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Geography
Geography (from Ancient Greek γεωγραφία geōgraphía; combining gê 'Earth' and gráphō
'write') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth.[1] Geography is an
all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural
complexities—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While
geography is specific to Earth, many concepts can be applied more broadly to other celestial bodies
in the field of planetary science.[2] Geography has been called "a bridge between natural science
and social science disciplines."[3]

Origins of many of the concepts in geography can be traced to Greek Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who
may have coined the term "geographia" (c. 276 BC – c. 195/194 BC).[4] The first recorded use of the
word γεωγραφία was as the title of a book by Greek scholar Claudius Ptolemy (100 – 170 AD).[1]
This work created the so-called "Ptolemaic tradition" of geography, which included "Ptolemaic
cartographic theory."[5] However, the concepts of geography (such as cartography) date back to the
earliest attempts to understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted
world map dating to the 9th century BCE in ancient Babylon.[6] The history of geography as a
discipline spans cultures and millennia, being independently developed by multiple groups, and
cross-pollinated by trade between these groups. The core concepts of geography consistent
between all approaches are a focus on space, place, time, and scale.[7][8][9][10][11][12]

Today, geography is an extremely broad discipline with multiple approaches and modalities. There
have been multiple attempts to organize the discipline, including the four traditions of geography,
and into branches.[13][3][14] Techniques employed can generally be broken down into
quantitative[15] and qualitative[16] approaches, with many studies taking mixed-methods
approaches.[17] Common techniques include cartography, remote sensing, interviews, and
surveying.

Fundamentals
Geography is a systematic study of the
Earth (other celestial bodies are
specified, such as "geography of Mars",
or given another name, such as
areography in the case of Mars), its
features, and phenomena that take
place on it.[18][19][20] For something to
fall into the domain of geography, it
generally needs some sort of spatial
component that can be placed on a
map, such as coordinates, place names, Physical map of Earth
or addresses. This has led to geography

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being associated with cartography and

place names. Although many
geographers are trained in toponymy
and cartology, this is not their main
preoccupation. Geographers study the
Earth's spatial and temporal
distribution of phenomena, processes,
and features as well as the interaction
of humans and their environment.[21]
Because space and place affect a variety
of topics, such as economics, health, Political map of Earth
climate, plants, and animals,
geography is highly interdisciplinary.
The interdisciplinary nature of the geographical approach depends on an attentiveness to the
relationship between physical and human phenomena and their spatial patterns.[22]

Names of places...are not geography...To know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them
would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this:
it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it
treats of the latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in
doing so, to trace out the laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man. This is 'a
description of the world'—that is Geography. In a word, Geography is a Science—a thing
not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause and effect.[23]

— William Hughes, 1863

Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into three main branches: human geography,
physical geography, and technical geography.[3][24] Human geography largely focuses on the built
environment and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space.[24] Physical geography
examines the natural environment and how organisms, climate, soil, water, and landforms produce
and interact.[25] The difference between these approaches led to the development of integrated
geography, which combines physical and human geography and concerns the interactions between
the environment and humans.[21] Technical geography involves studying and developing the tools
and techniques used by geographers, such as remote sensing, cartography, and geographic
information system.[26]

Key concepts
Narrowing down geography to a few key concepts is extremely challenging, and subject to
tremendous debate within the discipline.[27] In one attempt, the 1st edition of the book "Key
Concepts in Geography" broke down this into chapters focusing on "Space," "Place," "Time,"
"Scale," and "Landscape."[28] The 2nd edition of the book expanded on these key concepts by
adding "Environmental systems," "Social Systems," "Nature," "Globalization," "Development," and
"Risk," demonstrating how challenging narrowing the field can be.[27]

Another approach used extensively in teaching geography are the Five themes of geography
established by "Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools,"
published jointly by the National Council for Geographic Education and the Association of
American Geographers in 1984.[29][30] These themes are Location, place, relationships within

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places (often summarized as Human-Environment

Interaction), movement, and regions. [30][31] The five themes of
geography have shaped how American education approaches
the topic in the years since.[30][31]

Space

Just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a

history, they also exist in space and have a Maps, like this 17th Century
geography.[32] depiction of Pembrokeshire, are a
central element in the study of
— United States National Research Council, 1997 geography.

