Chapter 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Chapter 1: Introduction
● What Operating Systems Do
● Computer-System Organization
● Computer-System Architecture
● Operating-System Structure
● Operating-System Operations
● Process Management
● Memory Management
● Storage Management
● Protection and Security
● Distributed Systems
● Special-Purpose Systems
● Computing Environments
● Open-Source Operating Systems

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 Objectives
● To provide a grand tour of the major operating systems components

● To provide coverage of basic computer system organization

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 Evolution of Operating Systems

● Early Systems (1950)

● Simple Batch Systems (1960)
● Multiprogrammed Batch Systems (1970)
● Time-Sharing and Real-Time Systems (1970)
● Personal/Desktop Systems (1980)
● Multiprocessor Systems (1980)
● Networked/Distributed Systems (1980)
● Real-Time (1970) and Handheld (1990)

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 What is an Operating System?

● A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer

and the computer hardware

● Operating system goals:

● Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
● Make the computer system convenient to use
● Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

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 Computer System Structure

● Computer system can be divided into four components:

● Hardware – provides basic computing resources
4 CPU, memory, I/O devices
● Operating system
4 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
● Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
4 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
● Users
4 People, machines, other computers

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 Four Components of a Computer System

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 What Operating Systems Do
● Depends on the point of view
● Users want convenience, ease of use
● Don’t care about resource utilization
● But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep all
users happy
● Users of dedicated systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
● Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability and battery
life
● Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles

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 Operating System Definition

● OS is a resource allocator
● Manages all resources
● Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair
resource use

● OS is a control program
● Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper
use of the computer

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 Operating System Definition (Cont.)

● No universally accepted definition

● “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the

kernel. Everything else is either a system program (ships with the
operating system) or an application program.

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 Computer System Organization
● Computer-system operation
● One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
● Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles

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 Computer-System Operation
● I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

● Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type

● Each device controller has a local buffer

● CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers

● Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by

causing an interrupt

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 Common Functions of Interrupts
● Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally,
through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the
service routines

● Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted

instruction

● Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being

processed to prevent a lost interrupt

● A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or

a user request

● An operating system is interrupt driven

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 Interrupt Handling
● The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing
registers and the program counter

● Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:

● polling
● vectored interrupt system

● Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken

for each type of interrupt

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 I/O Structure
● After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O
completion
● After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for
I/O completion

● Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt

● Wait loop
● No simultaneous I/O processing

● System call – request to the operating system to allow user to

wait for I/O completion
● Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state
● Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine
device status and to modify table entry to include interrupt

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 Two I/O Methods
Synchronous Asynchronous

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 Storage Structure
● Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
● Random access
● Typically, volatile
● Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity

● Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic

recording material
● Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided
into sectors
● The disk controller determines the logical interaction between
the device and the computer

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 Storage Hierarchy
● Storage systems organized in hierarchy
● Speed
● Cost
● Volatility

● Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main

memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage

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 Storage-Device Hierarchy

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 Computer-System Architecture
● Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through
mainframes)
● Most systems have special-purpose processors as well

● Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance

● Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
● Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
● Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing (Master-Slave)
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing (Peers)

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 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

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 A Dual-Core Design

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 Operating System Structure

● Multiprogramming needed for efficiency

● Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
● Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one
to execute (as a busy lawyer)
● A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
● One job selected and run via job scheduling
● When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

● Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs

so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
● Response time should be < 1 second
● Each user has at least one program executing in memory 🢡process
● If several jobs ready to run at the same time 🢡 CPU scheduling
● If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
● Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

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 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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 Operating-System Operations
● Interrupt driven by hardware
● Software error or request creates exception or trap
● Division by zero, request for operating system service
● Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying
each other or the operating system
● Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
● User mode and kernel mode
● Mode bit provided by hardware
4 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code
4 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
4 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to
user

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 I/O Protection

● All I/O instructions are privileged instructions

● Must ensure that a user program could never
gain control of the computer in monitor mode
(i.e., a user program that, as part of its
execution, stores a new address in the interrupt
vector)

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 Use of A System Call to Perform I/O

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 Memory Protection

● Must provide memory protection at least for the

interrupt vector and the interrupt service routines
● In order to have memory protection, add two registers
that determine the range of legal addresses a program
may access:
● Base register – holds the smallest legal physical
memory address
● Limit register – contains the size of the range
● Memory outside the defined range is protected

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 Example of Memory Protection

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 Protection Hardware

❑When executing in monitor mode, the operating system has

unrestricted access to both monitor and users’ memory.
❑ The load instructions for the base and limit registers are privileged
instructions.

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 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
● Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
● Set interrupt after specific period
● Operating system decrements counter
● When counter zero generate an interrupt
● Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time

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 Process Management
● A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
● Process needs resources to accomplish its task
● CPU, memory, I/O, files
● Initialization data
● Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
● Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
● Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
● Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
● Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
● Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads

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 Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:

● Creating and deleting both user and system processes

● Suspending and resuming processes
● Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
● Providing mechanisms for process communication
● Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

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 Memory Management
● All data in memory before and after processing

● All instructions in memory in order to execute

● Memory management determines what is in memory when

● Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users

● Memory management activities

● Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and by whom
● Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move
into and out of memory
● Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

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 Storage Management

The operating system provides uniform, logical view of physical storage

media.
Logical storage unit — file.
Physical storage media — disk, tapes, …

The operating system maps files onto physical

media and access these files via the storage
devices.

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 File-System Management
● A file is a collection of related information defined by
its creator.
● Represent programs and data.
4 Data: numeric, alphabetic, or binary. free-form or non-free form.

● Files usually organized into directories to make

them easier to use.
● Multiple user can access to the same file.
● Access control on most operating systems to determine who
can access what.

● OS activities include (chapters 10 and 11):

● Creating and deleting files and directories.
● Primitives to manipulate files and directories.
● Mapping files onto secondary storage.
● Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media.

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 Mass-Storage Management
● Computer system must provide secondary storage
to back up main memory.
● Disks are used as the principal storage medium for
programs and data.

● Disks are frequently used as the source and

destination of program processing.
● Proper management is of central importance.
● Speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem.

● OS activities:
● Free-space management.
● Storage allocation.
● Disk scheduling.

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 End of Chapter 1

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009