleration)
𝐹𝐸𝑥𝑡 = - qo𝐸⃗
If the test charge is displaced by small displacement dx towards the source charge
Work done by the external field dW = 𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ 𝑬𝒙𝒕 . 𝒅𝒙
dW = − 𝒒𝒐 ⃗⃗⃗𝑬.𝒅𝒙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= -qoEdxcos00 ( ⃗𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝒙𝒕 in the direction of 𝒅𝒙)
= -qoEdx
𝒒 𝒒
= - qo k 𝟐 dx ( E= k 𝟐 )
𝒙 𝒙
Work done in moving test charge from x= ∞ to x = r
 W= ∫∞𝒓 − 𝐪𝐎 𝒌 𝒒
𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝒙
𝒓 𝟏
W= - qo 𝒌𝒒 ∫∞ 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝟏 𝒓
W = - qo 𝒌q [ - ]
𝒙 ∞
𝟏 𝟏
W= qo 𝒌q [ - ]
𝒓 ∞
𝐤𝐪𝐎 𝐪
W=
𝐫
Hence potential at r due to +q charge
𝑾 𝐪𝐨 𝐤𝐪
V= =
𝒒𝒐 𝐪𝐨 𝐫
𝐤𝐪
V=
𝐫
Similarly potential due to a -q charge at distance r
𝐤𝐪
V= -
𝐫

The sign of potential is given with respect to the external force applied
Note: + ve potential means work done by external force is +ve , i,e the external force (to bring a unit +ve
charge from ∞) is in the direction of displacement dx
-ve potential means the work done by external force is negative or the external force (to bring a unit +ve
charge from ∞) is applied opposite to the direction of displacement of unit charge

Variation of Potential with distance graph for a point charge

Variation of E and V with r for a point charge ( IMP, LEARN THE GRAPH)
For the same increase in distance ‘r’, there is a greater fall in E than the fall in V.

r
❖ Potential due to system of charges
For a system of n charges of charges q1, q2 , q3 ….qn, the potential at a point P due to all the charges is the sum
of potential due to individual charges

V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ……Vn
𝒒𝟏 q2 q3 qn
V=k +k +k + ………….k
𝒓𝟏r2 r3 rn
𝒏 𝒒𝒊
V = ∑𝒊=𝟏
𝒓𝒊

Examples
1.Two-point charges 4μC and −2μC are separated by a distance of 1 m in the air. At what point in between the
charges and on the line joining the charges, is the electric potential zero?
The point can lie between the two charges closer to smaller charge or it can be outside and near to the smaller charge

Case I Case II

Potential at P due to both the charges = 0 Potential at P due to both the charges = 0
kq1 kq2 𝐤𝐪𝟏 𝐤𝐪𝟐
+ =0 + =0
(1−x) x 𝟏+𝐱) 𝐱
9
9 x 10 x 4μC 9 x 109 x (−2μC) 𝟗 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐱 𝟒𝛍𝐂 𝟗 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐱 (−𝟐𝛍𝐂)
+ =0 + =0
(1−x) x (𝟏+𝐱) 𝐱
9 x 109 x 4μC 9
9 x 10 x 2μC
- =0 𝟗 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐱 𝟒𝛍𝐂 𝟗 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐱 𝟐𝛍𝐂
(1−x) x - =0
9 x 109 x 4μC 9 x 109 x 2μC (𝟏+𝐱) 𝐱
= 𝟗 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐱 𝟒𝛍𝐂 𝟗 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐱 𝟐𝛍𝐂
(1−x) x =
4 2 (𝟏−𝐱) 𝐱
= 𝟒 𝟐
(1−x) x =
(𝟏+𝐱) 𝐱
4x = 2-2x
4x = 2+2x
6x = 2
4x = 2
x= 1/3 m
x= 1/2 m
NOTE: For two charges of same sign, there is no point at which the net potential due to the system will be zero.
For net potential of two charge system to be zero, the charges should be of opposite signs.

