AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL

Unit-I: Sources of Air Pollution

Air pollutants can be classified based on various criteria, including their sources, physical state,

chemical composition, and their impact on the environment and human health. Here's an overview:

Classification Based on Sources:

1. Mobile Sources:
● Vehicular Emissions: Exhaust from cars, trucks, buses, airplanes, and other mobile vehicles.
● Marine and Aircraft: Pollutants released from ships, boats, and aircraft engines.

2. Stationary Sources:
● Industrial Emissions: Factories, power plants, refineries, and other manufacturing units emit
pollutants.
● Residential Heating and Cooking: Emissions from home heating systems, fireplaces, and
cooking stoves.

3. Natural Sources:
● Volcanic Activity: Releases sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and other pollutants.
● Forest Fires: Produce smoke, particulate matter, and gases like carbon monoxide and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs).

Classification Based on Chemical Composition:

1. Primary Pollutants:
● Directly Released: Emit directly from the source.
● Examples include sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO),
particulate matter (PM), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

2. Secondary Pollutants:
● Formed by Reactions: Result from chemical reactions between primary pollutants in the
atmosphere.
● Examples include ozone (O3), formed by the reaction of sunlight with nitrogen oxides and
VOCs.
Classification Based on Physical State:

1. Gaseous Pollutants:
● Exist as Gases: Examples include sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, and carbon monoxide.

2. Particulate Matter (PM):

● Solid or Liquid Particles: Vary in size from visible particles (PM10) to fine particles (PM2.5)
and ultrafine particles (PM0.1).

Classification Based on Health Impact:

1. Criteria Pollutants:
● Regulated by Environmental Agencies: Identified as most harmful to human health and the
environment by the Clean Air Act (USA).
● Criteria pollutants include sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, particulate
matter, and lead.

2. Toxic Air Pollutants (Hazardous Air Pollutants - HAPs):

● Posing Specific Health Risks: Include substances like benzene, mercury, dioxins, and
asbestos.
● Often associated with serious health effects, even at low levels of exposure.

Classification Based on Impact on the Environment:

1. Global Pollutants:
● Contribute to Global Issues: For instance, greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) impacting climate change.

2. Local/Regional Pollutants:
● Affecting Immediate Surroundings: Such as smog formation in urban areas due to high
concentrations of NOx, VOCs, and sunlight.

Understanding these classifications helps in formulating regulations, strategies, and technologies to

mitigate and control the various types of air pollutants, aiming for cleaner and healthier environments.

Criteria air pollutants are a set of pollutants identified by environmental agencies as having

significant impacts on human health and the environment. These pollutants are regulated under the
Clean Air Act in the United States and serve as indicators for air quality standards. There are six

main criteria air pollutants:

1. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2):

● Source: Primarily from burning fossil fuels, especially in power plants and industrial
processes.
● Health Effects: Irritates the respiratory system, exacerbates asthma, and contributes to
cardiovascular diseases.
● Environmental Impact: Contributes to acid rain formation, harming ecosystems and corroding
buildings.

2. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2):

● Source: Emitted from vehicles, power plants, and industrial facilities.
● Health Effects: Respiratory issues, aggravates asthma, and can react in the atmosphere to
form harmful particulate matter and ozone.
● Environmental Impact: Contributes to smog formation and leads to eutrophication in water
bodies.

3. Carbon Monoxide (CO):

● Source: Mainly from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles and industrial
processes.
● Health Effects: Reduces oxygen-carrying capacity of blood, leading to headaches, dizziness,
and in high concentrations, can be fatal.
● Environmental Impact: Contributes to the production of ground-level ozone.

4. Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5):

● Source: Various sources, including vehicle emissions, industrial processes, and natural
sources like dust and wildfires.
● Health Effects: Respiratory problems, cardiovascular issues, and can penetrate deep into the
lungs causing long-term health issues.
● Environmental Impact: Reduced visibility, soil and water pollution, and negative effects on
ecosystems.

5. Ozone (O3):
 ● Source: Formed by reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) in the presence of sunlight.
● Health Effects: Irritates respiratory system, worsens asthma, and causes lung damage.
● Environmental Impact: Damages vegetation, reduces crop yields, and harms ecosystems.

6. Lead (Pb):
● Source: Historically from leaded gasoline, industrial processes, and some older paints.
● Health Effects: Neurological and developmental issues, especially in children.
● Environmental Impact: Persists in the environment, bioaccumulates in animals, and affects
aquatic life.