For something to exist in the realm of geography, it must be

able to be described spatially.[32][33] Thus, space is the most
fundamental concept at the foundation of geography.[7][8] The
concept is so basic, that geographers often have difficulty
defining exactly what it is. Absolute space is the exact site, or
spatial coordinates, of objects, persons, places, or phenomena
under investigation.[7] We exist in space.[9] Absolute space
leads to the view of the world as a photograph, with everything
frozen in place when the coordinates were recorded. Today,
geographers are trained to recognize the world as a dynamic
space where all processes interact and take place, rather than a
static image on a map.[7][34] A right-handed three-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system used
to indicate positions in space
Place
Place is one of the most complex and important terms in
geography.[9][10][11][12] In human geography, place is the
synthesis of the coordinates on the Earth's surface, the activity
and use that occurs, has occurred, and will occur at the
coordinates, and the meaning ascribed to the space by human
individuals and groups.[33][11] This can be extraordinarily
complex, as different spaces may have different uses at
different times and mean different things to different people.
In physical geography, a place includes all of the physical
phenomena that occur in space, including the lithosphere,
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.[12] Places do not
exist in a vacuum and instead have complex spatial
relationships with each other, and place is concerned how a
location is situated in relation to all other locations.[36][37] As a Yi-Fu Tuan, geographer who
discipline then, the term place in geography includes all spatial foregrounded the importance of
phenomena occurring at a location, the diverse uses and language in the making of place.[35]
meanings humans ascribe to that location, and how that
location impacts and is impacted by all other locations on

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Earth.[11][12]In one of Yi-Fu Tuan's papers, he explains that in his view, geography is the study of
Earth as a home for humanity, and thus place and the complex meaning behind the term is central
to the discipline of geography.[10]

Time
Time is usually thought to be within the domain of history,
however, it is of significant concern in the discipline of
geography.[38][39][40] In physics, space and time are not
separated, and are combined into the concept of spacetime.[41]
Geography is subject to the laws of physics, and in studying
things that occur in space, time must be considered. Time in
geography is more than just the historical record of events that
occurred at various discrete coordinates; but also includes
modeling the dynamic movement of people, organisms, and
things through space.[9] Time facilitates movement through
space, ultimately allowing things to flow through a system.[38]
The amount of time an individual, or group of people, spends Examples of the visual language of
in a place will often shape their attachment and perspective to time geography: space-time cube,
path, prism, bundle, and other
that place.[9] Time constrains the possible paths that can be
concepts.
taken through space, given a starting point, possible routes,
and rate of travel.[42] Visualizing time over space is challenging
in terms of cartography, and includes Space-Prism, advanced 3D geovisualizations, and animated
maps.[36][42][43][34]

Scale
Scale in the context of a map is the ratio between a
distance measured on the map and the
corresponding distance as measured on the
ground.[2][44] This concept is fundamental to the
discipline of geography, not just cartography, in that
A graphical or bar scale. A map would also
phenomena being investigated appear different
usually give its scale numerically ("1:50,000", for
depending on the scale used.[45][46] Scale is the frame instance, means that one cm on the map
that geographers use to measure space, and represents 50,000 cm of real space, which is
ultimately to understand a place.[44] 500 meters).

Laws of geography
During the quantitative revolution, geography shifted to an empirical law-making (nomothetic)
approach.[47][48] Several laws of geography have been proposed since then, most notably by
Waldo Tobler and can be viewed as a product of the quantitative revolution.[49] In general, some
dispute the entire concept of laws in geography and the social sciences.[36][50][51] These criticisms
have been addressed by Tobler and others, such as Michael Frank Goodchild.[50][51] However, this
is an ongoing source of debate in geography and is unlikely to be resolved anytime soon. Several
laws have been proposed, and Tobler's first law of geography is the most generally accepted in
geography. Some have argued that geographic laws do not need to be numbered. The existence of a