Example 2 : Find the potential at centroid of an equilateral triangle of side 𝒍 due to charges q, -4q and 2q at its
vertices
Potential at O (centroid)
kq1 kq2 kq3
V= + +
r1 r2 r3
𝒍
r1 = r2 = r3 =
√𝟑
𝐤𝐪𝟏 𝐤𝐪𝟐 𝐤𝐪𝟑
V= 𝒍 + 𝒍 + 𝒍
√𝟑 √𝟑 √𝟑
𝑘
V= √3 (q1 + q2 + q3 )
𝑙
 𝒌
= √𝟑 (q - 4q + 2q)
𝒍
𝒌𝒒
V = - √𝟑
𝒍
Example 3: Find the potential at the centre of a square of side l due to charges at its vertices.
Potential at O (centroid)
𝐤𝐪𝟏 𝐤𝐪𝟐 𝐤𝐪𝟑 𝐤𝐪𝟒
V= + + +
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟑 𝐫𝟒
𝐥
𝐫𝟏 = 𝐫𝟐 = 𝐫𝟑 = 𝐫𝟒 =
√𝟑
𝐤𝐪𝟏 𝐤𝐪𝟐 𝐤𝐪𝟑
V= 𝒍 + 𝐥 + 𝐥
√𝟐 √𝟐 √𝟐
𝒌
V= √𝟐 𝒍 (q1 + q2 + q3 + q4 )
𝟗 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟗
= √𝟐 (2𝛍𝐂 − 𝟓𝛍𝐂 + 𝟐𝛍𝐂 − 𝟓𝛍𝐂)
𝟎.𝟏
V = - 54√𝟐 x 104 J/C = - 7.6 x 105 J/C

3
❖ Electric Potential due to an electric dipole
Consider a point P at distance ‘r’ from O making angle 𝜃 with axis of dipole

Now, to calculate (r1 – r2) and r1r2, we draw perpendiculars on AC and BD from points A and B on
line OP respectively.
It is clear that potential due to dipole depends on r-2 and not on r-1 (as due to single
charge).

Important points
(i) The potential due to an electric dipole Important points falls as 1/r2 and the potential due to a single point
charge falls as 1/r. Thus the potential due to the dipoler falls faster than that due to a monopole (point
charge). As the distance increases from electric dipole, the effects of positive and negative charges nullify
each other.
(ii) The potential due to a point charge is spherically symmetric since it depends only on the distance r. But
the potential due to a dipole is not spherically symmetric because the potential depends on the angle
between 𝑝 and position vector r of the point.
However the dipole potential is axially symmetric. If the position vector r is rotated about p ⃗ by keeping θ
fixed, then all points on the cone at the same distance r will have the same potential as shown in Figure 1.27.
In this figure, all the points located on the blue curve will have the same potential.
❖ Potential due to a uniformly charged spherical shell/ conducting sphere
Consider a spherical shell of radius R uniformly charged with charge +Q.
1. Potential at a point M outside the shell/conductor( r >R)
The entire charges can be assumed to be at the centre O.
Then potential at distance r ( >R) from centre
𝑸
VM = k
𝒓
2. Potential at a poin tP on the surface of shell/ conductor( r= R)
𝐐
VP = k 𝐑
3. Potential at a point S inside the shell/conductor(r<R)
𝒅𝑽
E=-
𝒅𝒙
Since E = 0 and differentiation of a constant is zero
𝐝𝐕
Hence 0 = -
𝐝𝐱
So V is constant inside the shell/ conductor and ∆V = 0 between two points inside conductor
Hence V at any point inside the surface = V on the surface of conductor
𝐐
Vs = k 𝐑
Variation of Potential from centre of a spherical shell with distance

❖ Potential Difference :
Consider two points A and B at distance r1 and r2 respectively (r1 > r2) from a point charge +q.

𝐤𝐪
Potential at A, V1 =
𝐫𝟏
𝐤𝐪
Potential at B, V2 =
𝐫𝟐
A small positive test charge qo is moved from A to B without acceleration against the electric field of the source
charge +q. Then the amount of work done by the external force in moving qo from A to B will be
W= q0 V2 - q0 V1
W = + qo ( V2 - V1)
Work done per unit charge from A to B agains the electric field
𝑾
𝒒
= V2 - V1 = Potential difference between two points A and B
𝒐
This work done per unit charge between two points against the electric field of source charge +q without
acceleration is known as potential difference between the two points.