These pollutants are monitored, and regulatory standards are set to limit their concentrations in the

air, aiming to protect public health and the environment. Strategies for controlling these pollutants

involve technological advancements, emission reduction programs, and policy implementations

aimed at improving air quality.

Understanding the difference between primary and secondary air pollutants is crucial in

comprehending how pollutants interact within the atmosphere.

Primary Air Pollutants:

● Definition: Primary pollutants are directly emitted from a source into the atmosphere.
● Examples:
● Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Emitted from burning fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, in power
plants and industrial facilities.
● Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Generated from combustion processes, primarily in vehicles
and industrial sources.
● Carbon Monoxide (CO): Mainly emitted from vehicles and industrial processes due to
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels.
● Particulate Matter (PM): Emitted from various sources, including vehicle exhausts,
industrial processes, and natural sources like dust and wildfires.

Secondary Air Pollutants:

● Definition: Secondary pollutants are not directly emitted but form in the atmosphere through
chemical reactions involving primary pollutants, sunlight, and other atmospheric components.
● Examples:
● Ozone (O3): Formed by reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight.
 ● Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) and Nitric Acid (HNO3): Formed by the oxidation of sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides, respectively, in the atmosphere.
● Secondary Particulate Matter: Formed by the condensation or coagulation of gases,
such as sulfates and nitrates, in the atmosphere.

Differences between Primary and Secondary Pollutants:

Source of Origin:
● Primary pollutants originate directly from emission sources, like vehicles or industrial
processes, while secondary pollutants form through atmospheric reactions.
Direct Emission vs. Formation:
● Primary pollutants are emitted directly into the atmosphere, whereas secondary
pollutants form through chemical reactions involving primary pollutants and other
atmospheric components.
Regulation and Control:
● Primary pollutants are usually easier to control at the source through technologies or
regulations. Controlling secondary pollutants requires addressing the precursor
emissions that lead to their formation.
Behavior and Impact:
● Primary pollutants can have direct effects on health and the environment close to the
emission sources. Secondary pollutants often form away from the emission sources
and can be transported over larger distances, impacting regions far from the original
source.

Understanding the distinction between primary and secondary pollutants is vital for devising effective

air quality management strategies. Addressing primary pollutants at the source and controlling their

emissions is crucial, as they contribute to the formation of secondary pollutants and significantly

impact air quality and public health.

Characterizing air pollutants involves identifying, measuring, and analyzing various aspects of these

contaminants to understand their sources, behavior, concentrations, and impacts. Here's an overview

of the key elements involved in the characterization of air pollutants:

1. Identification of Pollutants:
● Chemical Composition: Determining the specific chemical makeup of pollutants present in the
air, such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3), etc.
● Source Identification: Understanding the origins and emission sources of these pollutants,
whether they stem from industrial processes, vehicles, natural sources like wildfires, or others.
2. Quantification and Measurement:
● Monitoring Stations: Deploying monitoring stations equipped with sensors and instruments to
measure pollutant concentrations in the air.
● Sampling Techniques: Employing various sampling methods to collect air samples for
laboratory analysis and determining pollutant levels.
● Continuous Monitoring: Implementing real-time monitoring systems for continuous
assessment of air quality.

3. Spatial and Temporal Distribution:

● Spatial Patterns: Identifying the distribution of pollutants across different geographical
locations, urban and rural areas, and proximity to emission sources.
● Temporal Variations: Observing fluctuations in pollutant levels over time, including daily,
seasonal, and long-term trends.

4. Health and Environmental Impacts:

● Health Studies: Conducting epidemiological studies to understand the health effects of
different pollutants on populations exposed to varying levels.
● Ecological Impact Assessment: Evaluating the impact of pollutants on ecosystems,
vegetation, wildlife, and overall environmental health.

5. Modeling and Forecasting:

● Air Quality Modeling: Utilizing computer models to simulate the dispersion and behavior of
pollutants in the atmosphere, aiding in predicting air quality and planning interventions.
● Forecasting Systems: Developing forecasting systems to predict pollutant levels, enabling
timely warnings and interventions to mitigate health risks during episodes of poor air quality.

6. Regulatory Compliance and Standards:

● Setting Standards: Establishing air quality standards and regulatory limits for various
pollutants to safeguard public health and the environment.
● Compliance Monitoring: Ensuring compliance with established standards through regular
monitoring and enforcement measures.