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first invites a second, and many have proposed themselves as that. It has also been proposed that
Tobler's first law of geography should be moved to the second and replaced with another.[51] A few
of the proposed laws of geography are below:

Tobler's first law of geography: "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are
more related than distant."[36][50][51]
Tobler's second law of geography: "The phenomenon external to a geographic area of interest
affects what goes on inside."[50][52]
Arbia's law of geography: "Everything is related to everything else, but things observed at a
coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer
resolution."[45][50][46][53][54]
Spatial heterogeneity: Geographic variables exhibit uncontrolled variance.[51][55][56]
The uncertainty principle: "That the geographic world is infinitely complex and that any
representation must therefore contain elements of uncertainty, that many definitions used in
acquiring geographic data contain elements of vagueness, and that it is impossible to measure
location on the Earth's surface exactly."[51]
Additionally, several variations or amendments to these laws exist within the literature, although
not as well supported. For example, one paper proposed an amended version of Tobler's first law of
geography, referred to in the text as the Tobler–von Thünen law,[49] which states: "Everything is
related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things, as a consequence of
accessibility."[Note 1] [49]

Sub-disciplines
Geography is a branch of inquiry that focuses on spatial information on Earth. It is an extremely
broad topic and can be broken down multiple ways.[14] There have been several approaches to
doing this spanning at least several centuries, including "four traditions of geography" and into
distinct branches.[57][13] The Four traditions of geography are often used to divide the different
historical approach theories geographers have taken to the discipline.[13] In contrast, geography's
branches describe contemporary applied geographical approaches.[3]

Four traditions
Geography is an extremely broad field. Because of this, many view the various definitions of
geography proposed over the decades as inadequate. To address this, William D. Pattison proposed
the concept of the "Four traditions of Geography" in 1964.[13][58][59] These traditions are the
Spatial or Locational Tradition, the Man-Land or Human-Environment Interaction Tradition
(sometimes referred to as Integrated geography), the Area Studies or Regional Tradition, and the
Earth Science Tradition.[13][58][59] These concepts are broad sets of geography philosophies bound
together within the discipline. They are one of many ways geographers organize the major sets of
thoughts and philosophies within the discipline.[13][58][59]

Branches
In another approach to the abovementioned four traditions, geography is organized into applied
branches.[60][61] The UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems organizes geography into the
three categories of human geography, physical geography, and technical geography.[3][62][60][14]
Some publications limit the number of branches to physical and human, describing them as the

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principal branches.[33]
Geographers rarely focus on just one of these topics, often using one as
their primary focus and then incorporating data and methods from the other branches. Often,
geographers are asked to describe what they do by individuals outside the discipline[10] and are
likely to identify closely with a specific branch, or sub-branch when describing themselves to lay
people. Human geography studies people and their communities, cultures, economies, and
environmental interactions by studying their relations with and across space and place.[33]
Physical geography is concerned with the study of processes and patterns in the natural
environment like the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere.[33] Technical geography
is interested in studying and applying techniques and methods to store, process, analyze, visualize,
and use spatial data.[61] It is the newest of the branches, the most controversial, and often other
terms are used in the literature to describe the emerging category. These branches use similar
geographic philosophies, concepts, and tools and often overlap significantly.

Physical
Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an Earth science.[63][64][65] It aims
to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere,
pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns (biosphere). Physical geography is the study of
earth's seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans.[66] Physical
geographers will often work in identifying and monitoring the use of natural resources.

Physical geography can be divided into many broad categories, including:

Biogeography Climatology and Coastal geography

meteorology

Environmental Geomorphology Glaciology

management

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Hydrology and hydrography Landscape ecology Oceanography

Palaeogeogra Pedology Quaternary science

phy

Human
Human geography (or anthropogeography) is a branch of geography that focuses on studying
patterns and processes that shape human society.[67] It encompasses the human, political, cultural,
social, and economic aspects. In industry, human geographers often work in city planning, public
health, or business analysis.