∆𝐕 = ( V2 - V1)
𝐤𝐪 𝐤𝐪
∆𝐕 = -
𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏
 𝟏 𝟏
∆𝐕 = kq ( - )
𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏
Potential difference between two points in the electric field of a - q source charge
𝟏 𝟏
∆𝐕 = - kq ( - )
𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏
SI unit of potential difference is volt ( J/C)
Sign of potential difference
A +∆𝐕 means work done by external force per unit charge between two points is +ve OR direction of external
force is in the direction of displacement of unit +ve charge .
A -∆𝐕 means ork done by external force per unit charge is -ve OR direction of external force is opposite to
direction of displacement of unit +ve charge .

If potential difference between two points is ∆𝐕, work done in moving a charge q’ in the electric field
of a source charge +q between two points
W = q’∆𝐕
𝟏 𝟏
W=q’ kq ( - )
𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏

IMPORTANT
Electric field is a conservative field. That is work done by electric force is indendent of the path and only depends
on the intial and final position.
Work done by electric force in a closed path is zero.
Example 1.
A charge of 8 mC is located at the origin. Calculate the work done in taking a small charge of −2 × 10−9 C from a
point P (0, 0, 3 cm) to a point Q (0, 4 cm, 0), via a point R (0, 6 cm, 9 cm).
𝟏 𝟏
W=q’ kq ( 𝐫 - 𝐫 )
𝟐 𝟏
q= source charge at origin = 8 mC = 8 x 10-3 C
q’ = charge moved = - 2 x 10-9 C
r1 = OP = 3 cm= 0.3 m and r2 = OQ = 4 cm = 0.04 m 8mC
1 1
W =8 x 10-3 x 9 x 109 x (- 2 x 10-9) ( - )
0.04 0.03
W = 1.27 J

❖ Equipotential surface
A surface on which potential is same at every point is called an equipotential surface.
Properties
1. Potential difference between two points on equipotential surface is zero ∆V = 0.
2. Work done in moving a charge on equipotential surface is zero. W=q’∆V = 0.
3. Electric field lines are always perpendicular to the equipotential surface.
4. In a stronger electric field region, equipotential surfaces are closer to each other . In a weak electric field
equipotential surface are farther to each other.
5. Two equipotential surfaces never intersect. Because if they intersect there will be two different potentials at
the same point which is not possible.

➢ Equipotential surface of a point charge: Equipotential surface of a point charge are concentric spheres
with charge at centre.

VA = VB
VB - VA = 0
➢ Equipotential surface of an electric dipole

➢ Equipotential surface of two identical positive or negative charges

At center the equipotenial surfaces coincide as the net electric field at that point is zero.

➢ Equipotential surface for uniform electric field:

The surface are parallel and equidistance planes perpendicular to the field lines.

❖ Potential gradient: Change in potential per unit displacement normal to the direction of electric
field is called potential gradient
𝒅𝑽
It is a scalar quantity. It is denoted by . Its SI unit is volt/ m,
𝒅𝒙
Even though it is a scalar quantity, it can have different values in different directions.

❖ Relation between electric field and potential gradient ( V.V IMP)

Two closely spaced equipotential surfaces A and B with potentials V and V + δV, (where δV is the change in V),
are kept δl distance apart as shown in the figure. Deduce the relation between the electric field and the potential
gradient between them. Write the two important conclusions concerning the relation between the electric field
and electric potentials.
Consider a unit +ve charge ( +1 C) moved from B to A through a
displacement δl against the electric field without acceleration.
Work done by external force (against the ⃗E ) through small displacement δl
dW= Fext δlcos00 ( Fext and δl in same direction)
dW = qEδl = 1 x Eδl ( 1)
Also potential difference between two equipotential surfaces A and B
VA - VB = V - (V+δV,)
 = - δV
Work done in moving +1 C
dW = q(VA - VB) = 1 x ( - δV )= - δV ( 2)
From (1) and (2)
Eδl = - δV

𝜹𝑽
E=-
𝜹𝒍

Important conclusions
1. Electric field is in the direction where potential decreases the steepest OR potential decreases in the
direction of electric field.
2. Magnitude of Electric field is equal to change in potential per unit displacement normal to the
equipotential surface.