7. Technological Advancements:
 ● Advanced Monitoring Technologies: Using cutting-edge technologies, such as remote
sensing, satellite imagery, and advanced sensors, to improve pollutant detection and analysis.
● Innovative Mitigation Techniques: Developing and implementing innovative technologies for
reducing emissions and controlling air pollution.

Characterizing air pollutants involves a multidisciplinary approach that integrates scientific research,

monitoring networks, data analysis, and policy implementation. This comprehensive understanding of

air pollutants is crucial for devising effective strategies to manage and mitigate their adverse effects

on human health and the environment.

Air pollutants have a profound impact on human health, causing a wide range of health problems

from minor irritations to serious diseases. Here's an overview of how various air pollutants affect

human health:

1. Respiratory Issues:
● Particulate Matter (PM): Fine particles can penetrate deep into the lungs, causing or
exacerbating respiratory problems such as asthma, bronchitis, and reduced lung function.
● Ozone (O3): Inhalation of ozone can irritate the respiratory system, leading to coughing, throat
irritation, and aggravation of existing respiratory conditions.

2. Cardiovascular Problems:
● Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) and Ozone: They contribute to the formation of cardiovascular issues
such as heart attacks, strokes, and aggravate existing heart conditions.
● Particulate Matter: Fine particles can enter the bloodstream, affecting the cardiovascular
system, leading to heart disease and high blood pressure.

3. Increased Mortality Rates:

● Long-Term Exposure to Pollutants: Prolonged exposure to high levels of air pollutants,
particularly PM2.5 and ozone, is associated with increased mortality rates due to respiratory
and cardiovascular diseases.

4. Neurological and Developmental Effects:

 ● Lead: Exposure to lead, primarily through air pollution from industrial sources, can cause
neurological issues, especially in children, affecting cognitive development and behavior.

5. Cancer:
● Toxic Air Pollutants: Some air pollutants, such as benzene, formaldehyde, and certain heavy
metals, are known or suspected carcinogens, contributing to the development of cancer.

6. Reproductive and Maternal Health:

● Air Pollutants: Exposure to pollutants like PM2.5 and some toxic air pollutants can lead to
adverse pregnancy outcomes, including preterm birth, low birth weight, and developmental
issues in children.

7. Aging and Respiratory Decline:

● Long-Term Exposure: Continual exposure to air pollutants accelerates lung aging and leads to
a decline in lung function, especially in older adults.

8. Vulnerable Populations:
● Children and Elderly: They are more susceptible to the effects of air pollution due to developing
or weakened immune and respiratory systems.
● Individuals with Pre-existing Conditions: Those with asthma, heart disease, or respiratory
conditions are at higher risk of aggravated symptoms or increased disease severity.

9. Mental Health Impact:

● Association with Mental Health Disorders: Some studies suggest a link between air pollution
exposure and mental health issues like depression, anxiety, and cognitive decline.

Addressing these health impacts requires concerted efforts, including stricter regulations on

emissions, promoting cleaner technologies, urban planning that reduces exposure, and public

awareness campaigns to minimize individual exposure to air pollutants. Protecting air quality is

crucial for safeguarding human health and well-being.

Air pollutants have a significant impact on vegetation, affecting plant growth, development, and overall

ecosystem health. Here are the key ways air pollutants affect vegetation:

1. Ozone Damage:
● Visible Leaf Injury: Ozone exposure can cause visible damage to plants, including stippling,
yellowing, and necrotic lesions on leaves, impacting photosynthesis and overall plant health.

2. Acid Rain Effects:

● Soil Acidification: Acid rain, caused by pollutants like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, leads
to soil acidification, affecting nutrient availability and soil health, hindering plant growth.

3. Particulate Matter Deposition:

● Clogging Pores: Particulate matter can settle on plant surfaces, clogging leaf pores (stomata)
and reducing photosynthesis, which can ultimately stunt growth.

4. Heavy Metal Contamination:

● Toxicity in Plants: Pollutants such as lead, mercury, and cadmium, when deposited on plants,
can accumulate in tissues, causing toxicity, stunting growth, and inhibiting nutrient uptake.

5. Reduced Crop Yields:

● Crop Damage: Air pollutants can significantly reduce agricultural productivity by damaging
crops, leading to reduced yields and economic losses.