Human geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:

Cognitive Cultural geography Development Economic

geography geography geography

Health Historical Internet Political geography

geography geography geography and Geopolitics

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Population geography Religion Social geography Transportation

or Demography geography geography

Tourism Urban geography

geography

Various approaches to the study of human geography have also arisen through time and include:

Behavioral geography
Culture theory
Feminist geography
Geosophy

Technical
Technical geography concerns studying and developing tools, techniques, and statistical methods
employed to collect, analyze, use, and understand spatial data.[26][3][60][62] Technical geography is
the most recently recognized, and controversial, of the branches. Its use dates back to 1749, when a
book published by Edward Cave organized the discipline into a section containing content such as
cartographic techniques and globes.[57] There are several other terms, often used interchangeably
with technical geography to subdivide the discipline, including "techniques of geographic
analysis,"[68] "Geographic Information Technology,"[1] "Geography method's and techniques,"[69]
"Geographic Information Science,"[70] "geoinformatics," "geomatics," and "information
geography". There are subtle differences to each concept and term; however, technical geography
is one of the broadest, is consistent with the naming convention of the other two branches, has
been in use since the 1700s, and has been used by the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support
Systems to divide geography into themes.[3][60][57] As academic fields increasingly specialize in
their nature, technical geography has emerged as a branch of geography specializing in geographic
methods and thought.[26] The emergence of technical geography has brought new relevance to the
broad discipline of geography by serving as a set of unique methods for managing the
interdisciplinary nature of the phenomena under investigation. While human and physical
geographers use the techniques employed by technical geographers, technical geography is more
concerned with the fundamental spatial concepts and technologies than the nature of the
data.[26][61] It is therefore closely associated with the spatial tradition of geography while being
applied to the other two major branches. A technical geographer might work as a GIS analyst, a
GIS developer working to make new software tools, or create general reference maps incorporating
human and natural features.[71]
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Technical geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:

Geodesign Geodesy Geoinformatics

Geographic information Geomatics Geovisualization

science

Statistical Spatial analysis Time

geography geography

Methods
All geographic research and analysis start with asking the question "where," followed by "why
there." Geographers start with the fundamental assumption set forth in Tobler's first law of
geography, that "everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than
distant things."[36][37] As spatial interrelationships are key to this synoptic science, maps are a key
tool. Classical cartography has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis,
computer-based geographic information systems (GIS).

In their study, geographers use four interrelated approaches:

Analytical – Asks why we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.
Descriptive – Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.
Regional – Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or
location on the planet.
Systematic – Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally.

Quantitative methods
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Quantitative methods in geography became particularly

influential in the discipline during the quantitative revolution
of the 1950s and 60s.[15] These methods revitalized the
discipline in many ways, allowing scientific testing of
hypotheses and proposing scientific geographic theories and
laws.[72] The quantitative revolution heavily influenced and
revitalized technical geography, and lead to the development of
the subfield of quantitative geography.[26][15]

Quantitative cartography
Cartography is the art, science, and technology of making
maps.[73] Cartographers study the Earth's surface
representation with abstract symbols (map making). Although
other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting
their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to James Cook's 1770 chart of New
be regarded separately.[74] Cartography has grown from a Zealand
collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.

Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and ergonomics to understand which symbols
convey information about the Earth most effectively and behavioural psychology to induce the
readers of their maps to act on the information. They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced
mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols
projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that
cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew.

Geographic information systems

Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with storing information about the Earth for automatic
retrieval by a computer in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose.[75] In
addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer
science and database systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography: nearly all
mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software. The science of using
GIS software and GIS techniques to represent, analyse, and predict the spatial relationships is
called geographic information science (GISc).[76]

Remote sensing
Remote sensing is the art, science, and technology of obtaining information about Earth's features
from measurements made at a distance.[77] Remotely sensed data can be either passive, such as
traditional photography, or active, such as LiDAR.[77] A variety of platforms can be used for remote
sensing, including satellite imagery, aerial photography (including consumer drones), and data
obtained from hand-held sensors.[77] Products from remote sensing include Digital elevation
model and cartographic base maps. Geographers increasingly use remotely sensed data to obtain
information about the Earth's land surface, ocean, and atmosphere, because it: (a) supplies
objective information at a variety of spatial scales (local to global), (b) provides a synoptic view of
the area of interest, (c) allows access to distant and inaccessible sites, (d) provides spectral
information outside the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and (e) facilitates studies
of how features/areas change over time. Remotely sensed data may be analyzed independently or