Example 1: The potential is given by V = 3x3 + 5x +5 .Find the electric field at x = 2 cm

dV d
E = - dx = − dx ( 3x3 + 5x +5 )
= − (9x2 + 5)
= − (9 x (0.02)2 + 5 )
= − 0.41 𝑖̂ N/C
Example 2: The potential is given by V = 5x2 + 2y2 -3z2. Find the electric field at ( 2 , 1, 4 ) m
Use Partial differentiation
∂V ∂
Ex = - ∂x = - ∂x (5x2 + 2y2 -3z2) = - 10𝑥 = -10 x 2 = -20 𝑖̂
∂V ∂
Ey = - =- (5x2 + 2y2 -3z2) = - 4y = -4 x 1 = - 4 ĵ
∂y ∂y
∂V ∂
Ez = - =- (5x2 + 2y2 -3z2) = - (- 6z ) = 6 x 4= 20 k̂
∂z ∂z
̂
⃗ = -20 𝐢̂ - 4 𝐣̂ + 20 𝐤
Hence 𝑬

⃗ = 5x2 𝒊̂ . Find the potential difference between two points

Example 3:Electric field in space is given by 𝑬
A=0cm and B = 4 cm .
dV
E = − dx
dV= - Edx
4 4
∆VAB = ∫0 − 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑥 = - ∫0 Edx cos0 ( going in the direction of E from 0 to 4 cm)
4
∆VAB = − ∫0 5x 2 dx
4
𝑥3
= −5 3]
0
5
= − 3 (43 - 03)
∆VAB = − 106 .7 J

Example 4: A 2mC charge is from A to B and then from B to C in the electric field ⃗𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎𝒊̂ N/C Find the work
done from A to C
 dV
E=−
dx
hence
⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆V = − ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗ along AC from A towards C
Initial point is A and final point is C. Make dx
θ = angle between E ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ and dx
∆𝐕 = - ∫ 𝐄𝐝𝐱𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
4
E is constant and cos θ = 5
∫ dx = AC = 5 cm = 0.05 m
∆V = −Ecosθ ∫ dx
4
∆V = −10 x 5 x 0.05
∆V = − 0.4 V
W = q’∆𝐕 = 2 x 10-3 x (-0.4 )
W =− 0.8 x 10-3 J

Example 5: Draw the equipotential surfaces corresponding to increasing electric field along +Z axis.
How are the equipotential surfaces different if the field is uniform in +Z direction.

d1 = d2

Distance between equipotential surfaces decreases along + Z axis Equi-distant equipotential surfaces along + Z axis

❖ Important Points based on equipotential surfaces

1. Surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface.
If there is a potential difference between two points on the surface of conductor, work will be
doneW=q∆V andthe charges will start moving which is not possible in electrostatics)
Hence Potential difference between two points on the surface of a conductor ∆V = 0
2. Show that Electric field lines are ⊥ to surface of conductor.
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dV= - 𝐄 dx
dV = - Edxcosθ
Where θ is angle between E ⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dx
For equipotential surface between two points on the
⃗⃗⃗⃗ along the surface)
surface ( taking 𝑑𝑥
dV = 0
0 = - Edxcosθ
Hence cosθ = 0
θ = 900
3. Potential inside a conductor is constant and equal to the potential on the surface

dV
E = - dx
Since E = 0 inside a conductor and differentiation of a constant is zero
dV
Hence 0 = - dx
So V is constant inside a conductor and ∆V = 0 between two points inside conductor
Hence V at any point inside the surface = V on the surface of conductor
❖ Potential energy of system of two charges ( IMP)
The amount of work done by external force is bringing two charges from infinity to their respective
locations against the electric field of each other is stored in the system as its electrostatic potential
energy.

Work done W= work done by external force to bring q1 from ∞ to point A + work done to bring q2
from ∞ to B at distance ‘r’ against the
electric field of q1
W = 𝑾𝒒𝟏 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 ∞→𝑨 + 𝐖𝐪𝟐 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 ∞→𝐁 𝐚𝐭 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐫
𝐖𝐪𝟏 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 ∞→𝐀 = 0 ( as the first charge is brought against zero electric field )
𝐖𝐪𝟐 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 ∞→𝐁 𝐚𝐭 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐫 = q2 Vdue to q1 at distance r
𝒒
= q2 k 𝒓𝟏
q1 q2
Hence W = 0 + k r
𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
W= k
𝐫
Work done by external force in bringing q2 from ∞ in the electric field of q1 without acceleration
Is equal to change in electrostatic potential energy
∆𝐔 = W
U(r2) - U(r1) = W ( r1 and r2 are distances of separation between the two charges)
𝐪 𝐪
U(r2) - U(r1) = k 𝟏𝐫 𝟐
U(r1) = 0 when distance of separation between two charges r1 = ∞
Hence or r2 = r and r1 = ∞
𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
U(r) - 0 = k 𝐫

𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
U(r) = k 𝐫

This the the electrostatic potential energy stored between the two charges at distance of separation ‘r’
Potential energy is a scalar quantity and its unit is joule (J)
Electrostatic potential energy of a system of ‘n’ charges
𝒒𝒊 𝒒𝒋
𝐔𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 = ∑ 𝒌
𝒓𝒊𝒋
𝒊< 𝒋
𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒊𝒓𝒔

Example 1: Find the electrostatic potential energy of a system of 3 charges arranged at the vertices
of an equilateral triangle. The zero potential energy of system is defined a ∞.
Find U due to each pair and then add all
q1 q2 q q q q
Usystem - U(∞) = k +k 2 3+k 1 3
r12 r23 r13
r12 = r23 = r13 = r = 10 cm = 0.1 m
𝑘
Usystem= 𝑟 ( q1 q 2 + q 2 q 3 +q1 q 3)
9 x 109
Usystem= 0.1 [ q x 2q + 2q x (-4q) + q x (-4q) ]
= 9 x 1010 x (2q2 - 8q2 - 4q2 )
Usystem = - 9q2 x 1011 J

If Usystem is -ve it means the external force has done negative work in assembling the charges OR
system has lost energy in bringing the charges from ∞𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐫 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬.
If Usystem is +ve it means external force has done +ve work in assembling the charges OR energy of
system increases when charges brought from ∞ 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐫 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬

Example 2: Find the potential energy of four charges placed at the vertices of a square of side ‘a’. Zero
potential energy defined at infinity.
If N = number of sides
For square N= 4
Numberof pairs = N(N-1) / 2 = 6
q q q q q q q q q q q q
Usystem - U(∞) = k r1 2 + k r2 3 + k r3 44 + k r4 1 + k r1 3 + k r2 4
12 23 3 41 13 24
r12 = r23 = r34 = r14 = a
r13 = r24 = √2 a
k k
Usystem= ( q1 q 2 + q 2 q 3 +q 3 q 4 +q 4 q1) + ( q1 q 3 + q 2 q 4 )
a √2a
9 x 109
Usystem= a [ q x (−2q) + (-2q) x 3q + 3q x (-q) + (-q) x q ]
9 x 109
+ ( q x 3q + -2q x (-q))
√2a

9 x 109 9 x 109
= ( -2q2 - 6q2 -3q2 -q2 ) + (3q2 + 2q2)
a √2a
9 x 109 5 q2
= ( - 12q2 + )
a √2
9 x 109 −12√2 +5
Usystem = q2 ( )
a √2
NOTE: For any conservative force field, we can define change in corresponding potential energy of
the system as equal to negative of the work done by conservative force.
U2 - U1 = -W Conservative
❖ Potential energy of two charges in external electric field ( IMP)

❖ Potential energy of electric dipole in uniform external electric field.

𝒅𝑾𝒆𝒍 = 𝝉𝒅𝜽𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟖𝟎
Work done in rotating a dipole by external torque from 𝜽𝟏 (𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍) to 𝛉𝟐 (final) without angular
acceleration is equal to the change in PE
Since no angular acceleration,
Work done by external torque = Change in PE = Final PE - Initial PE
Wexternal = U2 - U1 = - pEcos𝜃2 - ( - pEcosθ1 ) = pE(cosθ1 - cosθ2 )

Example
Find the work done in rotating a dipole from its stable equilibrium position to unstable
equilibrium position
Stable equilibrium θ1 = 00 and unstable equilibrium θ2 = 1800
W
external = pE( cos𝛉𝟏 - cos𝛉𝟐 ) = pE(cos0 - cos 180) = pE[( 1 - (-1)] = 2pE

❖ CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

Capacitor is a device that stores charge and electric energy. In a capacitor, two metal objects are placed at some
distance. In the space between metal objects, it may be air or some insulating (dielectric) material.
When we apply some potential difference (V) between these two metal objects then free electrons are transferred
from one object to another and proportionally equal and opposite charge (Q) appears on both objects. Charge (Q)
and potential difference (V) applied are proportional
Q∝V
⇒ Q/ C= V
 Here, C is the proportionality constant and it is called capacitance of the given system. Capacitance depends on
geometrical features of metal objects, like their size, shape, and distance between them. Other important
parameter affecting capacitance (C) is the medium between the two metal objects.
In fact, a single charged metallic object can also be considered as a capacitor. In this case the other charged
object can be visualised as to be placed at infinity. In case of a single charged metallic object, potential
difference V is considered as the potential of the charged object with respect to infinity.