6. Altered Plant Physiology:

● Interference with Metabolism: Pollutants like sulfur dioxide and ozone can disrupt plant
metabolism, altering enzyme activity and biochemical processes essential for growth and
development.

7. Changes in Plant Communities:

● Shifts in Species Composition: Certain plants may be more tolerant or susceptible to specific
pollutants, leading to shifts in plant communities and altering ecosystem dynamics.

8. Impact on Forests:
 ● Forest Decline: Air pollutants, particularly sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, contribute to
forest decline (acid rain effects), damaging tree foliage and weakening forests, making them
more susceptible to diseases and pests.

9. Influence on Ecosystems:
● Biodiversity Reduction: Air pollution can impact biodiversity by affecting various plant species,
leading to changes in ecosystems and potentially causing imbalances in food chains and
habitats.

10. Global Climate Change Impact:

● Contribution to Climate Change: Some air pollutants, like black carbon (soot), can settle on
snow and ice, reducing their reflectivity (albedo), accelerating melting, and influencing regional
climate patterns.

Addressing the impact of air pollutants on vegetation involves implementing measures to reduce

emissions, promoting cleaner technologies, monitoring and protecting sensitive ecosystems, and

developing resilient plant varieties that are less susceptible to pollutants. Mitigating air pollution is

crucial not only for human health but also for sustaining healthy and diverse ecosystems.

Air pollution doesn't just affect human health and the environment; it also has significant impacts on

buildings, infrastructure, and cultural heritage. Here are the key ways in which air pollution affects

structures:

1. Corrosion:
● Metal and Stone Deterioration: Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides present in polluted air react
with moisture, forming acids that corrode metal surfaces (like steel) and degrade stone and
masonry in buildings and monuments.

2. Soiling and Discoloration:

● Blackening of Surfaces: Particulate matter, soot, and pollutants deposit on building exteriors,
causing discoloration, staining, and soiling of surfaces, affecting the aesthetics of structures.

3. Material Degradation:
 ● Weakening of Building Materials: Pollutants, including ozone, contribute to the degradation of
materials like rubber, plastics, and certain types of polymers used in construction, leading to
brittleness and reduced durability.

4. Damage to Paint and Coatings:

● Fading and Peeling: Air pollutants contribute to the fading, discoloration, and premature aging
of paints and coatings on buildings, reducing their protective properties.

5. Deterioration of Cultural Heritage:

● Monument and Artifact Damage: Historical monuments, statues, and artifacts made of stone
or metal are particularly vulnerable to air pollution, leading to erosion, pitting, and structural
damage.

6. Impact on Infrastructure:
● Infrastructure Decay: Bridges, roads, and other infrastructure made of concrete or steel can
deteriorate due to exposure to air pollutants, leading to structural weaknesses and reduced
lifespan.

7. Increased Maintenance Costs:

● Regular Cleaning and Restoration: Air pollution necessitates more frequent cleaning and
maintenance of buildings and infrastructure, leading to increased costs for upkeep and
restoration.

8. Impact on Indoor Environments:

● Indoor Air Quality: Outdoor pollutants can infiltrate indoor spaces, affecting indoor air quality,
causing health issues for occupants, and damaging indoor materials and furnishings.

9. Economic Impact:
● Repair and Restoration Expenses: The degradation caused by air pollution necessitates
frequent repairs, restoration, and conservation efforts, resulting in economic burdens for
property owners and governments.

10. Heritage Conservation Challenges:

 ● Preservation Challenges: Protecting culturally significant structures and heritage sites from
air pollution damage poses significant challenges in conservation and restoration efforts.

Efforts to mitigate the impact of air pollution on structures involve implementing measures such as

improving air quality through emissions control, using protective coatings and materials resistant to

pollutants, regular cleaning and maintenance, and employing conservation techniques to safeguard

cultural heritage from further degradation. Protecting structures from air pollution is crucial for

preserving architectural heritage and maintaining the integrity and longevity of buildings and

infrastructure.

Inversions play a significant role in the distribution and concentration of air pollutants. They occur

when the normal atmospheric temperature profile is inverted, meaning the air near the surface is

cooler than the air above it. This leads to the trapping of pollutants close to the ground, impacting air

quality. There are a few types of inversions relevant to air pollution:

1. Temperature Inversion:
● Surface-Based Inversion: This is the most common type where a layer of warm air sits on top
of cooler air near the surface. This prevents the vertical mixing of air, trapping pollutants
beneath the warm layer.