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in conjunction with other digital data layers (e.g., in a geographic

information system). Remote sensing aids in land use, land cover
(LULC) mapping, by helping to determine both what is naturally
occurring on a piece of land and what human activities are taking
place on it.[78]

Geostatistics
Geostatistics deal with quantitative data analysis, specifically the
application of a statistical methodology to the exploration of
geographic phenomena.[79] Geostatistics is used extensively in a
variety of fields, including hydrology, geology, petroleum exploration,
weather analysis, urban planning, logistics, and epidemiology. The
mathematical basis for geostatistics derives from cluster analysis,
linear discriminant analysis and non-parametric statistical tests, and a
variety of other subjects. Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on
geographic information systems, particularly for the interpolation
(estimate) of unmeasured points. Geographers are making notable
Synthetic aperture radar
contributions to the method of quantitative techniques.
image of Death Valley
colored using polarimetry

Qualitative methods
Qualitative methods in geography are descriptive rather than numerical or statistical in
nature.[80][16][47] They add context to concepts, and explore human concepts like beliefs and
perspective that are difficult or impossible to quantify.[16] Human geography is much more likely
to employ qualitative methods than physical geography. Increasingly, technical geographers are
attempting to employ GIS methods to qualitative datasets.[16][81]

Qualitative cartography
Qualitative cartography employs many of the same
software and techniques as quantitative
cartography. [81] It may be employed to inform on
map practices, or to visualize perspectives and ideas
that are not strictly quantitative in nature.[81][16] An
example of a form of qualitative cartography is a
Chorochromatic map of nominal data, such as land
cover or dominant language group in an area.[82]
Another example is a deep map, or maps that
combine geography and storytelling to produce a
product with greater information than a two-
dimensional image of places, names, and
topography.[83][84] This approach offers more
inclusive strategies than more traditional
cartographic approaches for connecting the
A compound chorochromatic map of Indo-Aryan
complex layers that makeup places.[84] (Indic) languages

Ethnography

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Ethnographical research techniques are used by human geographers.[85] In cultural geography,

there is a tradition of employing qualitative research techniques, also used in anthropology and
sociology. Participant observation and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with
qualitative data.

Geopoetics
Geopoetics is an interdisciplinary approach that combines geography and poetry to explore the
interconnectedness between humans, space, place, and the environment.[86][87] Geopoetics is
employed as a mixed methods tool to explain the implications of geographic research.[88] It is
often employed to address and communicate the implications of complex topics, such as the
anthropocene.[89][90][91][92][93]

Interviews
Geographers employ interviews to gather data and acquire valuable understandings from
individuals or groups regarding their encounters, outlooks, and opinions concerning spatial
phenomena.[94][95] Interviews can be carried out through various mediums, including face-to-face
interactions, phone conversations, online platforms, or written exchanges.[47] Geographers
typically adopt a structured or semi-structured approach during interviews involving specific
questions or discussion points when utilized for research purposes.[94] These questions are
designed to extract focused information about the research topic while being flexible enough to
allow participants to express their experiences and viewpoints, such as through open-ended
questions.[94]

Origin and history

The concept of geography is present in all cultures, and therefore the history of the discipline is a
series of competing narratives, with concepts emerging at various points across space and time.[96]
The oldest known world maps date back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC.[97] The best
known Babylonian world map, however, is the Imago Mundi of 600 BC.[98] The map as
reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular
landmass showing Assyria, Urartu, and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river"
(Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star.[99] The
accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of
five of them have survived.[100] In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map
dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the
world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.[97]

The ideas of Anaximander (c. 610–545 BC): considered by later Greek writers to be the true
founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors.[101] Anaximander is
credited with the invention of the gnomon, the simple, yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed
the early measurement of latitude.[101] Thales is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The
foundations of geography can be traced to ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and
early modern Chinese. The Greeks, who were the first to explore geography as both art and science,
achieved this through Cartography, Philosophy, and Literature, or through Mathematics. There is
some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape, with the
credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras. Anaxagoras was able to demonstrate that the

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profile of the Earth was circular by explaining eclipses.