The SI unit of capacitance is Farad. One Farad is one coulomb per volt. From Q = CV, we can
understand that if a capacitor can store more charge at less potential difference, then it has large
magnitude of C. Farad is one big unit of capacitance. We normally use microfarad (µF), nanofarad
(nF), etc.

❖ Parallel Plate capacitor

Two flat metal plates of area A are placed at a distance d. Distance between these metal plates d is
very small in comparison to their size.
Principle of a capacitor
Consider an large conductor (Plate A) with a positive charge 'q' having potential V . The capacitance of A is C =
q/V. When another uncharged large metal plate B is brought near A, negative charges are induced on the side
of B near A. An equal amount of positive charge is induced on the other side of B . The negative charge in B
decreases the potential of A. The positive charge in B increases the potential of A. But the negative charge on B
is nearer to A than the positive charge on B. So the net effect is that, the potential of A decreases. Thus to raise
the potential back to V more charge can be accumulated on the plate A. Thus the capacitance of A is increased.

If the plate B is earthed, positive charges get neutralized . Then the potential of A decreases further. Thus the
capacitance of A is considerably increased.
The capacitance depends on the geometry of the conductors and nature of the medium. A capacitor is a device
for storing electric charges.
❖ Derivation of Capacitance of Air Parallel Plate Capacitor
Let A be the area of each plate and d the separation between them. The two plates have charges Q and –Q.
Since d is much smaller than the linear dimension of the plates (d 2 << A), we can use the result on electric field
by an infinite plane sheet of uniform surface charge density . Plate 1 has surface charge density σ = Q/A and
plate 2 has a surface charge density –σ.
, the electric field in different regions is:

The direction of electric field is from the positive to the negative plate.
Thus, the electric field is localized between the two plates and is uniform throughout.
❖ EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC ON CAPACITANCE

❖
If the intermediate space between the capacitors is completely filled with a conducting slab such
that d= t
C=∞
❖ Combination of dielectrics
1. ( In parallel) 2. ( In series)

In parallel In series

3. Combination of series and parallel

❖ Force between two plates of capacitor

❖
❖ Energy Density of capacitor

❖ Combination of Capacitors
1. Series combination of capacitors
All capacitors have same charge but difference potential difference
V=potential difference along circuit
V=V1+V2+V3
2. Combination of capacitors in parallel
All capacitors will have same voltage but different charges such that
Q= Q1 + Q2+ Q3

Q/Cp
Q = CpV

CpV

❖ Total Energy stored in series and parallel combination

1. Total energy in Series Combination

2. Total energy in Parallel Combination

❖ Common Potential when two charged capacitors are connected in parallel
Consider two capacitors C1 with charge Q1 and voltage V1 and capacitor C2 with Charge Q2 and
Voltage V2 connected in circuit with a switch as shown.
When the switch is closed, charge redistribution occurs due to potential difference
Across the two capacitors till both the capacitors attain a common
Potential and attain equilibrium state.
Total charge of system before switch is closed
= Q 1 + Q2
= C1V1 + C2V2
After the swith is closed , when equilibrium attained, let potential difference across each capacitor = V
The new charges in each capacitors will be Q1’ and Q2’ respectively.
Total charge of system after switch is closed
= Q1’ + Q2’
= C 1 V + C 2V
= (C1+ C2) V
By conservation of charge
C1V1 + C2V2 = (C1+ C2) V
𝑪𝟏 𝑽𝟏 +𝑪𝟐 𝑽𝟐
Hence common potential V =
𝑪𝟏 +𝑪𝟐