2. Radiation Inversion:
● Nighttime Radiation Inversion: Clear, calm nights allow the ground to lose heat rapidly through
radiation, causing the surface air to become cooler than the air above it. This forms a radiation
inversion, trapping pollutants near the ground.

3. Frontal Inversion:
● Frontal or Warm Front Inversion: Occurs when a warm air mass displaces a cooler air mass,
creating a wedge of warm air above cooler air near the surface. This can trap pollutants and
cause poor air quality conditions.

4. Subsidence Inversion:
 ● Subsidence Inversion: This occurs when a sinking air mass creates a layer of warm air aloft,
suppressing vertical mixing and allowing pollutants to accumulate near the surface.

5. Mountain-Induced Inversion:
● Valley Inversions: During certain weather conditions, cool air may settle in valleys, leading to
a local temperature inversion, trapping pollutants in the valley bottoms.

6. Mixing Height Inversion:

● Decreased Mixing Height: Sometimes, meteorological conditions like calm winds and stable
air masses reduce the mixing height, limiting the vertical dispersion of pollutants and leading
to an inversion-like effect.

7. Seasonal Inversions:
● Winter Inversions: Winter tends to experience more frequent inversions due to cooler
temperatures, especially in areas with geographical features that promote temperature
inversions.

Impacts of Inversions on Air Pollution:

● Increased Pollution Concentrations: Inversions restrict the dispersion of pollutants, leading to
the accumulation of pollutants near the ground, resulting in higher concentrations and
degraded air quality.
● Health Risks: Higher concentrations of pollutants due to inversions pose health risks to
populations, particularly those with respiratory conditions, as the trapped pollutants can
aggravate existing health problems.
● Environmental Impact: Inversions can negatively impact ecosystems and vegetation by
exposing them to higher levels of pollutants, affecting plant health and biodiversity.

Understanding the types and characteristics of inversions helps in predicting and managing air quality

issues caused by the trapping of pollutants. Mitigation strategies often involve addressing emission

sources, promoting cleaner technologies, and implementing measures to improve meteorological

forecasting to anticipate inversion-related air pollution events.

Photochemical smog, often referred to as "photo-smog," is a type of air pollution that forms when

sunlight interacts with certain chemicals in the atmosphere, particularly in urban areas. It's
characterized by a hazy appearance and harmful pollutants. Here are some key points about

photochemical smog:

Formation:
● Primary Precursors: Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted
from vehicle exhaust, industrial processes, and other sources are primary ingredients.
● Sunlight and Reactions: These pollutants undergo complex chemical reactions in the presence
of sunlight (photochemical reactions), forming secondary pollutants like ground-level ozone
(O3) and other harmful compounds.

Characteristics:
● Haze and Ozone Presence: Photochemical smog is characterized by a yellowish-brown haze
and elevated levels of ozone, especially during hot and sunny days.
● High Visibility Impact: It reduces visibility due to the haze, affecting scenic views and posing
hazards on roadways and for aviation.

Components:
● Ozone (O3): A major component, formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic
compounds react in the presence of sunlight. Ozone is a key component of photochemical
smog and has adverse health effects.
● Other Secondary Pollutants: Peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs), aldehydes, and other harmful
compounds are also present, contributing to health and environmental issues.

Health and Environmental Impacts:

● Respiratory Problems: Ozone and other pollutants in photochemical smog can cause or
exacerbate respiratory issues, such as asthma, bronchitis, and other respiratory diseases.
● Plant Damage: It harms vegetation, causing leaf damage, reduced crop yields, and negatively
impacting ecosystems.

Mitigation and Control:

● Emission Reduction: Controlling vehicle emissions, industrial processes, and using cleaner
technologies to reduce the release of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds.
● Urban Planning: Implementing urban design strategies to reduce traffic congestion and
encourage public transport use to mitigate smog formation.

Regulatory Measures:
 ● Air Quality Standards: Setting and enforcing air quality standards and regulations to limit the
concentration of pollutants responsible for smog formation.
● Public Awareness: Educating the public about the causes and health risks associated with
photochemical smog, promoting actions to reduce personal contributions.

Photochemical smog poses significant challenges to air quality and public health in urban areas.

Addressing this type of pollution requires coordinated efforts across various sectors, including

emission control, urban planning, public awareness, and regulatory measures to improve air quality

and mitigate health risks associated with smog.