However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat
disk, as did many of his contemporaries. One of the
first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by
Eratosthenes.[102]

The first rigorous system of latitude and longitude lines

is credited to Hipparchus. He employed a sexagesimal
system that was derived from Babylonian
mathematics. The meridians were subdivided into
360°, with each degree further subdivided into 60
(minutes). To measure the longitude at different
locations on Earth, he suggested using eclipses to
determine the relative difference in time.[103] The
extensive mapping by the Romans as they explored Etching of an ancient seal identified as
Eratosthenes. Philipp Daniel Lippert,
new lands would later provide a high level of
Dactyliothec, 1767.
information for Ptolemy to construct detailed atlases.
He extended the work of Hipparchus, using a grid
system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a degree.[104]

From the 3rd century onwards, Chinese methods of geographical study and writing of geographical
literature became much more comprehensive than what was found in Europe at the time (until the
13th century).[105] Chinese geographers such as Liu An, Pei Xiu, Jia Dan, Shen Kuo, Fan Chengda,
Zhou Daguan, and Xu Xiake wrote important treatises, yet by the 17th century advanced ideas and
methods of Western-style geography were adopted in China.

During the Middle Ages, the fall of the Roman empire led to a
shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Islamic
world.[105] Muslim geographers such as Muhammad al-Idrisi
produced detailed world maps (such as Tabula Rogeriana),
while other geographers such as Yaqut al-Hamawi, Abu Rayhan
Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and Ibn Khaldun provided detailed
accounts of their journeys and the geography of the regions
they visited. Turkish geographer Mahmud al-Kashgari drew a
The Ptolemy world map,
world map on a linguistic basis, and later so did Piri Reis (Piri
reconstituted from Ptolemy's
Reis map). Further, Islamic scholars translated and interpreted Geographia, written c. 150
the earlier works of the Romans and the Greeks and
established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this
purpose.[106] Abū Zayd al-Balkhī, originally from Balkh, founded the "Balkhī school" of terrestrial
mapping in Baghdad.[107] Suhrāb, a late tenth century Muslim geographer accompanied a book of
geographical coordinates, with instructions for making a rectangular world map with
equirectangular projection or cylindrical equidistant projection.[108]

Abu Rayhan Biruni (976–1048) first described a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the
celestial sphere.[109] He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and
measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the Middle East and the
Indian subcontinent. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations to
develop methods of pin-pointing locations by recording degrees of latitude and longitude. He also
developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the

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valleys, and expanse of the horizon. He also discussed human geography and the planetary
habitability of the Earth. He also calculated the latitude of Kath, Khwarezm, using the maximum
altitude of the Sun, and solved a complex geodesic equation to accurately compute the Earth's
circumference, which was close to modern values of the Earth's circumference.[110] His estimate of
6,339.9 km for the Earth radius was only 16.8 km less than the modern value of 6,356.7 km. In
contrast to his predecessors, who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun
simultaneously from two different locations, al-Biruni developed a new method of using
trigonometric calculations based on the angle between a plain and mountain top, which yielded
more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference, and made it possible for it to be
measured by a single person from a single location.[111]

The European Age of Discovery during the 16th and the 17th
centuries, where many new lands were discovered and
accounts by European explorers such as Christopher
Columbus, Marco Polo, and James Cook revived a desire for
both accurate geographic detail and more solid theoretical
foundations in Europe. In 1650, the first edition of the
Geographia Generalis was published by Bernhardus Varenius, Map of southern Atlantic ocean from
1733 edition of the Geographia
which was later edited and republished by others including
Generalis
Isaac Newton.[112][113] This textbook sought to integrate new
scientific discoveries and principles into classical geography
and approach the discipline like the other sciences emerging, and is seen by some as the division
between ancient and modern geography in the West.[112][113]