Loss in energy during attaining common potential

When the switch is closed, during the charge redistribution some energy is dissipated as heat.
Hence total energy stored in the two capacitors after switch is closed is less than the total energy
stored in the two capacitors before.
Loss in energy = Total energy of two capacitors Before switch closed - Total energy of two capacitors
after switch is closed and equilibrium attained
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Loss in energy ∆𝐔 = ( 𝟐 C1V12 + 𝟐 C1V22 ) - 𝟐 ( C1 + C2) V2
𝐂𝟏 𝐕𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 𝐕𝟐
Replacing V= 𝐂𝟏 +𝐂𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝐂𝟏 𝐕𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 𝐕𝟐 2
∆𝐔 = ( 𝟐 C1V12 + 𝟐 C1V22 ) - 𝟐 ( C1 + C2) ( )
𝐂𝟏 +𝐂𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 (𝐂𝟏 𝐕𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 𝐕𝟐 )𝟐
∆𝐔 = ( 𝟐 C1V12 + 𝟐 C1V22 ) - 𝟐 𝐂𝟏 +𝐂𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 (𝐂𝟏 𝐕𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 𝐕𝟐 )𝟐
= 𝟐 (C1V12 + C1V22 - 𝟐 (𝐂𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 )
Taking LCM and cancelling terms
𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 (𝑽𝟏 −𝑽𝟐 )𝟐
∆𝐔 =
𝟐 (𝑪𝟏 +𝑪𝟐 )
𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐 (𝐕𝟏 −𝐕𝟐 )𝟐
∆𝑼 (𝐂𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 )
% loss in energy = 𝑼 x 100 = x 100
𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝐂𝟏 𝐕𝟏𝟐 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐕𝟐𝟐
Special case
If a charged capacitor connected to an uncharged capacitor ( Q 2 = 0 , V2 = 0)
𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐 𝐕𝟏 𝟐
∆𝐔 (𝐂𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 ) 𝐂𝟐
% loss in energy = 𝐔 x 100 = x 100 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐂𝟏 𝐕𝟏𝟐 (𝐂𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 )
𝐂𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐝
% 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎
(𝐂𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐝 +𝐂𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐝 )
Example 1: A 6μF capacitor charged to 10 V is connected to another 6μF capacitor charged to 5 V.
Find the % loss in energy.
C1= 6μF , V1 = 10 V, C2 = 6μF , V2= 5 V
C1 C2 (V1 −V2 )2
∆U (C1 +C2 )
% loss in energy = U x 100 = x 100
initial C1 V21 + C2 V22

6 x 6 x 10−12 (10 −5 )2
(12 x 10−6 )
= x 100
6x 10−6 x 102 +6x 10−6 x 52

= 7.69 %
Example 2: A 100𝛍𝐅 capacitor charged to 20 V is connected to another 𝟐𝟎𝛍𝐅 uncharged capacitor .
Find the charge and potential difference . Find the % loss in energy.
C1= 6μF , V1 = 10 V, C2 = 6μF , V2= 5 V
C V +C V 6 x 10 + 6 x 5 90
Voltage across each capacitor = Common potential ,V = 1 C1 +C2 2 = 6 + 6 = 12 = 7.5 V
1 2
Charge on C1 , Q1 = C1V = 6μF x 7.5 = 45μC
Charge on C2 , Q2 = C2V = 6μF x 7.5 = 45μC

∆U C2
% loss in energy = U x 100= x 100
initial (C1 +C2 )
20 x 10−6
=120 x 10−6 x 100
= 16.7 %
Example 3: A capacitor of 4μF is charged as shown in the diagram. When the switch S is turned to
position 2, Find the percentage of its stored energy dissipated

Soln: 4μF in connected to battery via switch connected to 1.

HenceIt gets charged and gets voltage V1 =V when fully charged.

6μF is not connected to battery hence uncharged and V2 = 0

C1= 4μF , V1 = V, C2 = 6μF , V2= 0

When switch S connected to 2, battery is disconnected from 4μF. When S connected to 2,

4μF capacitor with voltage V is connected to uncharged 6μF.
∆U Cuncharged
% loss in energy = x 100= x 100
Uinitial Ccharged +Cuncharged )

6 x 10−6
= x 100
10 x 10−6

= 60%
❖ Capacitance, voltage and charge of a capacitor when dielectric inserted
with battery connected and after battery removed
Case 1: When dielectric inserted with battery still connected to the capacitor
Let a capacitor of capacitance C fully charged to Q when connected to a battery of PD V.
Now a dielectric of dielectric constant K is inserted with the battery still connected.
Since the battery is connected to capacitor, at any instant voltage of capacitor should be equal to
voltage of battery.
Voltage after dielectric inserted V’ = V
Capacitance after dielectric inserted C’ = KC
Charge after dielectric inserted Q’ = C’V’ = KCV= KQ
Hence no change in voltage but capacitance and charge increases K times