The Geographia Generalis contained both theoretical background and practical applications
related to ship navigation.[113] The remaining problem facing both explorers and geographers was
finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location. While the problem of latitude was
solved long ago, but that of longitude remained; agreeing on what zero meridians should be was
only part of the problem. It was left to John Harrison to solve it by inventing the chronometer H-4
in 1760, and later in 1884 for the International Meridian Conference to adopt by convention the
Greenwich meridian as zero meridians.[110]

The 18th and 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete
academic discipline, and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris
and Berlin). The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century,
with the foundations of the Société de Géographie in 1821, the Royal Geographical Society in 1830,
Russian Geographical Society in 1845, American Geographical Society in 1851, the Royal Danish
Geographical Society in 1876 and the National Geographic Society in 1888.[114] The influence of
Immanuel Kant, Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Ritter, and Paul Vidal de la Blache can be seen as a
major turning point in geography from philosophy to an academic subject.[115][116][117][118][119]
Geographers such as Richard Hartshorne and Joseph Kerski have regarded both Humboldt and
Ritter as the founders of modern geography, as Humboldt and Ritter were the first to establish
geography as an independent scientific discipline.[120][121]

Over the past two centuries, the advancements in technology with computers have led to the
development of geomatics and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics
being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools. In the West during the 20th century, the
discipline of geography went through four major phases: environmental determinism, regional
geography, the quantitative revolution, and critical geography. The strong interdisciplinary links

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between geography and the sciences of geology and botany, as well as

economics, sociology, and demographics, have also grown greatly,
especially as a result of earth system science that seeks to understand
the world in a holistic view. New concepts and philosophies have
emerged from the rapid advancement of computers, quantitative
methods, and interdisciplinary approaches. In 1970, Waldo Tobler
proposed the first law of geography, "everything is related to
everything else, but near things are more related than distant
things."[36][37] This law summarizes the first assumption geographers
make about the world.

Waldo Tobler in front of the

Notable geographers Newberry Library. Chicago,

November 2007

Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) – published Cosmos,

founder of the subfield biogeography, and established geography
as an independent scientific discipline.
Anne Kelly Knowles (Born 1957) – influential in the use of GIS and
geographic methods in History.
Bernhardus Varenius (1622–1650)– German geographer and
author of Geographia Generalis
Carl O. Sauer (1889–1975) – cultural geographer.
Carl Ritter (1779–1859) – occupied the first chair of geography, at
the University of Berlin, and established geography as an
independent scientific discipline.
Gerardus Mercator
Cynthia Brewer – cartographic theorist that created the web
application ColorBrewer.
Dana Tomlin – originator of map algebra
Doreen Massey (1944–2016) – scholar in the space and places of
globalization and its pluralities; winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.
Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932) – first female president of the
Association of American Geographers.
Eratosthenes (c. 276–c. 195/194 BC) – calculated the size of the
Earth.
Ernest Burgess (1886–1966) – creator of the concentric zone
model.
George F. Jenks (1916–1996) – influential in computer
cartography and thematic mapping Mei-Po Kwan
Gerardus Mercator (1512–1594) – cartographer who produced the
mercator projection
Mark Monmonier (born 1943) – cartographic theorist who wrote numerous books contributing
to Geographic Information Systems.
Mei-Po Kwan (born 1962) – contributed significantly to the use of GPS and real-time mapping
within GIS
Michael Frank Goodchild (born 1944) – GIScience scholar and winner of the RGS founder's
medal in 2003.
Muhammad al-Idrisi (Arabic: ‫ ;أبو عبد هللا محمد اإلدريسي‬Latin: Dreses) (1100–1165) – author of
Nuzhatul Mushtaq.
Nigel Thrift (born 1949) – originator of non-representational theory.
Paul Vidal de La Blache (1845–1918) – founder of the French school of geopolitics, wrote the
principles of human geography.
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Ptolemy (c. 100–c. 170) – compiled Greek and Roman knowledge into the book Geographia.
Roger Tomlinson (1933 – 2014) – the primary originator of modern geographic information
systems.
Sir Halford Mackinder (1861–1947) – co-founder of the LSE, Geographical Association.
Strabo (64/63 BC – c. AD 24) – wrote Geographica, one of the first books outlining the study of
geography.
Waldo Tobler (1930–2018) – coined the first law of geography and second law of geography.
Walter Christaller (1893–1969) – human geographer and inventor of Central place theory.
William Morris Davis (1850–1934) – father of American geography and developer of the cycle
of erosion.
Yi-Fu Tuan (1930–2022) – Chinese-American scholar credited with starting Humanistic
Geography as a discipline.