Case 2: When dielectric inserted after battery disconnected from capacitor

Let a capacitor of capacitance C fully charged to Q when connected to a battery of PD V.
Q
Initial voltage of capacitor = V= C
Now the battery is removed and a dielectric of dielectric constant K is inserted
Since the battery is disconnected, charge Q remains constant even after insertion of dielectric since
there is no close path for discharging of capacitor.
Capacitance after dielectric inserted C’ = KC
Charge after dielectric inserted Q’ = Q = ( No change)
𝑸′ 𝑸 𝟏 𝑸 𝑽
Voltage after dielectric is inserted V’ = 𝑪 ′ = 𝑲𝑪 = 𝑲 x 𝑪 = 𝑲
Hence no change in charge but capacitance increases K times and voltage decreases by factor of K

Example: A 2 μF capacitor is charged as shown in the figure. The battery is disconnected and a
dielectric of dielectric constant 2 is inserted in 4𝛍𝐅 and 8𝛍𝐅 simultaneously. Now the switch S is
connected to position 2. Find the charge and voltage across each capacitor after the switch S is
turned to position 2.. Find the percentage of its stored energy dissipated after the switch S is turned
to position 2.
Initially when S1 connected to 1, C1 = 2μF and C2 = 8μF, Voltage V1 = V and V2= 0
Now dielectric inserted in 2μF after the battery is disconnected
𝑉 V
So new Voltage across 2μF =V1’ = 𝐾 = 2
New capacitance C1’ =KC1= 4 μF
New capacitance of 8μF C2′ = KC2 = 16μF
Voltage across 8μF = V2′ = 0 ( as still open)
Now switch S connected to 2
Common potential attained by both capacitors
𝐕
𝐂𝟏 ′𝐕𝟏 ′+𝐂𝟐 ′𝐕𝟐 ′ 𝟒𝐱 𝟐+ 𝟏𝟔 𝐱 𝟎′ 𝟐𝐕 𝑉
V= = = =
𝐂𝟏 ′+𝐂𝟐 ′ (𝟒 + 𝟏𝟔)′ 𝟐𝟎 10
V 2V
Charge on C1’ = Q1’ = C1’V = 4 μF x = μC 10 5
V 8V
Charge on C2’ = Q2’ = C2’V = 16 μF x 10 = μC
5
∆U Cuncharged ′ 16
% loss in energy = x 100= x 100 = x 100 =
Uinitial (Ccharged ′+Cuncharged ′) ( 4+16)
80%
Two isolated spherical conductors of radius R1 and R2 have charges Q 1 and Q2. Show the ratio of
charge density of two charged spherical conductors when connected to each other by a conducting
wire is inversely proportional to the radius of the spheres

Capacitance of sphere 1 , C1 = 4πεo R1

Capacitance of sphere 2 , C2 = 4πεo R 2
When connected by a conducting wire
Both attain a common potential V
New charges Q1’ = C1 V
Q2’ = C2 V
𝑄′ 𝐶 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅1 𝑅
Hence 𝑄1′ = 𝐶1 = = 𝑅1 (1)
2 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅2 2
Charge denstiy of spheres after equilibrium attained
𝑄′ Q′
𝜎1′ = 4𝜋𝑅1 2 and σ′2 = 4πR2 2
1 2
𝜎1′ Q′1 4πR22
Hence = 4πR2 x
𝜎2′ 1 Q′2
σ′1 Q′1 R22
= x
σ′2 Q′2 R21
Q′1 R
From (1) Q′2
= R1 Hence
2

𝛔′𝟏 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐𝟐
= x
𝛔′𝟐 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟐𝟏
𝛔′𝟏 𝐑𝟐
=
𝛔′𝟐 𝐑𝟏
Hence charge density of a conductor is inversely proportional to its radius.

Due to this surface charge density depends on the curvature of the surface. If the curvature of the surface is
uniform then surface charge density will be uniform. And if the curvature is non-uniform then surface charge
density will be non-uniform.

Higher
Lower 𝛔 𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫
𝛔 𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 E=0 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐝
𝐟𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫 V≠ 0 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞
surface