Institutions and societies

American Association of Geographers (AAG)[122]
American Geographical Society (US) [123]
Anton Melik Geographical Institute (Slovenia)
Gamma Theta Upsilon (international)
Institute of Geographical Information Systems (Pakistan)
International Geographical Union (International)
National Council for Geographic Education (United States)
National Geographic Society (United States) [124]
Royal Canadian Geographical Society (Canada)
Royal Danish Geographical Society (Denmark)
Royal Geographical Society (UK) [125]
Russian Geographical Society (Russia)

Publications
Annals of the American Association of Geographers
Antipode
Applied Geography
Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography
Dialogues in Human Geography
Economic Geography
Geographia Technica
Geographical Review
Geographical Bulletin
GeoHumanities
International Journal of Geographical Information Science
ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information
Journal of Maps
Journal of Rural Studies
Journal of Transport Geography
National Geographic
Professional Geographer
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Progress in Human Geography

The Geographical Journal
The Professional Geographer

Related fields

Geology
The discipline of geography, especially physical geography, and
geology have significant overlap. In the past, the two have often
shared academic departments at universities, a point that has
led to conflict over resources.[126] Both disciplines do seek to
understand the rocks on the Earth's surface and the processes
that change them over time. Geology employs many of the tools
and techniques of technical geographers, such as GIS and
remote sensing to aid in geological mapping.[127] However,
geology includes research that goes beyond the spatial The rock cycle shows the
component, such as the chemical analysis of rocks and relationship between igneous,
biogeochemistry.[128] sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks.

History
The discipline of History has significant overlap with geography, especially human
geography.[129][130] Like geology, history and geography have shared university departments.
Geography provides the spatial context within which historical events unfold.[129] The physical
geographic features of a region, such as its landforms, climate, and resources, shape human
settlements, trade routes, and economic activities, which in turn influence the course of historical
events.[129] Thus, a historian must have a strong foundation in geography.[129][130] Historians
employ the techniques of technical geographers to create historical atlases and maps.

Planetary science
While the discipline of geography is normally concerned with the Earth, the term can also be
informally used to describe the study of other worlds, such as the planets of the Solar System and
even beyond. The study of systems larger than the Earth itself usually forms part of Astronomy or

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Cosmology. The study of other planets is usually

called planetary science. Alternative terms such as
areography (geography of Mars) have been
employed to describe the study of other celestial
objects. Ultimately, geography may be considered a
subdiscipline within planetary science.

See also
Earth analog – Planet with environment similar
to Earth's
Geologic time scale – System that relates
geologic strata to time
Geophysics – Physics of the Earth and its
vicinity Photograph from Apollo 15 command module.
History of Earth Endeavour of the rilles in the vicinity of the crater
Terrestrial planet – Planet that is composed Aristarchus on the Moon.
primarily of silicate rocks or metals
Theoretical planetology – Scientific modeling of
planets

Notes
1. Emphasis added.

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External links
Geography (https://www.britannica.com/science/geography) at the Encyclopaedia Britannica
website
Definition of geography at Dictionary.com (https://www.dictionary.com/browse/geography)
Definition of geography by Lexico (https://web.archive.org/web/20210416161729/https://www.le
xico.com/en/definition/geography)
Origin and meaning of geography by Online Etymology Dictionary (https://www.etymonline.co
m/word/geography)
Topic Dictionaries at Oxford Learner's Dictionaries (https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/
topic/geography)

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